Misplaced Pages

Latest revision as of 11:15, 24 January 2025

Republic of IndonesiaRepublik Indonesia (Indonesian)
Flag Emblem
Motto:  Bhinneka Tunggal Ika (Old Javanese) "Unity in Diversity"
Anthem: Indonesia Raya "Indonesia the Great"
National ideology: Pancasila (Sanskrit) "The Five Principles"
Show globeShow map of ASEAN
Capitaland largest city	Jakarta 6°10′S 106°49′E / 6.167°S 106.817°E / -6.167; 106.817
Official languages	Indonesian
Indigenous languages	718 languages
Ethnic groups	See ethnic groups
Religion (2023)	87.1% Islam 10.5% Christianity 7.4% Protestant 3.1% Catholic 1.7% Hinduism 0.7% Buddhism 0.08% Folk, Confucianism, and others
Demonym(s)	Indonesian
Government	Unitary presidential republic
• President	Prabowo Subianto
• Vice President	Gibran Rakabuming Raka
• House Speaker	Puan Maharani
• Supreme Court	Sunarto
• Constitutional Court	Suhartoyo
Legislature	People's Consultative Assembly (MPR)
• Upper house	Regional Representative Council (DPD)
• Lower house	House of Representatives (DPR)
Independence from the Netherlands
• Proclaimed	17 August 1945
• Recognised	27 December 1949
Area
• Total	1,904,569 km (735,358 sq mi) (14th)
• Water (%)	4.85
Population
• Q2 2024 estimate	282,477,584 (4th)
• 2020 census	270,203,917
• Density	143/km (370.4/sq mi) (88th)
GDP (PPP)	2024 estimate
• Total	$4.658 trillion (8th)
• Per capita	$16,542 (102nd)
GDP (nominal)	2024 estimate
• Total	$1.402 trillion (16th)
• Per capita	$4,980 (118th)
Gini (2024)	37.9 medium inequality
HDI (2022)	0.713 high (112th)
Currency	Indonesian rupiah (Rp) (IDR)
Time zone	UTC+7 to +9 (IDT)
Date format	DD/MM/YYYY
Drives on	Left
Calling code	+62
ISO 3166 code	ID
Internet TLD	.id

Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania, between the Indian and Pacific oceans. It consists of over 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, and parts of Borneo and New Guinea. Indonesia is the world's largest archipelagic state and the 14th-largest country by area, at 1,904,569 square kilometres (735,358 square miles). With over 280 million people, Indonesia is the world's fourth-most-populous country and the most populous Muslim-majority country. Java, the world's most populous island, is home to more than half of the country's population.

Indonesia is a presidential republic with an elected legislature. It has 38 provinces, of which nine have special autonomous status. The country's largest city, Jakarta, is the world's second-most-populous urban area. Indonesia shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, and the eastern part of Malaysia, as well as maritime borders with Singapore, Peninsular Malaysia, Vietnam, Thailand, the Philippines, Australia, Palau, and India. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support one of the world's highest levels of biodiversity.

The Indonesian archipelago has been a valuable region for trade since at least the seventh century, when Sumatra's Srivijaya and later Java's Majapahit kingdoms engaged in commerce with entities from mainland China and the Indian subcontinent. Over the centuries, local rulers assimilated foreign influences, leading to the flourishing of Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms. Sunni traders and Sufi scholars later brought Islam, and European powers fought one another to monopolise trade in the Spice Islands of Maluku during the Age of Discovery. Following three and a half centuries of Dutch colonialism, Indonesia secured its independence after World War II. Indonesia's history has since been turbulent, with challenges posed by natural disasters, corruption, separatism, a democratisation process, and periods of rapid economic growth.

Indonesia consists of hundreds of distinct ethnic and linguistic groups, with Javanese being the largest. A shared identity has developed with the motto "Bhinneka Tunggal Ika" ("Unity in Diversity" literally, "many, yet one"), defined by a national language, cultural diversity, religious pluralism within a Muslim-majority population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. A developing country, Indonesia is classified a newly industrialised country, with its economy the world's 16th-largest by nominal GDP and the 8th-largest by PPP. It is the world's third-largest democracy, regional power, and is considered a middle power in global affairs. The country is a member of several multilateral organisations, including the United Nations, World Trade Organization, G20, BRICS and a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement, Association of Southeast Asian Nations, East Asia Summit, MIKTA, APEC, D-8, and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation.

Etymology

The name Indonesia derives from the Greek words Indos (Ἰνδός) and nesos (νῆσος), meaning "Indian islands". The name dates back to the 19th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians—and, his preference, Malayunesians—for the inhabitants of the "Indian Archipelago or Malay Archipelago". In the same publication, one of his students, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago. Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia. They preferred Malay Archipelago (Dutch: Maleische Archipel); the Netherlands East Indies (Nederlandsch Oost Indië), popularly Indië; the East (de Oost); and Insulinde.

After 1900, Indonesia became more common in academic circles outside the Netherlands, and native nationalist groups adopted it for political expression. Adolf Bastian of the University of Berlin popularised the name through his book Indonesien oder die Inseln des Malayischen Archipels, 1884–1894. The first native scholar to use the name was Ki Hajar Dewantara when in 1913, he established a press bureau in the Netherlands, Indonesisch Pers-bureau.

History

Early history

The Indonesian archipelago has been inhabited since the time of homo erectus or "Java Man," with fossils dating back 2 million to 500,000 BCE. Fossils of homo floresiensis, found on Flores, date around 700,000 to 60,000 BCE, while homo sapiens arrived around 43,000 BCE. Sulawesi and Borneo are home to the world's oldest known cave paintings, dating back 40,000 to 60,000 years, and megalithic sites such as western Java's Gunung Padang, Sulawesi's Lore Lindu as well as Sumatra's Nias and Sumba reflect early human settlements and ceremonial practices.

Around 2,000 BCE, Austronesian peoples began arriving from the island now known as Taiwan in Southeast Asia, gradually displacing native Melanesians to the far eastern part of the archipelago as they spread east, and would eventually form the majority of Indonesia's modern population. Favorable agricultural conditions and advancements like wet-field rice cultivation by the 8th century BCE enabled the growth of villages and kingdoms by the first century CE. The archipelago's strategic location fostered inter-island and international exchange with civilizations from the Indian subcontinent and mainland China, profoundly influencing Indonesian history and culture through trade.

By the 7th century CE, the Srivijaya naval kingdom thrived on trade, adopting Hindu and Buddhist influences. The 8th to 10th centuries saw the rise and decline of the Buddhist Sailendra and Hindu Mataram dynasties, leaving monumental legacies like the Borobudur and Prambanan temples. Majapahit, a Hindu kingdom established in the late 13th century in eastern Java, dominated much of the archipelago under the leadership of Gajah Mada in a period often referred to as the "Golden Age" in Indonesian history. Islam arrived in the 13th century in northern Sumatra, and following gradual adoption in other islands, it became the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra by the 16th century, blending with pre-existing traditions to form a distinct Islamic culture, particularly in Java.

Colonial era

In 1512, Europeans began arriving in the archipelago led by Portuguese traders under Francisco Serrão to seek monopoly of the lucrative spice trade in the Maluku Islands. Dutch and British traders soon followed, with the former establishing the Dutch East India Company (Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie, VOC) in 1602 that eventually became the dominant European power for almost two centuries. After the VOC's dissolution in 1799 due to bankruptcy, the Dutch East Indies was established as a nationalised colony, marking the beginning of formal colonial rule by the Netherlands. Over the next century and a half, Dutch control over the archipelago was tenuous for much of this period, as they faced continuous rebellions from local leaders like Prince Diponegoro in central Java Imam Bonjol in central Sumatra, Pattimura in Maluku, and rebels in Aceh. Dutch dominance only extended to Indonesia's modern boundaries in the early 20th century, with the establishment of Dutch posts in New Guinea.

The Japanese invasion and occupation of the Indies during World War II ended Dutch rule and encouraged Indonesia's independence movement. Only two days after Japan's surrender in August 1945, Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta issued the Proclamation of Indonesian Independence, and they became the country's first president and vice-president along with Sutan Sjahrir as Prime Minister. The Netherlands attempted to re-establish their rule, prompting the start of Indonesia's war of independence against the Dutch. The conflict lasted until 1949 when the Dutch recognised Indonesian independence in the Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference following international pressure. Despite political, social, and sectarian divisions, Indonesians found unity in their fight for independence.

Post-World War II

As president, Sukarno moved Indonesia from democracy towards authoritarianism and maintained power by balancing the opposing forces of the military, political Islam, and the increasingly powerful Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI). Tensions between the military and the PKI culminated in an attempted coup in 1965. The army, led by Major General Suharto, countered by instigating a violent anti-communist purge that killed between 500,000 and one million people and incarcerated roughly a million more in concentration camps. The PKI was blamed for the coup and effectively destroyed. Suharto capitalised on Sukarno's weakened position, and following a drawn-out power play with Sukarno, Suharto was appointed president in March 1968. His US-backed "New Order" administration encouraged foreign direct investment, which was a crucial factor in the subsequent three decades of substantial economic growth.

Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the 1997 Asian financial crisis. It brought out popular discontent with the New Order's corruption and suppression of political opposition and ultimately ended Suharto's presidency. In 1999, East Timor seceded from Indonesia, following its 1975 invasion by Indonesia and a 25-year occupation marked by international condemnation of human rights abuses. Since 1998, democratic processes have been strengthened by enhancing regional autonomy and instituting the country's first direct presidential election in 2004.

Political, economic and social instability, corruption, and instances of terrorism remained problems in the 2000s; however, the economy has performed strongly since 2007. Although relations among the diverse population are mostly harmonious, acute sectarian discontent and violence remain problematic in some areas. A political settlement to an armed separatist conflict in Aceh was achieved in 2005.

Geography

Indonesia is the southernmost country in Asia. The country lies between latitudes 11°S and 6°N and longitudes 95°E and 141°E. A transcontinental country spanning Southeast Asia and Oceania, it is the world's largest archipelagic state, extending 5,120 kilometres (3,181 mi) from east to west and 1,760 kilometres (1,094 mi) from north to south. The country's Coordinating Ministry for Maritime and Investment Affairs says Indonesia has 17,504 islands (with 16,056 registered at the UN) scattered over both sides of the equator, around 922 of which are permanently inhabited. The largest are Sumatra, Java, Borneo (shared with Brunei and Malaysia), Sulawesi, and New Guinea (shared with Papua New Guinea). Indonesia shares land borders with Malaysia on Borneo and Sebatik, Papua New Guinea on the island of New Guinea, East Timor on the island of Timor, and maritime borders with Singapore, Malaysia, Vietnam, the Philippines, Palau, and Australia.

At 4,884 metres (16,024 ft), Puncak Jaya is Indonesia's highest peak, and Lake Toba in Sumatra is the largest lake, with an area of 1,145 km (442 sq mi). Indonesia's largest rivers are in Kalimantan and New Guinea and include Kapuas, Barito, Mamberamo, Sepik and Mahakam. They serve as communication and transport links between the island's river settlements.

Climate

Indonesia's equatorial position ensures a relatively stable climate year-round, characterised by two main seasons: dry season from May to October and wet season from November to April, with no extremes of summer and winter. The climate is predominantly tropical rainforest, with cooler climates in mountainous areas over 1,300 to 1,500 metres (4,300 to 4,900 feet) above sea level. The oceanic climate (Köppen Cfb) prevails in highland areas adjacent to rainforest climates, with uniform precipitation year-round. In highland areas near the tropical monsoon and tropical savanna climates, the subtropical highland climate (Köppen Cwb) is more pronounced during dry season. There is a variation in rainfall patterns, with regions like western Sumatra, Java, and the interiors of Kalimantan and Papua receiving more precipitation, while areas closer to Australia, such as Nusa Tenggara, are drier. The warm waters covering 81% of Indonesia's area keep land temperatures stable, with high humidity (70-90%) and moderate, predictable winds influenced by monsoon cycles. Major weather hazards include strong currents in straits, such as the Lombok and Sape Straits, rather than typhoons or storms.

Several studies consider Indonesia to be at severe risk from the projected effects of climate change, including a temperature rise of 1 °C (2 °F) by mid-century due to unreduced emissions. This warming could intensify droughts, disrupt rainfall patterns critical to agriculture, and increase occurrences of food shortages, diseases, and wildfires. Rising sea levels would also threaten the country's densely populated coastal regions, and impoverished communities are expected to be disproportionately affected by climate change.

Geology

In terms of tectonics, most of Indonesia's area is highly unstable, making it a site of numerous volcanoes and frequent earthquakes. It lies on the Pacific Ring of Fire, where the Indo-Australian Plate and the Pacific Plate are pushed under the Eurasian Plate, where they melt at about 100 kilometres (62 miles) deep. A string of volcanoes runs through Sumatra, Java, Bali and Nusa Tenggara, and then to the Banda Islands of Maluku to northeastern Sulawesi. Of the 400 volcanoes, around 130 are active. Between 1972 and 1991, there were 29 volcanic eruptions, mostly on Java. Volcanic ash has made agricultural conditions unpredictable in some areas. However, it has also resulted in fertile soils, a factor in historically sustaining the high population densities of Java and Bali.

A massive supervolcano erupted at present-day Lake Toba around 70,000 BCE. It is believed to have caused a global volcanic winter and cooling of the climate and subsequently led to a genetic bottleneck in human evolution, though this is still in debate. The 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora and the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa were among the largest in recorded history. The former caused 92,000 deaths and created an umbrella of volcanic ash that spread and blanketed parts of the archipelago and made much of the Northern Hemisphere without summer in 1816. The latter produced the loudest sound in recorded history and caused 36,000 deaths due to the eruption itself and the resulting tsunamis, with significant additional effects around the world years after the event. Recent catastrophic disasters due to seismic activity include the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and the 2006 Yogyakarta earthquake.

Biodiversity

Recognised by Conservation International as one of 17 megadiverse countries, Indonesia hosts one of the world's highest levels of biodiversity due to its tropical climate, large size, and archipelagic geography. The country's flora and fauna include a mix of Asian and Australasian species. The Sunda Shelf islands (Sumatra, Java, and Borneo) have a wealth of Asian fauna as they were once linked to mainland Asia, while Sulawesi, Lesser Sunda Islands, Maluku and Papua evolved unique ecosystems due to their separation from the continental landmasses. Papua, once part of the Australian landmass, is home to over 600 bird species closely related to Australia. Indonesia is second only to Australia in total endemic species, with 6% of its 1,531 species of bird and 39% of its 515 species of mammal being endemic.

The country also boasts 80,000 kilometres (50,000 miles) of coastline, featuring diverse sea and coastal ecosystems, such as dunes and mangroves, as well as coral reefs in the Coral Triangle that harbor the highest diversity of coral reef fish globally, with more than 1,650 species in eastern Indonesia. The Wallace Line, described by English naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace, marks the biogeographical divide between Asian and Australasian species, with the region between the Wallace and Weber Lines (called Wallacea) hosting unique biodiversity as described in Wallace's 1869 book, The Malay Archipelago. Indonesia's extensive forests, comprising 83% of Southeast Asia's old-growth forest, are deemed crucial for the region's ecological balance and carbon storage.

Indonesia faces severe environmental challenges due to extensive deforestation, peatland destruction, and over-exploitation of resources, driven by industries such as logging, plantations and agriculture since the 1970s, and in most recent years, palm oil. Forest cover declined from 87% in 1950 to 48% in 2022, highlighting the country as a leading forest-based emitter of greenhouse gases. These issues are often given a lower priority due to high poverty levels and weak, under-resourced governance. They also threaten indigenous and endemic species, with the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) listing many as critically endangered, such as the Bali myna, Sumatran orangutan, and Javan rhinoceros. Environmental degradation has prompted some academics to label these activities as ecocide.

Conservation

As of 2023, Indonesia has designated 21.3% of its land as protected areas and aims to align its strategy with the 2022 Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework. Additionally, 411 marine reserves account for 9% of the country's maritime area, with a target to increase this to 30% by 2045. However, a recent study highlights that the current efforts are off track and existing marine reserves are poorly managed. Approximately 390 marine areas are managed by government bodies, communities, and other sectors, with potential for classification as other effective area-based conservation measures (OECMs), though there is no national mechanism for reporting them.

Indonesia's conservation framework includes 55 national parks, covering around 9% of the country's surface area. Among these, nine are predominantly marine parks, with six recognised as World Heritage Sites, seven as part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves and five wetlands of international importance under the 1971 Ramsar Convention. Notably, Indonesia has over 100 marine protected areas spanning 15.7 million hectares as of 2012 managed by the Ministry of Forestry and local governments. Previous targets included reaching 20 million hectares by 2020 under former President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono's 2009 initiative and 10% of territorial waters, or 31 million hectares.

Government and politics

Indonesia is a republic with a presidential system. Following the New Order's fall in 1998, sweeping constitutional reforms has restructured the executive, legislative, and judicial branches while maintaining its unitary state framework despite the push to delegate powers to regional entities. The President serves as head of state, head of government, and commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces (Tentara Nasional Indonesia, TNI) and overseeing domestic and foreign policies. Presidents may serve up to two consecutive five-year terms.

The People's Consultative Assembly (Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat, MPR) is Indonesia's highest representative body, responsible for amending the constitution, inaugurating or impeaching the president, and formalising state policies. It consists of two houses, the People's Representative Council (Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat, DPR), which has 575 members and handles legislation and executive oversight, and the Regional Representative Council (Dewan Perwakilan Daerah, DPD) with 136 members, which focuses on regional matters. Since 1998, reforms have significantly enhanced the DPR's governance role, while the DPD represents Indonesia's diverse regional interests.

Indonesia's judiciary includes several key institutions. The Supreme Court (Mahkamah Agung) is the highest judicial authority, handling final appeals and case reviews. The Constitutional Court (Mahkamah Konstitusi) addresses constitutional and political matters, while the Religious Court (Pengadilan Agama) oversees Islamic personal law cases. Additionally, the Judicial Commission (Komisi Yudisial) monitors judicial performance.

Parties and elections

Indonesia has had a multi-party system since 1999 where no political party has won a majority of seats in the legislative elections. Political parties are broadly categorized into two groups, secular parties such as Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle (PDI-P), the Party of the Functional Groups (Golkar), and the Great Indonesia Movement Party (Gerinda), and Islamic parties such as National Awakening Party (PKB) and Prosperous Justice Party (PKS). Indonesia's political spectrum is characterised by preference for pragmatism and ideological fluidity over strict ideological adherence to fit the prevailing political climate, as well as what is called cartel parties, with extensive power-sharing among parties and limited accountability to voters. Pre-election alliances are also the norm, which is unlike in many democracies where the reverse case are common.

In 1955, the first general election was held to elect members of the DPR and the Constitutional Assembly (Konstituante). The most recent elections in 2024 brought eight political parties to the DPR, with a parliamentary threshold of 4% of the national vote. At the national level, Indonesians did not elect a president until 2004. Since then, the president is elected for a five-year term, as are the party-aligned members of the DPR and the non-partisan DPD. Beginning with the 2015 local elections, elections for governors and mayors have occurred on the same date. In 2014, the Constitutional Court ruled that legislative and presidential elections would be held simultaneously, starting in 2019.

Administrative divisions

Indonesia is divided into several administrative levels. At the first level are the provinces, each with a legislature (Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Daerah, DPRD) and an elected governor. The number of provinces has grown from 8 in 1945 to 38 today, with the most recent one, Southwest Papua, established in 2022. The second level includes regencies (kabupaten) and cities (kota), led by regents (bupati) and mayors (walikota), respectively, both supported by legislatures (DPRD Kabupaten/Kota). Below this are districts (kecamatan, distrik in Papua), and the fourth level comprises villages, known by various names like desa, kelurahan, kampung, nagari (in West Sumatra), or gampong (in Aceh). Villages are subdivided into community groups (rukun warga, RW) and neighborhood groups (rukun tetangga, RT), with further subdivisions like hamlets (dusun or dukuh) in Java.

The village level is the lowest administrative unit but holds significant influence over daily life. Village governments are led by elected heads (lurah or kepala desa) and handle local matters. Since the implementation of regional autonomy in 2001, regencies and cities have become key administrative units, responsible for most government services. Nine provinces—Aceh, Jakarta, Yogyakarta, Papua, Central Papua, Highland Papua, South Papua, Southwest Papua, and West Papua—are granted a special autonomous status (otonomi khusus) from the central government. A conservative Islamic territory, Aceh applies aspects of sharia law. Yogyakarta uniquely retains its pre-colonial monarchy, with its Sultan and Duke serving as governor and vice governor and the Papuan provinces are the only ones where indigenous people hold privileges in local governance.

Foreign relations

Indonesia follows an "independent and active" (bebas aktif) foreign policy, a term coined by founding father Mohammad Hatta in 1948 by which the country aims to navigate great power politics and maintain autonomy and avoid alignment with major powers. The President holds the ultimate authority in determining foreign policy directions while the Foreign Affairs Ministry is responsible for formulating and implementing foreign policy. Meanwhile, the Parliament (DPR) provides oversight and ratifies international treaties. Indonesia is considered to be a middle power internationally.

As the largest country in Southeast Asia and a founding member of Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), Indonesia has put ASEAN as the cornerstone of its foreign policy. Indonesia has actively supported Palestine while refraining from formal diplomatic relations with Israel, though the two countries maintain discreet ties. In the past decade and a half, Indonesia has built deep relations with China, primarily relating to substantial investments in infrastructure and trade, while at the same time maintaining a strategic partnership with the United States, focusing on economic cooperation, security, and counterterrorism efforts.

Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950 and is a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) and the East Asia Summit. Indonesia is also a signatory to the ASEAN Free Trade Area agreement, the Cairns Group, and the World Trade Organization (WTO). Indonesia has been a humanitarian and development aid recipient since 1967 but it has established an overseas aid programme of its own in 2019. The country also plays a role in maintaining international peace and security, Indonesia has deployed thousands of military and police personnel to multiple United Nations peacekeeping missions, including in Lebanon, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Mali.

Military

Indonesia's Armed Forces (TNI) consist of the Army (TNI-AD), Navy (TNI-AL) (including the Marine Corps), and Air Force (TNI-AU), with the Army comprising around 400,000 active personnel. Established during the Indonesian National Revolution, the TNI initially engaged in guerrilla warfare alongside informal militias. Its territorial structure focuses on maintaining domestic stability and deterring foreign threats. Though political reforms in 1998 removed TNI's formal legislative role, it continues to wield political influence, albeit reduced from its peak during the New Order. Defence spending in 2022 was 0.7% of GDP, with controversies surrounding military-owned commercial ventures.

Since independence, Indonesia has struggled to maintain unity against separatist movements and insurgencies, notably in Aceh and Papua. While the former ended peacefully in 2005, the latter has continued amid an implementation of regional autonomy as well as allegations of human rights abuses, including extrajudicial killings and forced disappearances, reported by Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch, and the UNHRC. Indonesia's historical military engagements include conflicts with the Netherlands over Dutch New Guinea, opposition to the British-backed creation of Malaysia (Konfrontasi), the anti-communist mass killings, and the invasion of East Timor, which was Indonesia's largest military operation.

Law enforcement and human rights

Law enforcement in Indonesia is chiefly performed by the Indonesian National Police (POLRI), together with other law enforcement agencies under the president, a certain ministry or state-owned enterprise (BUMN) which perform policing duties for a certain public service. These law enforcement agencies are under the supervision and trained by the POLRI. The National Police essentially is the national civilian police force of the country responsible for enforcing law and order of the state.

Throughout the country's history, instances of racism and discrimination, especially against Chinese Indonesians and Papuans, have been well documented. The former case notably peaked in the anti-Chinese riots in 1998, following a series of similar riots dating back to 1994 in Medan and discriminatory laws dating back to 1967. Independence movements, such as the Free Aceh Movement (who fought for an independent Aceh based on sharia law), Fretilin (a resistance movement to Indonesian rule in East Timor) and the Free Papua Movement (who aims to separate West Papua from Indonesia) have led to violent conflicts and accusations of human rights abuses of all sides involved.

The situation has improved since the fall of Suharto in 1998 and the subsequent reforms. East Timor gained independence from Indonesia in 2002 and the insurgency in Aceh were solved in 2005 under the Helsinki agreement, in which Aceh was to be granted a special autonomy. The reforms ushered a more democratic political climate in the country, where it saw the abolishment of several laws deemed discriminatory, especially against Chinese Indonesians. Chinese New Year has also become an official holiday since 2002. The conflict in Papua, however, remains ongoing as of 2024 and has continued since 1962.

Economy

Indonesia operates a mixed economy where both the private sector and the government play significant roles. As the only G20 member state in Southeast Asia, it has the region's largest economy and is classified as a newly industrialised country. In 2024, its nominal GDP was US$1.402 trillion, ranking 16th globally, while its GDP at purchasing power parity (PPP) was US$4.658 trillion, ranking 8th. Per capita GDP in PPP is US$16,542, while nominal per capita GDP is US$4,980. Based on 2022 data, services dominate the economy in terms employment (48.8%), followed by agriculture (29.2%) and industry (21.8%), while in terms of share of GDP, both services and industry dominate (roughly 41% each), with agriculture coming second (12.4%).

The economic structure has shifted significantly over time, transitioning from agriculture in the 1950s and 1960s to gradual industrialization and urbanization, especially from the late 1960s to the 1980s. Falling oil prices in the 1980s prompted diversification into manufactured exports, resulting in substantial economic growth (the GDP rose at an average rate of 7.1%.) and poverty reduction from 60% to 15%. However, the growth ended during the Asian economic crisis in the late 1990s, causing a severe setback where the economy experienced a 13.1% GDP contraction, a 78% inflation and a real GDP growth of only 0.8% in 1999. The economy began recovering in the early 2000s, achieving consistent growth rates between 4% and 6% from 2004 to 2024 due to banking improvements and increased domestic consumption, which helped Indonesia weather the 2008–2009 Great Recession. Although the COVID-19 pandemic in the early 2020s caused the country's first recession since 1997, the economy rebounded within a year.

Indonesia boasts abundant natural resources, including nickel, coal, palm oil, and petroleum, which dominate its export portfolio. It imports refined and crude petroleum, vehicle parts, and wheat, with major trade partners including China, the United States, Japan, Singapore, India, Malaysia, South Korea, and Thailand. Despite these resources and decades of development, disparities in wealth, employment and economic opportunities persist between densely populated and economically advantaged regions in the western islands like Java and Sumatra, and sparsely populated, underdeveloped areas in the east like Maluku and Papua.

Tourism

Tourism contributed around US$9.8 billion to GDP in 2020, and in the previous year, Indonesia received 15.4 million visitors. Overall, Australia, China, Singapore, Malaysia, and Japan are the top five sources of visitors to Indonesia. Since 2011, Wonderful Indonesia has been the country's international marketing campaign slogan to promote tourism.

Nature and culture are prime attractions of Indonesian tourism. The country has a well-preserved natural ecosystem with rainforests stretching over about 57% of Indonesia's land (225 million acres). Forests on Sumatra and Kalimantan are examples of popular destinations, such as the Orangutan wildlife reserve. Moreover, Indonesia has one of the world's longest coastlines, measuring 54,716 kilometres (33,999 mi). The ancient Borobudur and Prambanan temples, as well as Toraja and Bali with their traditional festivities, are some of the popular destinations for cultural tourism.

Indonesia has ten UNESCO World Heritage Sites, including the Komodo National Park and the Cosmological Axis of Yogyakarta and its Historic Landmarks; and a further 18 in a tentative list that includes Bunaken National Park and Raja Ampat Islands. Other attractions include specific points in Indonesian history, such as the colonial heritage of the Dutch East Indies in the old towns of Jakarta and Semarang and the royal palaces of Pagaruyung and Ubud.

Science and technology

Government spending on research and development is relatively low at 0.3% of GDP in 2019. Despite being ranked 54th among 133 countries on the 2024 Global Innovation Index, the country performs above expectations for its upper middle-income status. Historical innovations include terasering, the terracing techniques for rice cultivation, and the pinisi boats of the Bugis and Makassar people. In the 1980s, Tjokorda Raka Sukawati developed the Sosrobahu road construction technique that is now used internationally. Indonesia also produces passenger trains and freight wagons through its state-owned Indonesian Railway Industry (Industri Kereta Api, INKA), which exports trains abroad.

Indonesia has a long history of manufacturing military and commuter aircraft and is the only country in Southeast Asia to do so. Its state-owned aerospace company, Indonesian Aerospace (PT. Dirgantara Indonesia), has supplied components to Boeing and Airbus and co-developed the CASA/IPTN CN-235 aircraft with Spain's EADS CASA, which is widely used internationally. Former President B. J. Habibie, who was an aerospace engineer before getting into politics, played a key role in advancing the country's aerospace research. Recently, Indonesia has been collaborating with South Korea on the 4.5-generation fighter jet KAI KF-21 Boramae.

Indonesia's space program, managed by the National Institute of Aeronautics and Space (Lembaga Penerbangan dan Antariksa Nasional, LAPAN), launched its first satellite in 1976 (Palapa), making it the first developing country with a satellite system. As of 2024, Indonesia has launched 19 satellites for communication and other purposes. Recently, the government licensed Starlink to provide internet connectivity to rural and underserved regions.

Infrastructure

Transport

Indonesia's transport system reflects its archipelagic geography and population distribution heavily concentrated on Java. In 2022, the predominant road network spanned 548,097 kilometres (340,572 miles) as of 2022, including TransJakarta that operates the world's longest bus rapid transit system. Common urban transport includes rickshaws like bajaj and becak and shared taxis such as angkot and minibuses.

Railways are primarily located in Java and parts of Sumatra and Sulawesi, serving freight and passenger transport, including commuter and inter-city rail services like those in the Greater Jakarta and Yogyakarta. In the late 2010s, rapid transit systems were introduced in Jakarta and Palembang, with more planned for other cities. Indonesia, collaborating with China, inaugurated its first high-speed rail named Whoosh in 2023 that connects Jakarta and Bandung. It was the first such system in Southeast Asia and the Southern Hemisphere.

Air and sea transport also play significant roles. Soekarno–Hatta International Airport, Indonesia's largest, served 49 million passengers in 2023, followed by Ngurah Rai and Juanda International Airports. Garuda Indonesia, the national flag carrier since 1949, is one of the world's leading airlines and a member of the global airline alliance SkyTeam. The Port of Tanjung Priok, the country's busiest and most advanced, handles over half of Indonesia's trans-shipment cargo traffic.

Energy

In 2019, Indonesia produced 4,999 terawatt-hours (17.059 quadrillion British thermal units) and consumed 2,357 terawatt-hours (8.043 quadrillion British thermal units) worth of energy. The country has substantial energy resources, including 22 billion barrels (3.5 billion cubic metres) of conventional oil and gas reserves (of which about 4 billion barrels are recoverable), 8 billion barrels of oil-equivalent coal-based methane (CBM) resources, and 28 billion tonnes of recoverable coal.

In late 2020, Indonesia's total national installed power generation capacity stands at 72,750.72 MW. Although reliance on domestic coal and imported oil has increased between 2010 and 2019, Indonesia has seen progress in renewable energy, with hydropower and geothermal being the most abundant sources that account for more than 8% of the country's energy mix. As of 2021, power generation from solar, wind, biomass, and ocean energy is still small. The country's largest dam, Jatiluhur, has an installed capacity of 186.5 MW that feeds into the Java grid managed by the State Electricity Company (Perusahaan Listrik Negara, PLN).

Demographics

The 2020 census recorded Indonesia's population as 270.2 million, the fourth largest in the world, with a moderately high population growth rate of 1.25%. Java is the world's most populous island, where 56% of the country's population lives. The population density is 141 people per square kilometre (370 people/sq mi), ranking 88th in the world, although Java has a population density of 1,067 people per square kilometre (2,760 people/sq mi). In 1961, the first post-colonial census recorded a total of 97 million people. It is expected to grow to around 295 million by 2030 and 321 million by 2050. The country currently possesses a relatively young population, with a median age of 31.5 years (2024 estimate).

The spread of the population is uneven throughout the archipelago, with a varying habitats and levels of development, ranging from the megacity of Jakarta to uncontacted tribes in Papua. As of 2022, about 58% of the population lives in urban areas. Jakarta is the country's primate city and the second-most populous urban area globally, with over 34 million residents. About 8 million Indonesians live overseas; most settled in Malaysia, the Netherlands, Saudi Arabia, Taiwan, South Africa, Singapore, Hong Kong, the United States, and Australia.

v t e Largest cities in Indonesia 2023 BPS estimate
	Rank	Name	Province	Pop.	Rank	Name	Province	Pop.
Jakarta Surabaya	1	Jakarta	Special Capital Region	11,135,191	11	South Tangerang	Banten	1,429,529	Bandung Medan
	2	Surabaya	East Java	3,017,382	12	Batam	Riau Islands	1,294,548
	3	Bandung	West Java	2,579,837	13	Pekanbaru	Riau	1,138,530
	4	Medan	North Sumatra	2,539,829	14	Bogor	West Java	1,137,018
	5	Bekasi	West Java	2,526,133	15	Bandar Lampung	Lampung	1,073,451
	6	Depok	West Java	1,967,831	16	Padang	West Sumatra	939,851
	7	Tangerang	Banten	1,927,815	17	Malang	East Java	885,271
	8	Palembang	South Sumatra	1,781,672	18	Samarinda	East Kalimantan	868,499
	9	Semarang	Central Java	1,699,585	19	Tasikmalaya	West Java	761,080
	10	Makassar	South Sulawesi	1,477,861	20	Denpasar	Bali	670,210

Ethnic groups and languages

Indonesia is home to around 600 distinct native ethnic groups, predominantly descended from Austronesian peoples originating in Proto-Austronesian languages, likely from modern-day Taiwan. The Melanesians, who inhabit eastern Indonesia, represent another significant ethnic grouping. The Javanese, making up 40.06% of the population, are the largest ethnic group and politically dominant, primarily residing in central and eastern Java but also has sizable numbers in other provinces. Other major groups include the Sundanese, Malay, Batak, Madurese, Betawi, Minangkabau, and Bugis. A sense of Indonesian nationhood exists alongside strong regional identities.

The official language, Indonesia, is a variant of Malay based on its prestige dialect that became the archipelago's lingua franca over the course of centuries. It was first promoted by nationalists in the 1920s and gained official status in 1945 following independence under the name Bahasa Indonesia, and has since been widely adopted due to its use in education, media, business, and governance. While nearly all Indonesians speak Indonesian, most also speak one of over 700 local languages, often as their first language. These are predominantly from the Austronesian family, with over 270 Papuan languages in eastern Indonesia. Javanese is the most widely spoken local language, and it holds co-official status in Yogyakarta.

The Dutch and other European-descended populations like the Indos, though significant during colonial times, always represented a small fraction of the population, numbering 240,000 in 1930. The Dutch language never gained substantial traction due to the Dutch colonial focus on commerce rather than cultural integration. Dutch fluency exists today among some older generations and legal professionals, as specific legal codes remain available only in Dutch.

Religion

Indonesia officially recognizes six religions: Islam, Protestantism, Roman Catholicism, Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism—while also acknowledging indigenous religions for administrative purposes as well as religious freedom in the constitution. As of 2023, 87.1% of the population (244 million Indonesians), are Muslims, making Indonesia the world's most populous Muslim-majority country, with Sunnis constituting 99% of the Muslim population. Christians, comprising 10% of the population, form majorities in several eastern provinces, while Hindus and Buddhists are primarily Balinese and Chinese Indonesians, respectively.

Before the arrival of major world religions, Indonesia's natives practiced animism and dynamism, worshiping ancestral spirits and believing in the supernatural (hyang) inhabiting natural elements, such as large trees, mountains and forests. Such beliefs are common to the Austronesian peoples. These indigenous traditions, such as Sundanese Sunda Wiwitan, Javanese Kejawèn and Dayak's Kaharingan, have profoundly influenced modern religious practices, resulting in a less orthodox and syncretic form of faith like Javanese abangan, Balinese Hinduism and Dayak Christianity.

Hinduism reached the archipelago in the 1st century CE, followed by Buddhism in the 6th century. Both religions shaped Indonesia's religious history through influential empires like Majapahit, Srivijaya, and Sailendra, leaving a lasting cultural impact that remains today despite both no longer being the majority. Islam arrived as early as the 8th century through Sunni and Sufi traders from the Indian subcontinent and southern Arabian peninsula, mixing with local cultural and religious traditions to form a distinct Islamic culture (santri). By the 16th century, Islam had become the dominant religion on Java and Sumatra, resulting from the combination of trade, dawah such as by the Wali Sanga and Chinese explorer Zheng He, and military campaigns by several sultanates.

Catholicism and Protestantism were later introduced through missionary efforts during European colonization, such as by Jesuit Francis Xavier, though the spread of the former faced challenges under the policies of VOC and the Dutch colonial era. The latter's primary branches include Calvinism and Lutheranism, though a multitude of other denominations exist in the country. A small Jewish presence has existed in the archipelago, primarily descendants of Dutch and Iraqi Jews, though their numbers have dwindled since independence in 1945. Only a few Jews remain today, mostly in major cities like Jakarta, Manado and Surabaya. One of the remaining synagogues, Sha'ar Hashamayim, is located in Tondano, North Sulawesi, which is around 31 km from Manado.

Interfaith relations in Indonesia are significantly shaped by political leadership and civil society, guided by the first principle of Pancasila, which emphasises belief in a supreme deity and religious tolerance. While the principle promotes harmony, instances of intolerance continue to be a recurring issue. Religion is central to the lives of overwhelming majority of Indonesians, which reflects its integral role in the country's society, culture and identity.

Education

Indonesia has one of the largest education systems in the world, with over 50 million students, 4 million teachers, and more than 250,000 schools spanning the archipelago. Overseen by the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education, the Ministry of Higher Education, Science, and Technology and the Ministry of Religious Affairs for Islamic schools, the system follows a 6-3-3-4 structure: six years of elementary school, three years each of junior and senior secondary school, and four years of tertiary education. While literacy rates are high (95.7%), it is lower in rural and remote areas. Enrolment rates vary across educational levels, with near-universal enrolment in primary education (97.9%), but drops to 81.7% and 64.2% in lower and upper secondary education and to around 42.6% for tertiary education.

Government spending on education accounts for approximately 3.6% of GDP in 2022. In 2022, there are 4,481 higher education institutions in the country, including universities, Islamic institutions and open universities. University of Indonesia, Gadjah Mada University, and the Bandung Institute of Technology are the top three universities in the country, all rank within the world's top 300 universities.

The education system faces challenges in quality and equity, in particular urban-rural disparities, inadequate school infrastructure, and a lack of qualified teachers. It also lags behind in international benchmarks, such as the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) where Indonesian students consistently rank near the bottom in reading, mathematics, and science. In the higher education landscape, it has been struggling with lack of funds, low quality, limited research output and a mismatch between graduates' skills and labor market needs.

Healthcare

Government expenditure on healthcare was about 3.3% of GDP in 2016. As part of an attempt to achieve universal health care, the government launched the National Health Insurance (Jaminan Kesehatan Nasional, JKN) in 2014. It includes coverage for a range of services from the public and also private firms that have opted to join the scheme. Despite remarkable improvements in the past half-century, such as rising life expectancy (from 54.9 years in 1973 to 71.1 years in 2023) and declining child mortality (from 15.5 deaths per 100 live births in 1972 to 2.1 deaths in 2022), challenges remain, including maternal and child health, low air quality, malnutrition, a high rate of smoking, and infectious diseases.

Culture

The cultural history of Indonesia spans over two thousand years, influenced by the Indian subcontinent, China, the Middle East, Europe, Melanesian, and Austronesian peoples. These influences have shaped the country’s multicultural, multilingual, and multi-ethnic identity, distinct from its indigenous roots. Indonesia holds 16 items recognised by UNESCO as Intangible Cultural Heritage, including wayang puppet theatre, batik, angklung, the saman dance, and pencak silat. Recent joint nominations added pantun, kebaya, and kolintang to the list.

Art and architecture

Indonesian arts encompasses traditional and contemporary forms shaped by influences from India, the Arab world, China, and Europe, driven by cultural exchange and trade. Bali's artistic traditions, such as classical Kamasan and Wayang-style painting, are renowned, originating from visual narratives depicted on candi bas-reliefs from eastern Java. Traditional architecture reflects ethnic diversity, with iconic and traditional houses (rumah adat) like Toraja's Tongkonan, Minangkabau's Rumah Gadang, Java's Pendopo, and Dayak longhouses each showcasing unique customs and histories. Other traditional crafts, including carpentry and masonry, showcase intricate decorations and techniques passed down through generations.

Discoveries of megalithic sculptures led to the flourishing of tribal art among the Nias, Batak, Asmat, Dayak, and Toraja communities, who utilised wood and stone as primary sculpting materials. From the 8th to 15th centuries, the Javanese civilization excelled in sophisticated stone sculpting and architecture, heavily influenced by the Hindu-Buddhist Dharmic culture. This period produced monumental works like the Borobudur and Prambanan temples, which today remain celebrated as masterpieces of Indonesia's sophisticated artistic and architectural heritage.

Music, dance and clothing

Indonesia's musical heritage predates historical records, with indigenous tribes using chants and traditional instruments like the angklung, gamelan, and sasando in rituals. Influences from other cultures have enriched Indonesian music, such as the gambus and qasida from the Middle East, keroncong from Portugal, and dangdut (one of the country's most popular music genres), which incorporates Hindi, Malay, and Middle Eastern elements. Today, Indonesian music enjoys regional popularity in Malaysia, Singapore, and Brunei due to cultural similarities and language intelligibility.

With over 3,000 traditional dances, Indonesian dance forms have its origins in rituals and religious worship, such as a dance of witch doctors and Hudoq, as well as periods of Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic influence. While modern and urban dances shaped by Western, Japanese, and South Korean cultures are growing in popularity, traditional dances like those of Java, Bali, and Dayak remain a living tradition.

Indonesia's rich cultural history is also reflected in its diverse clothing styles, with national costumes like batik and kebaya being widely recognised, which have its roots in Javanese, Sundanese and Balinese cultures. Traditional attire varies by region and by each province, such as the Batak ulos, Malay and Minangkabau songket, and Sasak ikat, and is commonly worn for ceremonies, weddings, and formal events.

Theatre and cinema

Traditional Indonesian theatre, such as wayang shadow puppetry often depicts Hindu epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata. Other forms of dramas, such as Ludruk, Ketoprak, Sandiwara, Lenong and Balinese dance dramas often incorporate humor, music, and audience interaction. Unique traditions like the Minangkabau Randai combine music, dance, and martial arts (silat), telling semi-historical legends during traditional ceremonies and festivals. Modern theatre, exemplified by Teater Koma, addresses social and political themes through satire.

The first film produced in the archipelago was Loetoeng Kasaroeng (1926), a silent film by Dutch director L. Heuveldorp, and the film industry expanded post-independence with Usmar Ismail's pioneering work in the 1950s. During the latter part of Sukarno era in the 1960s, films were used to promote nationalism and anti-Western sentiment, while Suharto's New Order imposed censorship to maintain social order. Film productions peaked in the 1980s with notable titles such as Pengabdi Setan (1980), Tjoet Nja' Dhien (1988) and Warkop comedy films, but the industry declined in the next decade.

In the post-Suharto era, the industry saw a resurgence, and independent filmmakers tackled previously censored themes like race, religion and love, producing notable films such as Petualangan Sherina (2000) and Ada Apa dengan Cinta? (2002) and Laskar Pelangi (2008). The 2022 film KKN di Desa Penari set box office records, becoming the most-watched Indonesian film with 9.2 million tickets sold. The Indonesian Film Festival (Festival Film Indonesia), awarding the Citra Award, has celebrated cinematic achievements since 1955.

Mass media and literature

Media freedom in Indonesia significantly improved after the fall of Suharto's rule, during which media was tightly controlled by the Ministry of Information. The television landscape shifted from a monopoly by public broadcaster TVRI (1962–1989) to a competitive market with national and provincial networks. By the 21st century, television signals have reached every village, offering up to 11 channels. Private radio stations provide news, while foreign broadcasters offer diverse programming. Print publications also expanded significantly after 1998. Indonesia's internet development began in the early 1990s, with the first commercial Internet service provider, PT. Indo Internet, starting operations in 1994. By 2018, the country had 171 million internet users, primarily aged 15 to 19, who accessed the internet mostly through mobile phones rather than computers. Internet penetration continues to grow annually.

Indonesian literature has roots in Sanskrit inscriptions from the 5th century and a strong oral tradition, while early modern literature originates in Sumatran tradition. Traditional forms such as syair, pantun, hikayat, and babad dominate early prose and poetry, with notable works such as Syair Abdul Muluk, Hikayat Hang Tuah, Sulalatus Salatin, and Babad Tanah Jawi. The establishment of Balai Pustaka in 1917 marked a push to develop indigenous literature, leading to a literary Golden Age in the 1950s and 1960s. Influenced by the dynamics of the country's political and social landscape, modern literature includes works from notable figures like Chairil Anwar, Pramoedya Ananta Toer, and Ayu Utami.

Cuisine

Indonesian cuisine has many regional cuisines, often based upon indigenous culture and foreign influences such as Chinese, African, European, Middle Eastern, and Indian precedents. Rice is the leading staple food and is served with side dishes of meat and vegetables. Spices (notably chili), coconut milk, fish, and chicken are fundamental ingredients.

Some popular dishes such as nasi goreng, gado-gado, sate, and soto are ubiquitous and considered national dishes. The Ministry of Tourism, however, chose tumpeng as the official national dish in 2014, describing it as binding the diversity of various culinary traditions. Other popular dishes include rendang, one of the many Minangkabau cuisines along with dendeng and gulai. Another fermented food is oncom, similar in some ways to tempeh but uses a variety of bases (not only soy), created by different fungi, and is prevalent in West Java.

Sports

Badminton and football are the most popular sports in Indonesia. Indonesia is among the few countries that have won the Thomas and Uber Cup, the world team championship of men's and women's badminton. Along with weightlifting, it is the sport that contributes the most to Indonesia's Olympic medal tally. Liga 1 is the country's premier football club league. On the international stage, Indonesia was the first Asian team to participate in the FIFA World Cup in 1938 as the Dutch East Indies. On a regional level, Indonesia won a bronze medal at the 1958 Asian Games as well as three gold medals at the 1987, 1991, and 2023 Southeast Asian Games (SEA Games). Indonesia's first appearance at the AFC Asian Cup was in 1996.

Other popular sports include boxing and basketball, which were part of the first National Games (Pekan Olahraga Nasional, PON) in 1948. Sepak takraw and karapan sapi (bull racing) in Madura are some examples of Indonesia's traditional sports. In areas with a history of tribal warfare, mock fighting contests are held, such as caci in Flores and pasola in Sumba. Pencak silat is an Indonesian martial art that, in 2018, became one of the sporting events in the Asian Games, with Indonesia appearing as one of the leading competitors. In Southeast Asia, Indonesia topped the SEA Games medal table ten times since 1977, most recently in 2011.

See also

• Indonesia
• Asia
• Islands
• Countries

• List of Indonesia-related topics
• Index of Indonesia-related articles
• Outline of Indonesia

Notes

1. Excludes dialects and subdialects.
2. According 2023 data.
3. UK: /ˌɪndəˈniːziə, -ʒə/ IN-də-NEE-zee-ə, -⁠zhə US: /ˌɪndəˈniːʒə, -ʃə/ IN-də-NEE-zhə, -⁠shə; Indonesian pronunciation: [ɪndoˈnesia]
4. Republik Indonesia ([reˈpublik ɪndoˈnesia] ) is the most-used official name, though the name Unitary State of the Republic of Indonesia (Negara Kesatuan Republik Indonesia, NKRI) also appears in some official documents.
5. During the Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation, Indonesia withdrew from the UN due to the latter's election to the United Nations Security Council, although it returned 18 months later. It marked the first time in UN history that a member state had attempted a withdrawal.
6. Small but significant populations of ethnic Chinese, Indians, Europeans and Arabs are concentrated mostly in urban areas.
7. Due to significant contact with other languages, it is rich in local and foreign influences, which include Javanese, Sundanese, Minangkabau, Makassarese, Sanskrit, Chinese, Arabic, Dutch, Portuguese and English.
8. The rest consists of the Shias and Ahmadis, who form 1% (1–3 million) and 0.2% (200,000–400,000) of the Muslim population.

References

Citations

1. "Bahasa dan Peta Bahasa". Kemdikbud.com. Kemdikbud. Retrieved 18 August 2024.
2. ^ "Religion in Indonesia". Archived from the original on 21 June 2024. Retrieved 21 June 2024.
3. "UN Statistics" (PDF). United Nations. 2005. Archived (PDF) from the original on 31 October 2007. Retrieved 31 October 2007.
4. Admin, "Indonesian Population June 2024", Ministry of Home Affairs (Indonesia) (in Indonesian), retrieved 20 October 2024
5. ^ "Hasil Sensus Penduduk 2020" (PDF) (in Indonesian). Statistics Indonesia. 21 January 2021. p. 9. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 January 2021. Retrieved 21 January 2021.
6. ^ "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2024 Edition. (Indonesia)". www.imf.org. International Monetary Fund. 22 October 2024. Retrieved 22 October 2024.
7. "Gini ratio Maret 2024 tercatat sebesar 0,379". bps.go.id. Retrieved 15 July 2024.
8. "Human Development Report 2023/24" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 13 March 2024. p. 289. Archived from the original on 14 March 2024. Retrieved 13 March 2024.
9. "INDONESIA | Meaning & Definition for UK English | Lexico.com". Lexico Dictionaries | English. Archived from the original on 28 February 2020. Retrieved 7 May 2022.
10. "Indonesia". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 7 May 2022.
11. ^ Tomascik, Tomas; Mah, Anmarie Janice; Nontji, Anugerah; Moosa, Mohammad Kasim (1996). The Ecology of the Indonesian Seas – Part One. Hong Kong: Periplus Editions. ISBN 978-962-593-078-7.
12. Earl 1850, p. 119.
13. ^ Anshory, Irfan (16 August 2004). "The origin of Indonesia's name" (in Indonesian). Pikiran Rakyat. Archived from the original on 12 January 2013. Retrieved 15 December 2006.
14. Logan, James Richardson (1850). "The Ethnology of the Indian Archipelago: Embracing Enquiries into the Continental Relations of the Indo-Pacific Islanders". Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia. 4: 252–347.
15. Earl 1850, pp. 254, 277–278.
16. ^ van der Kroef, Justus M (1951). "The Term Indonesia: Its Origin and Usage". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 71 (3): 166–171. doi:10.2307/595186. ISSN 0003-0279. JSTOR 595186.
17. Pope, G.G. (1988). "Recent advances in far eastern paleoanthropology". Annual Review of Anthropology. 17: 43–77. doi:10.1146/annurev.an.17.100188.000355. cited in Whitten, T.; Soeriaatmadja, R.E.; Suraya, A.A. (1996). The Ecology of Java and Bali. Hong Kong: Periplus Editions. pp. 309–412.
18. Pope, G.G. (1983). "Evidence on the age of the Asian Hominidae". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 80 (16): 4988–4992. Bibcode:1983PNAS...80.4988P. doi:10.1073/pnas.80.16.4988. PMC 384173. PMID 6410399.
19. de Vos, J.P.; Sondaar, P.Y. (1994). "Dating hominid sites in Indonesia". Science. 266 (16): 4988–4992. Bibcode:1994Sci...266.1726D. doi:10.1126/science.7992059.
20. Brown, P.; et al. (27 October 2004). "A new small-bodied hominin from the Late Pleistocene of Flores, Indonesia" (PDF). Nature. 431 (7012): 1055–1061. Bibcode:2004Natur.431.1055B. doi:10.1038/nature02999. PMID 15514638. S2CID 26441.
21. Brumm, Adam; Jensen, Gitte M.; van den Bergh, Gert D.; Morwood, Michael J.; Kurniawan, Iwan; Aziz, Fachroel; Storey, Michael (2010). "Hominins on Flores, Indonesia, by one million years ago". Nature. 464 (7289): 748–752. Bibcode:2010Natur.464..748B. doi:10.1038/nature08844. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 20237472. S2CID 205219871.
22. Gugliotta, Guy (July 2008). "The Great Human Migration". Smithsonian Maganize. Archived from the original on 17 September 2017. Retrieved 21 August 2011.
23. Oktaviana, Adhi Agus; Joannes-Boyau, Renaud; Hakim, Budianto; Burhan, Basran; Sardi, Ratno; Adhityatama, Shinatria; Hamrullah; Sumantri, Iwan; Tang, M.; Lebe, Rustan; Ilyas, Imran; Abbas, Abdullah; Jusdi, Andi; Mahardian, Dewangga Eka; Noerwidi, Sofwan (3 July 2024). "Narrative cave art in Indonesia by 51,200 years ago". Nature. 631 (8022): 814–818. Bibcode:2024Natur.631..814O. doi:10.1038/s41586-024-07541-7. ISSN 0028-0836. PMC 11269172. PMID 38961284.
24. Harris, Garreth (4 July 2024). "Oldest example of figurative art found in Indonesian cave". The Art Newspaper. Retrieved 5 July 2024.
25. Prasetyo, Bagyo (2015). Megalithic: A phenomenon that flourished in Indonesia. Jakarta: Pusat Penelitian Arkeologi Nasional. p. 61. ISBN 9786020818252.
26. ^ Taylor 2003, pp. 5–7.
27. Taylor 2003, pp. 8–9.
28. Taylor 2003, pp. 3, 9–11, 13–15, 18–20, 22–23.
29. Vickers 2005, pp. 18–20, 60, 133–134.
30. Taylor 2003, pp. 15–18.
31. Lewis, Peter (1982). "The next great empire". Futures. 14 (1): 47–61. doi:10.1016/0016-3287(82)90071-4.
32. Ricklefs 1991, pp. 3–14.
33. ^ Ricklefs 1991, pp. 12–14.
34. Ricklefs 1991, pp. 22–24.
35. Ricklefs 1991, p. 24.
36. Schwarz 1994, pp. 3–4.
37. Ricklefs 1991, p. 142.
38. ^ Friend 2003, p. 21.
39. Ricklefs 1991, pp. 61–147.
40. Taylor 2003, pp. 209–278.
41. Vickers 2005, pp. 10–14.
42. ^ Ricklefs 1991, p. .
43. Gert Oostindie; Bert Paasman (1998). "Dutch Attitudes towards Colonial Empires, Indigenous Cultures, and Slaves" (PDF). Eighteenth-Century Studies. 31 (3): 349–355. doi:10.1353/ecs.1998.0021. hdl:20.500.11755/c467167b-2084-413c-a3c7-f390f9b3a092. S2CID 161921454. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 September 2017.
44. "Indonesia: World War II and the Struggle for Independence, 1942–50; The Japanese Occupation, 1942–45". Library of Congress. November 1992. Archived from the original on 21 August 2013. Retrieved 11 February 2013.
45. Robert Elson, The idea of Indonesia: A history (2008) pp 1–12
46. ^ Taylor 2003, p. 325.
47. H. J. Van Mook (1949). "Indonesia". Royal Institute of International Affairs. 25 (3): 274–285. doi:10.2307/3016666. JSTOR 3016666.
48. ^ Charles Bidien (5 December 1945). "Independence the Issue". Far Eastern Survey. 14 (24): 345–348. doi:10.2307/3023219. JSTOR 3023219.
49. Friend 2003, p. 35.
50. Friend 2003, pp. 21, 23.
51. Ricklefs 1991, pp. 211–213.
52. Ricklefs 1991, pp. 237–280.
53. Melvin 2018, p. 1.
54. Robinson 2018, p. 3.
55. Robert Cribb (2002). "Unresolved Problems in the Indonesian Killings of 1965–1966". Asian Survey. 42 (4): 550–563. doi:10.1525/as.2002.42.4.550. S2CID 145646994.; "Indonesia massacres: Declassified US files shed new light". BBC. 17 October 2017. Archived from the original on 18 November 2018. Retrieved 19 September 2018.
56. Bevins 2020, pp. 168, 185.
57. Friend 2003, pp. 107–109.
58. Chris Hilton (writer and director) (2001). Shadowplay (Television documentary). Vagabond Films and Hilton Cordell Productions.
59. Ricklefs 1991, pp. 280–283, 284, 287–290.
60. John D. Legge (1968). "General Suharto's New Order". Royal Institute of International Affairs. 44 (1): 40–47. doi:10.2307/2613527. JSTOR 2613527.
61. Melvin 2018, pp. 9–10.
62. Vickers 2005, p. 163.
63. David Slater, Geopolitics and the Post-Colonial: Rethinking North–South Relations, London: Blackwell, p. 70
64. Farid, Hilmar (2005). "Indonesia's original sin: mass killings and capitalist expansion, 1965–66". Inter-Asia Cultural Studies. 6 (1): 3–16. doi:10.1080/1462394042000326879. S2CID 145130614.
65. Robinson 2018, p. 206.
66. Bevins 2020, pp. 167–168.
67. Delhaise, Philippe F. (1998). Asia in Crisis: The Implosion of the Banking and Finance Systems. Willey. p. 123. ISBN 978-0-471-83450-2.
68. Vickers 2005, p. .
69. Schwarz 1994, p. .
70. Jonathan Pincus; Rizal Ramli (1998). "Indonesia: from showcase to basket case". Cambridge Journal of Economics. 22 (6): 723–734. doi:10.1093/cje/22.6.723.
71. Burr, W. (6 December 2001). "East Timor Revisited, Ford, Kissinger, and the Indonesian Invasion, 1975–76". National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 62. Washington, DC: National Security Archive, George Washington University. Archived from the original on 27 November 2019. Retrieved 17 September 2006.
72. "Situation of human rights in East Timor". Relief Web. 10 December 1999. Archived from the original on 20 January 2025. Retrieved 20 November 2019.
73. "The Carter Center 2004 Indonesia Election Report" (PDF). The Carter Center. Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 June 2007. Retrieved 14 June 2007.
74. ^ Harsono, Andreas (May 2019). Race, Islam and Power: Ethnic and Religious Violence in Post-Suharto Indonesia. Monash University Publishing. ISBN 978-1-925835-09-0.
75. ^ "Indonesia signs Aceh peace deal". The Guardian. 15 August 2005. Archived from the original on 20 January 2020. Retrieved 20 November 2019.
76. Frederick, William H.; Worden, Robert L. (1993). Indonesia: A Country Study. Area Handbook Series. Vol. 550. Washington, D.C.: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. p. 98. ISBN 978-0-8444-0790-6. Archived from the original on 20 January 2023. Retrieved 9 November 2023.
77. "16,000 Indonesian islands registered at UN". The Jakarta Post. 21 August 2017. Archived from the original on 30 November 2018. Retrieved 3 December 2018.
78. ^ "The World Factbook: Indonesia". Central Intelligence Agency. 15 January 2025. Archived from the original on 20 January 2025. Retrieved 20 January 2025.
79. "Facts & Figures". Embassy of the Republic of Indonesia, Washington, D.C. Archived from the original on 6 June 2017. Retrieved 14 March 2021.
80. "Republic of Indonesia". Microsoft Encarta. 2006. Archived from the original on 14 April 2013. Retrieved 1 November 2009.
81. "Climate: Observations, projections and impacts" (PDF). Met Office Hadley Centre. Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 August 2017. Retrieved 16 August 2017.
82. "Indonesia and Climate Change: Current Status and Policies" (PDF). World Bank. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 December 2016. Retrieved 27 December 2016.
83. "Indonesia's Climate and Precipitation". indonesia.mfa.gov.ir. Retrieved 29 March 2024.
84. "Climate". U.S. Library of Congress. Archived from the original on 14 January 2013. Retrieved 22 August 2020.
85. Beck, Hylke E.; Zimmermann, Niklaus E.; McVicar, Tim R.; Vergopolan, Noemi; Berg, Alexis; Wood, Eric F. (30 October 2018). "Present and future Köppen-Geiger climate classification maps at 1-km resolution". Scientific Data. 5: 180214. Bibcode:2018NatSD...580214B. doi:10.1038/sdata.2018.214. PMC 6207062. PMID 30375988.
86. "Impact of Climate Change on ASEAN International Affairs: Risk and Opportunity Multiplier". Norwegian Institute of International Affairs (NUPI) and Myanmar Institute of International and Strategic Studies (MISIS). November 2016. Archived from the original on 28 July 2020. Retrieved 5 February 2017.
87. "Climate Impact Map". Climate Impact Lab. Archived from the original on 10 August 2021. Retrieved 18 November 2018.
88. ^ Case M, Ardiansyah F, Spector E (14 November 2007). "Climate Change in Indonesia: Implications for Humans and Nature" (PDF). WWF. Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 February 2018. Retrieved 18 November 2018.
89. "Report: Flooded Future: Global vulnerability to sea level rise worse than previously understood". Climate Central. 29 October 2019. Archived from the original on 25 December 2021. Retrieved 5 November 2019.
90. Lin, Mayuri Mei; Hidayat, Rafki (13 August 2018). "Jakarta, the fastest-sinking city in the world". BBC. Archived from the original on 13 August 2018. Retrieved 19 November 2018.
91. "Indonesia: Climate Risk and Adaptation Country Profile" (PDF). World Bank. April 2011. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 December 2017. Retrieved 18 November 2018.
92. ^ "Indonesia: Volcano nation". BBC. 5 November 2015. Archived from the original on 20 January 2020. Retrieved 28 November 2017.
93. Witton 2003, p. 38.
94. World and Its Peoples: Eastern and Southern Asia, Volume 10. Marshall Cavendish. 2007. p. 1306. ISBN 978-0-7614-7631-3.
95. Sylviane L. G. Lebon (January 2009). "Volcanic activity and environment: Impacts on agriculture and use of geological data to improve recovery processes" (PDF). University of Iceland. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 December 2016. Retrieved 27 December 2016.
96. Whitten, T.; Soeriaatmadja, R. E.; Suraya A. A. (1996). The Ecology of Java and Bali. Hong Kong: Periplus Editions. pp. 95–97.
97. Bressan, David (11 August 2017). "Early Humans May Have Lived Through A Supervolcano Eruption". Forbes. Archived from the original on 20 January 2025. Retrieved 11 October 2017.
98. "Tambora". Volcano Discovery. 29 May 2016. Archived from the original on 7 December 2013. Retrieved 20 December 2016.
99. Bressan, David (31 August 2016). "The Eruption of Krakatoa Was the First Global Catastrophe". Forbes. Archived from the original on 20 January 2020. Retrieved 2 September 2017.
100. Mumtazah, Hani (22 May 2003). "Indonesia's Natural Wealth: The Right of a Nation and Her People". Islam Online. Archived from the original on 17 October 2006. Retrieved 17 October 2006.
101. "These Are The 5 Most Biodiverse Countries In The World". Yahoo. Archived from the original on 20 January 2025. Retrieved 2 March 2022.
102. Whitten, T.; Henderson, G.; Mustafa, M. (1996). The Ecology of Sulawesi. Hong Kong: Periplus Editions Ltd. ISBN 978-962-593-075-6.
103. Monk, K.A.; Fretes, Y.; Reksodiharjo-Lilley, G. (1996). The Ecology of Nusa Tenggara and Maluku. Hong Kong: Periplus Editions Ltd. ISBN 978-962-593-076-3.
104. "Indonesia". InterKnowledge Corp. 6 October 2006. Archived from the original on 27 May 2012. Retrieved 15 October 2006.
105. Lambertini, Marco (10 April 2011). "A Naturalist's Guide to the Tropics, excerpt". The University of Chicago Press. Archived from the original on 23 July 2013. Retrieved 5 February 2017.
106. Tamindael, Otniel (17 May 2011). "Coral reef destruction spells humanitarian disaster". Antara News. Archived from the original on 1 January 2013. Retrieved 25 May 2011.
107. Wallace, A.R. (2000) . The Malay Archipelago. Periplus Editions. ISBN 978-962-593-645-1.
108. Severin, Tim (1997). The Spice Island Voyage: In Search of Wallace. Great Britain: Abacus Travel. ISBN 978-0-349-11040-0.
109. Estoque, Ronald C.; Ooba, Makoto; Avitabile, Valerio; Hijioka, Yasuaki; DasGupta, Rajarshi; Togawa, Takuya; Murayama, Yuji (23 April 2019). "The future of Southeast Asia's forests". Nature Communications. 10 (1): 1829. Bibcode:2019NatCo..10.1829E. doi:10.1038/s41467-019-09646-4. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 6478739. PMID 31015425.
110. Selling Out West Papua | 101 East, Al Jazeera, 25 June 2020, archived from the original on 2 March 2023, retrieved 2 March 2023
111. ^ Limaho, Handoko; Sugiarto; Pramono, Rudy; Christiawan, Rio (14 July 2022). "The Need for Global Green Marketing for the Palm Oil Industry in Indonesia". Sustainability. 14 (14): 8621. doi:10.3390/su14148621.
112. ^ Tsujino, Riyou; Yumoto, Takakazu; Kitamura, Shumpei; Djamaluddin, Ibrahim; Darnaedi, Dedy (November 2016). "History of forest loss and degradation in Indonesia". Land Use Policy. 57: 335–347. Bibcode:2016LUPol..57..335T. doi:10.1016/j.landusepol.2016.05.034.
113. Austin, Kemen G; Schwantes, Amanda; Gu, Yaofeng; Kasibhatla, Prasad D (1 February 2019). "What causes deforestation in Indonesia?". Environmental Research Letters. 14 (2): 024007. Bibcode:2019ERL....14b4007A. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/aaf6db.
114. Colchester, Marcus; Jiwan, Normal; Andiko, Martua Sirait; Firdaus, Asup Y.; Surambo, A.; Pane, Herbert (26 March 2012). "Palm Oil and Land Acquisition in Indonesia: Implications for Local Communities and Indigenous People" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 May 2012. Retrieved 31 May 2012.
115. "Forest area (% of land area) – Indoneisa". World Bank. Retrieved 19 January 2025.
116. Chrysolite, Hanny; Juliane, Reidinar; Chitra, Josefhine; Ge, Mengpin (4 October 2017). "Evaluating Indonesia's Progress on its Climate Commitments". World Resources Institute. Archived from the original on 20 January 2025. Retrieved 26 August 2018.
117. Miller, Jason R. (14 August 2007). "Deforestation in Indonesia and the Orangutan Population". TED Case Studies. Archived from the original on 11 August 2007. Retrieved 11 August 2007.
118. BirdLife International (2016). "Leucopsar rothschildi". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2016: e.T22710912A94267053. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22710912A94267053.en.
119. "Extinction crisis escalates: Red List shows apes, corals, vultures, dolphins all in danger". International Union for Conservation of Nature. 12 September 2007. Archived from the original on 20 January 2025. Retrieved 16 October 2016.
120. van Strien, N.J.; Steinmetz, R.; Manullang, B.; Sectionov, K.H.; Isnan, W.; Rookmaaker, K.; Sumardja, E.; Khan, M.K.M. & Ellis, S. (2008). "Rhinoceros sondaicus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2008: e.T19495A8925965. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS.T19495A8925965.en.
121. Yeo, Kate (4 August 2022). "Explainer: What is ecocide?". Eco-Business. Archived from the original on 20 January 2025. Retrieved 5 July 2023.
122. Aida, Melly; Tahar, Abdul Muthalib; Davey, Orima (2023). "Ecocide in the International Law: Integration Between Environmental Rights and International Crime and Its Implementation in Indonesia". In Perdana, Ryzal; Putrawan, Gede Eka; Saputra, Bayu; Septiawan, Trio Yuda (eds.). Proceedings of the 3rd Universitas Lampung International Conference on Social Sciences (ULICoSS 2022). Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research. Vol. 740. Paris: Atlantis Press SARL. pp. 572–584. doi:10.2991/978-2-38476-046-6_57. ISBN 978-2-38476-045-9.
123. Setiyono, Joko; Natalis, Aga (30 December 2021). "Ecocides as a Serious Human Rights Violation: A Study on the Case of River Pollution by the Palm Oil Industry in Indonesia". International Journal of Sustainable Development and Planning. 16 (8): 1465–1471. doi:10.18280/ijsdp.160807. ISSN 1743-7601. S2CID 245606762.
124. Pusparini, Wulan; Cahyana, Andi; Grantham, Hedley S.; Maxwell, Sean; Soto-Navarro, Carolina; Macdonald, David W. (16 January 2023). "A bolder conservation future for Indonesia by prioritising biodiversity, carbon and unique ecosystems in Sulawesi". Scientific Reports. 13 (1): 842. Bibcode:2023NatSR..13..842P. doi:10.1038/s41598-022-21536-2. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 9842766. PMID 36646696.
125. Gokkon, Basten (19 May 2023). "Study: Indonesia's extensive network of marine reserves are poorly managed". Mongabay Environmental News. Archived from the original on 22 January 2025. Retrieved 2 January 2024.
126. Estradivari; Agung, Muh. Firdaus; Adhuri, Dedi Supriadi; Ferse, Sebastian C. A.; Sualia, Ita; Andradi-Brown, Dominic A.; Campbell, Stuart J.; Iqbal, Mohamad; Jonas, Harry D.; Lazuardi, Muhammad Erdi; Nanlohy, Hellen; Pakiding, Fitryanti; Pusparini, Ni Kadek Sri; Ramadhana, Hikmah C.; Ruchimat, Toni (1 March 2022). "Marine conservation beyond MPAs: Towards the recognition of other effective area-based conservation measures (OECMs) in Indonesia". Marine Policy. 137: 104939. Bibcode:2022MarPo.13704939E. doi:10.1016/j.marpol.2021.104939. ISSN 0308-597X.
127. "National Parks in Indonesia". Archived from the original on 9 October 2013. Retrieved 5 December 2013.
128. "Ecological Sciences for Sustainable Development". UNESCO. October 2013. Archived from the original on 22 January 2025. Retrieved 22 October 2013.
129. "Spatial Analysis to Achieve 20 Million Hectares of Marine Protected Areas by 2020". Wildlife Conservation Society. 24 December 2013. Archived from the original on 24 December 2013. Retrieved 5 February 2017.
130. ^ Dwi Harijanti, Susi; Lindsey, Tim (1 January 2006). "Indonesia: General elections test the amended Constitution and the new Constitutional Court". International Journal of Constitutional Law. 4 (1): 138–150. doi:10.1093/icon/moi055.
131. Ardiansyah, Fitrian; Marthen, Andri; Amalia, Nur (2015), Forest and land-use governance in a decentralized Indonesia, doi:10.17528/cifor/005695, hdl:10535/9986
132. (2002), The fourth Amendment of 1945 Indonesia Constitution, Chapter III – The Executive Power, Article 7.
133. Chapter II, Article 3, 3rd Clause of the 1945 Constitution.
134. ^ "The 1945 Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia" (PDF). International Labour Organization. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 October 2017. Retrieved 11 October 2017.
135. ^ Evans, Kevin (2019). "Guide to the 2019 Indonesian Elections" (PDF). Australia-Indonesia Centre. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 April 2019. Retrieved 30 July 2019.
136. Chapter VIIA, Article 22D of the 1945 Constitution.
137. Cammack, Mark E.; Feener, R. Michael (January 2012). "The Islamic Legal System in Indonesia" (PDF). Pacific Rim Law & Policy Journal. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 July 2017. Retrieved 1 July 2017.
138. "Authority and Duty" (in Indonesian). Judicial Commission of the Republic of Indonesia. Archived from the original on 20 January 2025. Retrieved 16 March 2024.
139. ^ Bayuni, Endy (15 September 2023). "These unholy alliances undermine Indonesian democracy". The Jakarta Post. Archived from the original on 23 January 2025. Retrieved 23 January 2025.
140. Slater, Dan (2018). "Party Cartelization, Indonesian-Style: Presidential Powersharing and the Contingency of Democratic Opposition". Journal of East Asian Studies. 18 (1): 23–46. doi:10.1017/jea.2017.26. ISSN 1598-2408.
141. Maboy, Olasri (4 August 2017). "New election bill, new hope for democracy". The Jakarta Post. Archived from the original on 20 January 2025. Retrieved 5 October 2018.
142. Tehusijarana, Karina M. (8 February 2019). "Explaining the 2019 simultaneous elections". The Jakarta Post. Archived from the original on 20 January 2020. Retrieved 16 August 2020.
143. Museum Kepresidenan (12 September 2018). "Sejarah Wilayah Indonesia". Museum Kepresidenan RI Balai Kirti. Ministry of Education and Culture. Archived from the original on 20 January 2025. Retrieved 29 January 2020.
144. Assegaf, Fardah (9 December 2022). "Southwest Papua officially becomes Indonesia's 38th province". Antara. Archived from the original on 20 January 2025. Retrieved 7 February 2023.
145. Setiawan, Irfan (2014). Rekonstruksi Birokrasi Pemerintahan Daerah. Institut Pemerintahan Dalam Negeri. pp. 187–188. Archived from the original on 9 March 2023. Retrieved 5 January 2021.
146. Berenschot, Ward; Sambodho, Prio (9 May 2017). "The village head as patron". Inside Indonesia. Archived from the original on 29 March 2018. Retrieved 16 August 2020.
147. Michelle Ann Miller (2004). "The Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam law: a serious response to Acehnese separatism?". Asian Ethnicity. 5 (3): 333–351. doi:10.1080/1463136042000259789. S2CID 143311407.
148. Susanto, Slamet (23 November 2015). "Thousands bid farewell to Yogyakarta, Pakualaman leader". The Jakarta Post. Archived from the original on 20 January 2025. Retrieved 27 June 2022.
149. "Putting Indigenous Papuans as the Leading Subject of Development" (in Indonesian). 17 September 2019. Archived from the original on 19 February 2020. Retrieved 15 February 2020.
150. "ASEAN Secretariat renamed as ASEAN Headquarters to strengthen regional diplomacy". Gutzy Asia. 7 September 2023. Archived from the original on 14 November 2023. Retrieved 10 September 2023.
151. Laksamana, Evan; Alexandra, Lina (August 2023). "Hatta and Indonesia's Independent and Active Foreign Policy: Retrospect and Prospect". Contemporary Southeast Asia. 45 (2). ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute: 327–330. JSTOR 27241198. Retrieved 23 January 2025.
152. Vibhanshu Shekhar (26 October 2022). Indonesia's Great-Power Management in the Indo-Pacific, The Balancing Behavior of a "Dove State". Vol. 17. The National Burreau of Asian Research. p. 53.
153. Chapter III - The Executive Power, Articles 4, 11 and 13 of the Amended 1945 Constitution
154. Gozali, Gufron (17 November 2023). "Redefining Indonesia's Role on the Global Stage as a Middle Power". Modern Diplomacy. Archived from the original on 23 January 2025. Retrieved 23 January 2025.
155. Muhammad Zulfikar Rakhmat (11 March 2015). "The Quiet Growth in Indonesia-Israel Relations". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on 10 March 2016. Retrieved 8 September 2018.
156. Prashanth Parameswaran (8 November 2023). "The future of Indonesia-China relations after Jokowi". Geopolitical Intelligence Services AG. Archived from the original on 15 November 2024. Retrieved 23 January 2025.
157. "Joint Statement on the United States-Indonesia Senior Officials' 2+2 Foreign Policy and Defense Dialogue". 23 October 2023. Archived from the original on 1 November 2023. Retrieved 23 January 2025.
158. Gutierrez, Natashya (22 August 2016). "What happened when Indonesia 'withdrew' from the United Nations". Rappler. Archived from the original on 20 January 2025. Retrieved 8 September 2018.
159. Roberts, C.; Habir, A.; Sebastian, L. (25 February 2015). Indonesia's Ascent: Power, Leadership, and the Regional Order. Springer. ISBN 978-1-137-39741-6. Archived from the original on 9 March 2023. Retrieved 19 December 2017.
160. "Indonesia" (PDF). Development Initiatives. 2013. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 January 2014. Retrieved 28 July 2018.
161. Pierre van der Eng (2 December 2017). "Why does Indonesia seem to prefer foreign aid from China?". East Asia Forum. Archived from the original on 20 January 2025. Retrieved 28 July 2018.
162. Yasmin, Nur (18 October 2019). "Indonesia Launches $212M International Development Aid Fund". Jakarta Globe. Archived from the original on 20 January 2025. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
163. "Summary of Contributions to UN Peacekeeping by Country, Mission and Post" (PDF). United Nations Peacekeeping. 31 August 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 September 2024. Retrieved 23 January 2025.
164. Lowry, Bob (29 June 1999). "Indonesian Armed Forces (Tentara Nasional Indonesia-TNI)". Parliament of Australia. Archived from the original on 8 October 2017. Retrieved 29 July 2019.
165. Beets, Benjamin H. (2015). The Political Influence of the Military Before and After Democratic Transition: Experiences from Indonesia – An Assessment on Myanmar (PDF) (thesis). Victoria University of Wellington. doi:10.26686/wgtn.17013962. Archived (PDF) from the original on 30 July 2018. Retrieved 30 July 2018.
166. "Indonesia: Military expenditure (% of GDP)". World Bank. 2022. Retrieved 22 January 2025.
167. Jessica Vincentia Marpaung (17 June 2016). "TNI's Gold Mine: Corruption and Military-Owned Businesses in Indonesia". The Global Anti Corruption Blog. Archived from the original on 20 January 2025. Retrieved 18 December 2017.
168. "Indonesia Faces 3 Separatist Movements". Los Angeles Times. 9 September 1990. Archived from the original on 20 January 2025. Retrieved 10 October 2017.
169. Friend 2003, pp. 270–273, 477–480.
170. "Indonesia flashpoints: Aceh". BBC. 29 December 2005. Archived from the original on 23 May 2012. Retrieved 26 August 2006.
171. "Papua: Answer to Frequently Asked Questions" (PDF). International Crisis Group. 5 September 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 September 2006. Retrieved 18 September 2006.
172. Agustinus Beo da Costa, Tom Allard (21 May 2021). "Indonesia's troop surge to 'wipe out' armed rebels, says police chief". The Independent. Archived from the original on 24 April 2022. Retrieved 2 April 2022.
173. "Pope Francis Must Urge Indonesia to Respect Human Dignity and Social Justice in Development". Amnesty International Indonesia. 3 September 2024. Archived from the original on 21 October 2022. Retrieved 4 October 2024.
174. ""If It's Not Racism, What Is It?" Discrimination and Other Abuses Against Papuans in Indonesia". Human Rights Watch. 18 September 2024. Archived from the original on 21 October 2022.
175. MC, Ali (19 October 2022). "Australia committed to military cooperation with Indonesia". Al Jazeera English. Archived from the original on 21 October 2022. Retrieved 4 October 2024.
176. Stefan Armbruster, Victor Mambor and BenarNews staff (27 June 2024). "Indonesia accused of subverting Pacific push for UN rights mission to Papua". BenarNews. Archived from the original on 22 January 2025.
177. Indonesia. Department of Foreign Affairs. Decolonization in East Timor. Jakarta: Department of Information, Republic of Indonesia, 1977. OCLC 4458152.
178. Budiardjo, Carmel; Liong, Liem Soei (1984). The War against East Timor. London: Zed Books. p. 22. ISBN 0-86232-228-6.
179. Varagur, Krithika (16 June 2020). "Black Lives Matter in Indonesia, Too". Foreign Policy. Archived from the original on 27 June 2021. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
180. "Indonesia: Situation of Chinese-Indonesians, including Christians; treatment by society and authorities (2012 – April 2015)". Refworld. 2 April 2015. Archived from the original on 14 August 2015. Retrieved 19 February 2021.
181. Elson, R.E. (2001). Suharto: A Political Biography. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. pp. 130–135. ISBN 0-521-77326-1.
182. Schulze, Kirsten E. (2004). "The Free Aceh Movement (GAM) : anatomy of a separatist organization".
183. Fernandes, Clinton (2010), Barria, Lilian A.; Roper, Steven D. (eds.), "East Timor and the Struggle for Independence", The Development of Institutions of Human Rights: A Comparative Study, New York: Palgrave Macmillan US, pp. 163–178, doi:10.1057/9780230109483_11, ISBN 978-0-230-10948-3, retrieved 16 January 2025
184. Ansori, Mohammad Hasan (1 November 2012). "From Insurgency to Bureaucracy: Free Aceh Movement, Aceh Party and the New Face of Conflict". Stability: International Journal of Security and Development. 1 (1): 31–44. doi:10.5334/sta.ah. ISSN 2165-2627.
185. "Chinese in Indonesia". Minority Rights Group. Retrieved 16 January 2025.
186. Aisyah, Novia. "Sejarah Singkat Imlek dari Era Sukarno sampai Ditetapkan Jadi Hari Libur Nasional". detikedu (in Indonesian). Retrieved 16 January 2025.
187. Robinson, Jennifer (21 March 2012). "The UN's chequered record in West Papua". Al Jazeera English. Retrieved 4 October 2024.
188. Pacheco, P.; Gnych, S.; Dermawan, A.; Komarudin, H.; Okarda, B. (2017). "The Palm Oil Global Value Chain: Implications for Economic Growth and Social and Environmental Sustainability". Center for International Forestry Research – Working Paper. 220.
189. "How Indonesia Became the Biggest Player in the Nickel Market". Bloomberg. 13 June 2024. Archived from the original on 13 June 2024. Retrieved 30 August 2024.
190. "Economy of Indonesia". Indonesia Investments. Archived from the original on 19 July 2013. Retrieved 4 May 2017.
191. "G20 Members". G20. Retrieved 20 January 2025.
192. O'Neill, Aaron (4 July 2024). "Indonesia: Share of economic sectors in the gross domestic product (GDP) from 2012 to 2022". Statista. Archived from the original on 19 January 2025. Retrieved 28 March 2020.
193. O'Neill, Aaron (4 July 2024). "Indonesia: Share of economic sectors in the gross domestic product (GDP) from 2012 to 2022". Statista. Archived from the original on 19 January 2025. Retrieved 19 January 2025.
194. ^ Elias, Stephen; Noone, Clare (December 2011). "The Growth and Development of the Indonesian Economy" (PDF). Reserve Bank of Australia. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 December 2016. Retrieved 27 December 2016.
195. "Indonesia – Poverty and Wealth". Encyclopedia of the Nations. Archived from the original on 29 January 2013. Retrieved 14 July 2011.
196. Titiheruw, Ira S.; Atje, Raymond (2008). "Managing Capital Flows: The Case of Indonesia". Asian Development Bank Institute Discussion Paper. 94: 9–10.
197. Temple, Jonathan (15 August 2001). "Growing into trouble: Indonesia after 1966" (PDF). University of Bristol. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 December 2016. Retrieved 27 December 2016.
198. "World Economic Outlook Database: Report for Selected Countries and Subjects – Indonesia". International Monetary Fund. October 2017. Archived from the original on 21 January 2025. Retrieved 9 January 2018.
199. "IMF Survey: Indonesia's Choice of Policy Mix Critical to Ongoing Growth". International Monetary Fund. 28 July 2009. Archived from the original on 27 May 2012. Retrieved 5 February 2017.
200. "Indonesia Economic Prospects, June 2022: Financial Deepening for Stronger Growth and Sustainable Recovery". WorldBank. 31 May 2022. Archived from the original on 22 June 2022. Retrieved 27 August 2022.
201. "Facts & Figures – Embassy of the Republic of Indonesia | Washington D.C." Archived from the original on 9 June 2021. Retrieved 5 September 2022.
202. "Indonesia". The Observatory of Economic Complexity. 2022. Retrieved 20 January 2025.
203. Upton, Stuart (January 2009). "The impact of migration on the people of Papua, Indonesia: A historical demographic analysis" (PDF). University of New South Wales. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 May 2017. Retrieved 10 May 2017.
204. "Indonesia's Rising Divide". World Bank. 7 December 2015. Archived from the original on 20 January 2025. Retrieved 14 December 2016.
205. Elliott, Mark (2003). Indonesia. Melbourne: Lonely Planet Publications Pty Ltd. pp. 211–215. ISBN 978-1-74059-154-6.
206. "Travel and Tourism Development Index 2021 Edition – Interactive Data and Economy Profiles". World Economic Forum. 2021. Retrieved 26 December 2022.
207. "Number of International Tourist Arrivals to Indonesia by Country of Residence" (in Indonesian). Statistics Indonesia. 2002–2019. Archived from the original on 6 December 2020. Retrieved 6 December 2020.
208. Erwida, Maulia (6 January 2011). "Tourism Ministry set to launch 'Wonderful Indonesia' campaign". The Jakarta Post. Archived from the original on 12 March 2014. Retrieved 12 March 2014.
209. ^ Informasi Pariwisata Nusantara (Not for sale) (in Indonesian). Jakarta: Ministry of Tourism of the Republic of Indonesia. 2014.
210. "Indonesia – Properties inscribed on the World Heritage List". UNESCO. Retrieved 27 November 2016.
211. Huda, Nur; Pawennei, Irsan; Ratri, Andhina; Taylor, Veronica L. (1 December 2020). Making Indonesia's Research and Development Better (PDF). Centre for Innovation Policy and Governance. p. 53. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 September 2021.
212. World Intellectual Property Organization.; Dutta, Soumitra.; Lanvin, Bruno.; Rivera León, Lorena.; Wunsch-Vincent, Sacha. (2024). Global Innovation Index 2024: Unlocking the Promise of Social Entrepreneurship. World Intellectual Property Organization. p. 18. doi:10.34667/tind.50062. ISBN 978-92-805-3681-2. Retrieved 6 October 2024.
213. Kasten, Michael. "History of the Indonesian Pinisi". Archived from the original on 6 December 2012. Retrieved 9 December 2016.
214. Sertori, Trisha (11 December 2014). "Man of 1000 shoulders". The Jakarta Post. Archived from the original on 20 January 2025. Retrieved 20 March 2015.
215. Rika Stevani, Louis (4 February 2017). "INKA to Manufacture Trains for Export to Bangladesh, Sri Lanka". Tempo. Archived from the original on 20 January 2025. Retrieved 15 January 2018.
216. Liu, Hindra (26 October 2011). "President Visits PT Dirgantara Indonesia". Kompas. Archived from the original on 20 January 2025. Retrieved 13 May 2011.
217. Dwi Sutianto, Feby (5 February 2016). "PTDI Ekspor 40 Unit Pesawat, Terlaris CN235" (in Indonesian). detikFinance. Archived from the original on 20 January 2025. Retrieved 15 August 2017.
218. "Habibie receives honorary doctorate". The Jakarta Post. 30 January 2010. Archived from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 5 March 2016.
219. "KF-X Fighter: Korea's Future Homegrown Jet". Defense Industry Daily. 21 November 2017. Archived from the original on 26 January 2018. Retrieved 23 November 2017.
220. Mcelheny, Victor K. (8 July 1976). "Indonesian Satellite to Be Launched". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 20 January 2025. Retrieved 2 August 2018.
221. "Planning and Development of Indonesia's Domestic Communications Satellite System PALAPA". Online Journal of Space Communication. 2005. Archived from the original on 18 May 2015. Retrieved 18 May 2015.
222. "Satellites by countries and organizations: Indonesia". N2YO. Retrieved 7 May 2024.
223. Teresia, Ananda (8 May 2024). "SpaceX's unit Starlink secures Indonesia operating permit". Yahoo News. Archived from the original on 28 July 2020. Retrieved 9 May 2024.
224. Legge, John D. (April 1990). "Review: Indonesia's Diversity Revisited". Indonesia. 49 (49): 127–131. doi:10.2307/3351057. hdl:1813/53928. JSTOR 3351057. Archived from the original on 9 March 2023. Retrieved 1 July 2018.
225. "Length of Road by Surface, 2002–2022 (Km)" (in Indonesian). Statistics Indonesia. Retrieved 21 January 2025.
226. Ahmad, Ifan (29 October 2022). "Sulawesi's First Trains Begin Transporting Passengers in Trial". Jakarta Globe. Archived from the original on 21 January 2025. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
227. Coca, Nithin (14 April 2019). "At Last, Light Rail Comes to Jakarta". Overture. Archived from the original on 21 January 2025. Retrieved 22 November 2019.
228. Hilotin, Jay (17 August 2023). "Indonesia's high-speed train: Speed, fare, distance, cost, everything you need to know". Gulf News. Archived from the original on 2 October 2023. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
229. "The 13,466-island problem". The Economist. 27 February 2016. Archived from the original on 29 April 2021. Retrieved 16 June 2017.
230. ^ "Overview: Indonesia". U.S. Energy Information Administration. 24 September 2021. Archived from the original on 21 January 2025. Retrieved 3 December 2022.
231. Budiman, Arief; Das, Kaushik; Mohammad, Azam; Tee Tan, Khoon; Tonby, Oliver (September 2014). "Ten ideas to reshape Indonesia's energy sector". McKinsey&Company. Archived from the original on 30 March 2015. Retrieved 30 March 2015.
232. Statistik Ketenagalistrikan 2020 (PDF) (in Indonesian) (33 ed.). Directorate General of Electricity. September 2020. p. 7. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 December 2022.
233. Gielen, Dolf; Saygin, Deger; Rigter, Jasper (March 2017). "Renewable Energy Prospects: Indonesia, a REmap analysis". International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA). ISBN 978-92-95111-19-6.
234. "Power in Indonesia 2017" (PDF). PwC. November 2017. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 September 2018. Retrieved 13 September 2018.
235. "Statistics Indonesia Releases 2020 Census Results". Cabinet Secretariat of the Republic of Indonesia. 23 January 2021. Archived from the original on 21 January 2025. Retrieved 21 January 2025.
236. Amalia Rimayanti, Vidya. "Top 10 Most Populous Islands in the World, Indonesia Logs Three". Tempo. Archived from the original on 21 January 2025. Retrieved 21 January 2025.
237. Nitisastro, Widjojo (2006). Population Trends in Indonesia. Equinox Publishing. p. 268. ISBN 978-979-3780-43-6. Retrieved 5 September 2015 – via Google Books.
238. "World Population Prospect: 2017 Revision" (PDF). United Nations Department of Economics and Social Affairs – Population Division. 21 June 2017. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 December 2017. Retrieved 20 December 2017.
239. "BBC: First contact with isolated tribes?". Survival International. 25 January 2007. Archived from the original on 19 September 2012. Retrieved 30 July 2017.
240. "Share of people living in urban areas, 2022". Our World in Data. 2017. Retrieved 21 January 2025.
241. "Demographia World Urban Areas, 15th Annual Edition" (PDF). Demographia. April 2019. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 February 2020.
242. Krisetya, Beltsazar (14 September 2016). "Tapping the Indonesian Diaspora Potential". Forum for International Studies. Archived from the original on 20 December 2017. Retrieved 20 December 2017.
243. ^ Na'im, Akhsan; Syaputra, Hendry (2010). "Nationality, Ethnicity, Religion, and Languages of Indonesians" (PDF) (in Indonesian). Statistics Indonesia. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 September 2015. Retrieved 23 September 2015.
244. Witton 2003, pp. 139, 181, 251, 435.
245. Dawson, B.; Gillow, J. (1994). The Traditional Architecture of Indonesia. London: Thames and Hudson Ltd. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-500-34132-2.
246. Truman Simanjuntak; Herawati Sudoyo; Multamia R.M.T. Lauder; Allan Lauder; Ninuk Kleden Probonegoro; Rovicky Dwi Putrohari; Desy Pola Usmany; Yudha P.N. Yapsenang; Edward L. Poelinggomang; Gregorius Neonbasu (2015). Diaspora Melanesia di Nusantara (in Indonesian). Direktorat Sejarah, Direktorat Jenderal Kebudayaan, Kementerian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan. ISBN 978-602-1289-19-8. Archived from the original on 21 January 2025. Retrieved 24 August 2022.
247. ^ Ananta, Aris; Arifin, Evi Nurvidya; Hasbullah, M Sairi; Handayani, Nur Budi; Pramono, Agus (2015). Demography of Indonesia's Ethnicity. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN 978-981-4519-87-8.
248. Kingsbury, Damien (2003). Autonomy and Disintegration in Indonesia. Routledge. p. 131. ISBN 0-415-29737-0.
249. Ricklefs 1991, p. 256.
250. Sneddon, James N. (April 2013). "The Indonesian Language: Its History and Role in Modern Society". University of South Wales Press Ltd. Archived from the original on 29 July 2017. Retrieved 20 January 2018.
251. Anwar, Khaidir (1976). "Minangkabau, Background of the main pioneers of modern standard Malay in Indonesia". Archipel. 12: 77–93. doi:10.3406/arch.1976.1296. Archived from the original on 3 February 2018. Retrieved 9 June 2017.
252. Amerl, Ivana (May 2006). "Language interference: Indonesian and English". MED Magazine. Archived from the original on 29 July 2017. Retrieved 20 January 2018.
253. "The History of Indonesian". Language Translation, Inc. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 12 January 2016.
254. ^ Simons, Gary F.; Fennig, Charles D. "Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Twenty-first edition". Ethnologue. SIL International. Archived from the original on 26 June 2019. Retrieved 20 September 2018.
255. Peraturan Daerah Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta Nomor 2 Tahun 2021 tentang Pemeliharaan dan Pengembangan Bahasa, Sastra, dan Aksara Jawa (Regional Regulation 2) (in Indonesian). Governor of Special Region of Yogyakarta. 2021.
256. van Nimwegen, Nico (2002). "The Demographic History of the Dutch in the East Indies" (PDF). Nederlands Interdisciplinair Demografisch Instituut. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 July 2011. Retrieved 23 July 2011.
257. Baker & Prys Jones 1998, p. 202.
258. Ward, Kerry (2009). Networks of Empire: Forced Migration in the Dutch East India Company. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 322–342. ISBN 978-0-521-88586-7.
259. Ammon et al. 2006, p. 2017.
260. Booij 1999, p. 2.
261. Shah, Dian A. H. (2017). Constitutions, Religion and Politics in Asia: Indonesia, Malaysia and Sri Lanka. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-18334-6. Archived from the original on 9 March 2023. Retrieved 12 November 2020.
262. ^ Marshall, Paul (2018). "The Ambiguities of Religious Freedom in Indonesia". The Review of Faith & International Affairs. 16 (1): 85–96. doi:10.1080/15570274.2018.1433588.
263. "Penjelasan Pemerintah Terkait Pentingnya Kolom Agama di KK dan KTP" (in Indonesian). Kompas. 7 December 2017. Archived from the original on 21 January 2025. Retrieved 29 February 2024.
264. Chapter XA, Article 28E, 1st Clause of the 1945 Constitution.
265. Ricklefs 2001, p. 379.
266. "Sunni and Shia Muslims". Pew Research Center. 27 January 2011. Archived from the original on 14 March 2014. Retrieved 6 May 2017.
267. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor (2017). "2016 Indonesia International Religious Freedom Report" (PDF). U.S. Department of State. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 December 2017. Retrieved 19 December 2017.
268. International Religious Freedom Report for 2023, Indonesia, U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor, 2014, archived from the original on 25 January 2025, retrieved 21 January 2025
269. Oey, Eric (1997). Bali (3rd ed.). Singapore: Periplus Editions. ISBN 978-962-593-028-2.
270. Suryadinata, Leo, ed. (2008). Ethnic Chinese in Contemporary Indonesia. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN 978-981-230-835-1. Archived from the original on 9 March 2023. Retrieved 31 May 2020.
271. ^ Ooi, Keat Gin, ed. (2004). Southeast Asia: A historical encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor (3 volume set). ABC-CLIO. p. 177. ISBN 978-1-57607-770-2.
272. Magnis-Suseno, F. 1981, Javanese Ethics and World-View: The Javanese Idea of the Good Life, PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama, Jakarta, 1997, pp. 15–18 ISBN 979-605-406-X, "2003 International Religious Freedom Report". U.S. Department of State. 2003. Archived from the original on 9 August 2021. Retrieved 13 January 2012.
273. Jan Gonda, The Indian Religions in Pre-Islamic Indonesia and their survival in Bali, in Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 3 Southeast Asia, Religions at Google Books
274. "Buddhism in Indonesia". Buddha Dharma Education Association. 2005. Archived from the original on 20 December 2012. Retrieved 3 October 2006.
275. Rachman, T. (2013). "'Indianization' of Indonesia in an Historical Sketch". International Journal of Nusantara Islam. 1 (2).
276. Sedyawati, Edi (19 December 2014). "Influence of Hinduism and Buddhism on Indonesian culture". Sanskriti - Hinduism and Indian Culture Website. Sanskriti Magazine. Archived from the original on 15 April 2017. Retrieved 6 December 2020.
277. Martin, Richard C. (2004). Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World. Vol. 2: M–Z. Macmillan.
278. Gerhard Bowering et al. (2012), The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-13484-0, pp. xvi
279. "Indonesia – Bhineka Tunggal Ika". Centre Universitaire d'Informatique. Archived from the original on 14 September 2006. Retrieved 20 October 2006.
280. Taufiq Tanasaldy, Regime Change and Ethnic Politics in Indonesia, Brill Academic, ISBN 978-90-04-26373-4
281. Gerhard Bowering et al., The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-13484-0
282. Ricklefs 1991, pp. 25, 26, 28.
283. "About St Francis Xavier". Catholic Archdiocese of Sydney. Archived from the original on 16 November 2012. Retrieved 5 July 2018.
284. Ricklefs 1991, pp. 28, 62.
285. Vickers 2005, p. 22.
286. Goh, Robbie B.H. (2005). Christianity in Southeast Asia. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. p. 80. ISBN 978-981-230-297-7.
287. "Indonesia – Asia". Reformed Online. Archived from the original on 5 December 2006. Retrieved 5 December 2006.
288. Ayala Klemperer-Markman. "The Jewish Community in Indonesia". Translated by Julie Ann Levy. Beit Hatfutsot. Archived from the original on 21 January 2025. Retrieved 12 March 2020.
289. Wullur, Frangky (25 December 2019). "Bupati Minahasa Royke Roring Resmikan Synagogue Shaar Hashamayim". beritamanado.com. Berita Manado. Retrieved 5 January 2020.
290. Aryani, Sekar Ayu (25 June 2022). "Dialectic of Religion and National Identity in North Sulawesi Jewish Communities in The Perspective of Cross-Cultural and Religious Psychology". Al-Jami'ah: Journal of Islamic Studies. 60 (1). Al-Jamiah Research Centre: 199–226. doi:10.14421/ajis.2022.601.199-226. ISSN 2338-557X.
291. "Pancasila". U.S. Library of Congress. 3 February 2017. Archived from the original on 24 May 2012. Retrieved 5 February 2017.
292. Vickers 2005, p. 117.
293. Madjid, Nurcholish (1994). Islamic Roots of Modern Pluralism: Indonesian Experience. Studia Islamika: Indonesian Journal for Islamic Studies.
294. "The struggle of religious minorities in Indonesia". BBC. 16 April 2013. Archived from the original on 21 January 2025. Retrieved 1 March 2023.
295. "How religious commitment varies by country among people of all ages". Pew Research Center. 13 June 2018. Archived from the original on 1 July 2018. Retrieved 23 November 2018.
296. Pearce, Jonathan MS (28 October 2018). "Religion in Indonesia: An Insight". Patheos. Archived from the original on 21 January 2025. Retrieved 23 November 2018.
297. ^ "World Bank and Education in Indonesia". World Bank. 1 September 2024. Archived from the original on 24 January 2025. Retrieved 24 January 2025.
298. Mukminin, Amirul; Habibi1, Akhmad; Diat Prajoso, Lantip; Idi, Abdullah; Hamidah1, Afreni (21 June 2019). "Curriculum Reform in Indonesia: Moving from an Exclusive to Inclusive Curriculum". Center for Educational Policy Studies Journal. 9 (2). doi:10.26529/cepsj.543.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
299. "Net Enrolment Rate (NER) by Province and Education Level, 2024". Statistics Indonesia. 2 December 2024. Retrieved 24 January 2025.
300. OECD Economic Surveys: Indonesia 2024. OECD Economic Surveys (Report). OECD Publishing. 26 November 2024. doi:10.1787/de87555a-en.
301. "Government expenditure on education, total (% of GDP)". World Bank. Retrieved 24 January 2025.
302. Moeliodihardjo, Bagyo Y. (11 August 2024). Higher Education Development and Study Abroad Experiences of Faculty in Indonesia. Springer. p. 123. ISBN 978-981-97-0775-1.
303. "List of Universities in Indonesia". QS World University Rankings. Retrieved 21 January 2025.
304. Novianti, Divya Maysa (7 June 2024), Analysis of the Sociological Perspective of Education: Educational Gaps in Affecting Social Mobility in Indonesia, doi:10.31235/osf.io/eh4y3
305. OECD Investment Policy Reviews: Indonesia 2020. OECD Investment Policy Reviews (Report). OECD Publishing, Paris. 16 December 2020. doi:10.1787/b56512da-en.
306. Higher Education for Technology and Innovation Project (RRP INO 5233) - Sector Assessment: Education. OECD Economic Surveys (Report). Asian Development Bank. August 2021.
307. Yamin, Kafil (24 January 2024). "Universities chase 'world class' status but lack funds". University World News. Retrieved 24 January 2025.
308. "2018 Health SDG Profile: Indonesia" (PDF). World Health Organization. July 2018. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 December 2018. Retrieved 10 December 2018.
309. Thabrany, Hasbullah (2 January 2014). "Birth of Indonesia's 'Medicare': Fasten your seatbelts". The Jakarta Post. Archived from the original on 10 January 2014. Retrieved 26 August 2018.
310. "Life expectancy". Our World in Data. Retrieved 21 January 2025.
311. "Child mortality rate". Our World in Data. Retrieved 21 January 2025.
312. Nafsiah Mboi; Indra Murty Surbakti; Indang Trihandini; Iqbal Elyazar; Karen Houston Smith; et al. (2018). "On the road to universal health care in Indonesia, 1990–2016: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016". The Lancet. 392 (10147): 581–591. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(18)30595-6. PMC 6099123. PMID 29961639.
313. Forshee, Jill (2006). "Culture and Customs of Indonesia" (PDF). Greenwood Press. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 10 October 2017.
314. Henley, David (2015). "Indonesia". <SCP>I</SCP> ndonesia. The Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and Nationalism. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp. 1–7. doi:10.1002/9781118663202.wberen460. ISBN 978-1-118-66320-2.
315. "Indonesia – Intangible heritage, cultural sector". UNESCO. Retrieved 21 January 2025.
316. "Indonesian Arts and Crafts". Living in Indonesia: A site for expats. Archived from the original on 21 January 2025. Retrieved 27 December 2016.
317. Forge, Anthony (1978). "Balinese Traditional Paintings" (PDF). The Australian Museum. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 December 2016. Retrieved 20 December 2016.
318. Reimar Schefold; P. Nas; Gaudenz Domenig, eds. (2004). Indonesian Houses: Tradition and Transformation in Vernacular Architecture. NUS Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-9971-69-292-6. Archived from the original on 9 March 2023. Retrieved 31 May 2020.
319. "Indonesian Culture; Arts and Tradition". Embassy of Indonesia, Athens. 30 September 2010. Archived from the original on 26 December 2016. Retrieved 26 December 2016.
320. Violence and Serenity: Late Buddhist Sculpture from Indonesia ISBN 978-0-8248-2924-7 p. 113
321. Archaeology: Indonesian Perspective : R.P. Soejono's Festschrift ISBN 979-26-2499-6 pp. 298–299
322. "Borobudur Temple Compounds". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Archived from the original on 21 January 2025. Retrieved 21 January 2025.
323. Harnish, David; Rasmussen, Anne, eds. (2011). Divine Inspirations: Music and Islam in Indonesia. Oxford University Press.
324. "'Keroncong': Freedom music from Portuguese descendants". The Jakarta Post. 16 June 2011. Archived from the original on 23 September 2015. Retrieved 23 September 2015.
325. Heryanto, Ariel (2008). Popular Culture in Indonesia: Fluid Identities in Post-Authoritarian Politics. Routledge.
326. Abdulsalam, Husein (23 August 2017). "Music Amid the Indonesia-Malaysia Conflict" (in Indonesian). Tirto.id. Archived from the original on 21 January 2025. Retrieved 5 December 2020.
327. Zulmi, Nizar (8 June 2017). "Editor Says: Ketika Musik Indonesia Berjaya di Negeri Tetangga" (in Indonesian). Fimela. Archived from the original on 21 January 2025. Retrieved 5 December 2020.
328. Adelaar, K. Alexander; Himmelmann, Nikolaus (7 March 2013). The Austronesian Languages of Asia and Madagascar. Routledge. p. 71. ISBN 978-1-136-75509-5. Archived from the original on 9 March 2023. Retrieved 8 March 2022.
329. "Indonesia Tourism: The Dance and Theater in the Archipelago". Indonesia Tourism. Archived from the original on 24 November 2010. Retrieved 24 November 2010.
330. Chua Mei Lin (January–March 2011). "Land of Dance & Dragon" (PDF). National Heritage Board. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 December 2020. Retrieved 6 December 2020.
331. Ziyi, Xia (16 November 2011). "Cultural feast at ASEAN Fair". Xinhua. Archived from the original on 19 December 2011.
332. ^ Jill Forshee, Culture and customs of Indonesia, Greenwood Publishing Group: 2006: ISBN 0-313-33339-4. 237 pp.
333. "Traditions, Wayang Wong Priangan: Dance Drama of West Java" (PDF). 2004. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 10 October 2017.
334. José, Maceda. "Southeast Asian arts". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 20 April 2016. Retrieved 20 April 2016.
335. Dewangga, Kusuma (10 November 2013). "Ketoprak: Javanese Folk Art (Part 1 of 2)". Indonesia's Global Portal. Archived from the original on 13 November 2013. Retrieved 13 November 2013.
336. "Indonesia – Theatre and Dance". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 21 January 2025. Retrieved 29 June 2016.
337. Pauka, Kirstin (1998). "The Daughters Take Over? Female Performers in Randai Theatre". The Drama Review. 42 (1): 113–121. doi:10.1162/105420498760308706. S2CID 57565023.
338. "Randai (Indonesian folk theater form, uses silat)". MIT Global Shakespeares. 8 March 2011. Archived from the original on 16 March 2016. Retrieved 18 December 2016.
339. Hatley, Barbara (13 November 2017). "Review: Indonesian post-colonial theatre". Inside Indonesia. Archived from the original on 21 January 2025. Retrieved 21 December 2017.
340. "Today Is the 97th Birthday of the Father of Indonesian Cinema. Here's What You Should Know About Usmar Ismail". TIME. 20 March 2018. Archived from the original on 21 January 2025. Retrieved 20 November 2019.
341. ^ Sen, Krishna (2006). Giecko, Anne Tereska (ed.). Contemporary Asian Cinema, Indonesia: Screening a Nation in the Post-New Order. Oxford/New York: Berg. pp. 96–107. ISBN 978-1-84520-237-8.
342. Sitorus, Rina (30 November 2017). "The Reformation of Indonesian Film". The Culture Trip. Archived from the original on 21 January 2025. Retrieved 22 November 2019.
343. Kristianto, JB (2 July 2005). "The Last 10 Years of Indonesia's Film Industry". Kompas (in Indonesian). Archived from the original on 13 January 2008. Retrieved 13 October 2008.
344. Shackleton, Liz (22 December 2022). "Indonesian Films Race Past Pre-Pandemic Admissions Record; 'KKN Di Desa Penari', 'Satan's Slaves 2', Disney Movies Top 2022 Box Office; Theatrical Market Set For Growth". Deadline. Archived from the original on 25 December 2022. Retrieved 26 December 2022.
345. Shannon L., Smith; Lloyd Grayson J. (2001). Indonesia Today: Challenges of History. Melbourne: Singapore : Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN 978-0-7425-1761-5.
346. ^ This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain: Frederick, William H.; Worden, Robert L., eds. (2011). Indonesia: A country study (6th ed.). Library of Congress, Federal Research Division. ISBN 978-0-8444-0790-6. Archived from the original on 9 December 2022. Retrieved 15 March 2015.
347. Jennifer Yang Hui (2 December 2009). "The Internet in Indonesia: Development and Impact of Radical Websites" (PDF). Routledge. Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 December 2017. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
348. "Indonesia has 171 million internet users: Study". The Jakarta Post. 19 May 2019. Archived from the original on 21 January 2025. Retrieved 26 July 2019.
349. Ai Lei Tao (25 April 2016). "Indonesian internet users turn to smartphones to go online". Computer Weekly. Archived from the original on 21 January 2025. Retrieved 10 October 2017.
350. Templer, Robert (20 June 1999). "Pramoedya". Prospect. Archived from the original on 25 January 2025. Retrieved 29 August 2019.
351. Czermak, Karin; Delanghe, Philippe; Weng, Wei. "Preserving intangible cultural heritage in Indonesia" (PDF). SIL International. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 July 2007. Retrieved 9 July 2007.
352. Joy Freidus, Alberta (1977). Sumatran Contributions to the Development of Indonesian Literature, 1920–1942. Asian Studies Program, University of Hawaii.
353. Seong Chee Tham (1981). Essays on Literature and Society in Southeast Asia: Political and Sociological Perspectives. Kent Ridge, Singapore: Singapore University Press. p. 99. ISBN 978-9971-69-036-6.
354. ^ Boediman, Manneke (14 October 2015). "An Introduction to the Literature of Indonesia, 2015 Frankfurt Book Fair's Guest of Honor". Jakarta Globe. Archived from the original on 21 January 2025. Retrieved 26 June 2020.
355. Doughty, Louis (28 May 2016). "'17,000 islands of imagination': discovering Indonesian literature". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 29 May 2016. Retrieved 26 June 2020.
356. Witton, Patrick (2002). World Food: Indonesia. Melbourne: Lonely Planet. ISBN 978-1-74059-009-9.
357. Compared to the infused flavors of Vietnamese and Thai food, flavors in Indonesia are kept relatively separate, simple and substantial.Brissendon, Rosemary (2003). South East Asian Food. Melbourne: Hardie Grant Books. ISBN 978-1-74066-013-6.
358. Natahadibrata, Nadya (10 February 2014). "Celebratory rice cone dish to represent the archipelago". The Jakarta Post. Archived from the original on 14 July 2014. Retrieved 14 July 2014.
359. Sastraatmadja, D. D.; et al. (2002). "Production of High-Quality Oncom, a Traditional Indonesian Fermented Food, by the Inoculation with Selected Mold Strains in the Form of Pure Culture and Solid Inoculum". Journal of the Graduate School of Agriculture, Hokkaido University. 70. hdl:115/13163.
360. Alex Monnig, World Cup, 2013
361. VnExpress. "Indonesia get past Asian Cup group stage for first time – VnExpress International". VnExpress International – Latest news, business, travel and analysis from Vietnam. Retrieved 29 March 2024.
362. "History of Basketball in Indonesia". National Basketball League Indonesia. Archived from the original on 8 September 2016. Retrieved 8 September 2016.
363. "Lack of Gold". Tempo. 8 September 2017. Archived from the original on 16 August 2020. Retrieved 16 August 2020.
364. "Final medal tally SEA Games 2011". ANTARA News. 22 November 2011. Archived from the original on 23 January 2025. Retrieved 16 August 2020.

Bibliography

• Ammon, Ulrich; Dittmar, Norbert; Mattheier, Klaus J.; Trudgill, Peter, eds. (2006). Sociolinguistics: an international handbook of the science of language and society. Vol. 3 (2nd, revised and extended ed.). Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-018418-1. Retrieved 29 June 2010.
• Baker, Colin; Prys Jones, Sylvia (1998), Encyclopedia of bilingualism and bilingual education, Multilingual Matters, ISBN 978-1-85359-362-8, retrieved 19 May 2010
• Bevins, Vincent (2020). The Jakarta Method: Washington's Anticommunist Crusade and the Mass Murder Program that Shaped Our World. PublicAffairs. ISBN 978-1-5417-4240-6.
• Booij, Geert (1999), "The Phonology of Dutch.", Oxford Linguistics, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-823869-X, retrieved 24 May 2010
• Cribb, Robert (2013). Historical atlas of Indonesia. Routledge.
• Crouch, Harold (2019). The army and politics in Indonesia. Cornell UP.
• Earl, George SW (1850). "On The Leading Characteristics of the Papuan, Australian and Malay-Polynesian Nations". Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia (JIAEA).
• Effendy, Bahtiar (2003). Islam and the State in Indonesia. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies.
• Emmers, Ralf (2005). "Regional Hegemonies and the Exercise of Power in Southeast Asia: A Study of Indonesia and Vietnam". Asian Survey. 45 (4). University of California Press: 645–665. doi:10.1525/as.2005.45.4.645. JSTOR 10.1525/as.2005.45.4.645.
• Fossati, Diego; Hui, Yew-Foong (2017). The Indonesia national survey project: Economy, society and politics. ISEAS Publishing.
• Frederick, William H.; Worden, Robert L., eds. (2011). Indonesia: A Country Study. Area handbook series, 39. Library of Congress, Federal Research Division (6th ed.). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. ISBN 978-0-8444-0790-6.
• Friend, T. (2003). Indonesian Destinies. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-01137-6.
• Hadiz, Vedi R.; Robison, Richard (2014). "Beyond Oligarchy". The political economy of oligarchy and the reorganization of power in Indonesia (PDF). Cornell UP. pp. 35–56. Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 May 2021.
• Indonesia, Statistics. Statistical yearbook of Indonesia 2009 (PDF). Statistics Indonesia, 2019.
• Kitley, Philip (2014). Television, nation, and culture in Indonesia. Ohio University Press.
• Melvin, Jess (2018). The Army and the Indonesian Genocide: Mechanics of Mass Murder. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-57469-4.
• Mietzner, Marcus; Muhtadi, Burhanuddin (2018). "Explaining the 2016 Islamist mobilisation in Indonesia: Religious intolerance, militant groups and the politics of accommodation". Asian Studies Review. 3 (42): 479–497. doi:10.1080/10357823.2018.1473335. S2CID 150302264.
• Ricklefs, Merle Calvin (1991). A history of modern Indonesia since c. 1300 (2nd ed.). Basingstoke; Stanford, CA: Palgrave; Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-333-57690-X.
• Ricklefs, Merle Calvin (2001). A history of modern Indonesia since c. 1200 (3rd ed.). Basingstoke; Stanford, CA: Palgrave; Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-4480-5.
• Robinson, Geoffrey B. (2018). The Killing Season: A History of the Indonesian Massacres, 1965–66. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-8886-3.
• Schwarz, A. (1994). A Nation in Waiting: Indonesia in the 1990s. Westview Press. ISBN 1-86373-635-2.
• Taylor, Jean Gelman (2003). Indonesia. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-09709-2.
• Taylor, John G. (1999). East Timor: the price of Freedom. Zed Books.
• Vickers, Adrian (2005). A History of Modern Indonesia. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-54262-6.
• Whitten, T.; Soeriaatmadja, R. E.; Suraya, A. A. (1996). The Ecology of Java and Bali. Hong Kong: Periplus Editions.
• Winters, Jeffrey A. "Oligarchy and democracy in Indonesia." in Beyond Oligarchy (Cornell UP, 2014) pp. 11–34. online Archived 2020-10-23 at the Wayback Machine
• Witton, Patrick (2003). Indonesia. Melbourne: Lonely Planet. ISBN 978-1-74059-154-6.

External links

• Indonesia. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
• Indonesia from BBC News
• Key Development Forecasts for Indonesia from International Futures

Government

• Minister of The State Secretary (in Indonesian)
• Statistics Indonesia
• Chief of State and Cabinet Members Archived 2014-10-12 at the Wayback Machine

General

• Indonesia UCB Libraries GovPubs
• Indonesia Encyclopædia Britannica
• Wikimedia Atlas of Indonesia
• [REDACTED] Geographic data related to Indonesia at OpenStreetMap
• Official site of Indonesian Tourism