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{{About|Western art music to the present|Western art music from 1750 to 1820|Classical period (music)|other "classical" and art music traditions|List of classical and art music traditions|the magazine|Classical Music (magazine)}}
{{short description|Broad tradition of Western art music}} {{short description|Broad tradition of Western art music}}
{{About|Western art music from the Middle Ages to the present||Classical music (disambiguation)}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=September 2020}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2023}}
] performing in public]]
] standing to acknowledge ] after performing.]]
'''Classical music''' is ] produced or rooted in the traditions of ], including both ] (religious) and ] music. While a more precise term is also used to refer to the period from 1750 to 1820 (the ]), this article is about the broad span of time from before the 6th century AD to the present day, which includes the Classical period and various other periods.{{sfn|Kennedy|Kennedy|2013|loc="Classical"}} The central norms of this tradition became codified between 1650 and 1900, which is known as the ].
'''Classical music''' generally refers to the ] of the ], considered to be ] Western ] or ] traditions. It is sometimes distinguished as '''Western classical music''', as the term "classical music" can also be applied to ]. Classical music is often characterized by formality and complexity in its ] and ],{{sfn|Owens|2008|loc=§ para. 1}} particularly with the use of ].{{sfn|Schulenberg|2000|p=99}} Since at least the ninth century it has been primarily a written tradition,{{sfn|Schulenberg|2000|p=99}} spawning a sophisticated ] system, as well as accompanying literature in ], ], ], ] and ] practices. A foundational component of ], classical music is frequently seen from the perspective of individual or ] of ]s, whose compositions, personalities and beliefs have fundamentally shaped its history.


Rooted in the ] of ] and ]s in ],{{sfn|Owens|2008|loc=§ para. 1}} surviving early ] is chiefly ], ] and vocal, with the ] and ] influencing its thought and theory. The earliest extant music manuscripts date from the ] (800–888),{{sfn|Schulenberg|2000|p=100}} around the time which Western ] gradually unified into what is termed ].{{sfn|Schulenberg|2000|pp=100–101}} Musical centers existed at the ], the ] and ], while the 11th century saw the development of ] and increasing output from ]. By the mid-12th century France became the major European musical center:{{sfn|Schulenberg|2000|p=100}} The religious ] first fully explored ]s and ], while ] music flourished with the ] and '']'' traditions led by poet-musician nobles.{{sfn|Schulenberg|2000|pp=102–104}} This culminated in the court sponsored French '']'' and Italian ], which evolved into {{lang|la|]}}, a stylistic movement of extreme rhythmic diversity.{{sfn|Schulenberg|2000|pp=102–104}} Beginning in the early 15th century, ] composers of the influential ] built off the harmonic principles in the English '']'', bringing choral music to new standards, particularly the ] and ].{{sfn|Schulenberg|2000|pp=104–105}} Northern Italy soon emerged as the central musical region, where the ] engaged in highly sophisticated methods of polyphony in genres such as the ],{{sfn|Schulenberg|2000|pp=104–105}} which inspired the brief ].
==Overview==
European art music is largely distinguished from many other non-European classical and some ]al forms by its system of ], in use since about the 11th century.<ref name="western musical notation">{{cite web|author = Bent, Ian D. | title = Musical notation | year = 2019 | url =https://www.britannica.com/art/musical-notation | access-date = May 23, 2019 }}</ref><ref>''Harvard Dictionary of Music'' (2nd edition, 1972): "Neume", Staff</ref> Catholic monks developed the first forms of modern European musical notation in order to standardize liturgy throughout the worldwide Church. Western staff notation is used by composers to indicate to the performer the ] and durations for a piece of music.<ref name="western musical notation"/> In contrast to most popular styles that adopted the song (]) form or a derivation of this form, classical music has been noted for its development of highly sophisticated forms of instrumental music such as the ], ], ], ], and mixed vocal and instrumental styles such as ], ], and ].<ref name="Julian Johnson 2002 p. 63">{{harvnb|Johnson|2002|p=63}}</ref> Alongside traditional musical attributes, Classical music is conscientious about drawing from and re-purposing its formal and social tradition with forms such as the Mass evolving and communicating through over a thousand years.<ref name="What is Classical Music? A Family Resemblance">{{cite web|author=Ezra LaFleur|url=https://www.ezralafleur.com/what-is-classical-music-a-family-resemblance/|title=What is Classical Music? A Family Resemblance}}</ref>


The ] (1580–1750) saw the relative standardization of ] ],{{sfn|Schulenberg|2000|p=110}} as well as the increasing importance of ], which grew into ensembles of considerable size. Italy remained dominant, being the ], the soloist centered ] genre, the organized ] as well as the large scale vocal-centered genres of ] and ]. The ] technique championed by ] exemplified the Baroque tendency for complexity, and as a reaction the simpler and song-like ] and '']'' styles were developed. In the shorter but pivotal ] (1730–1820) composers such as ], ], and ] created widely admired representatives of ],{{sfn|Schulenberg|2000|p=113}}{{sfn|Owens|2008|loc=§ para. 2}} including ], ]s and concertos. The subsequent ] (1800–1910) focused instead on ], for which the ], ] and various ] genres were important vessels. During this time ] was celebrated, immensity was encouraged, while philosophy and ] were embedded—all aspects that converged in the operas of ]. By the 20th century, stylistic unification gradually dissipated while the prominence of popular music greatly increased. Many composers actively avoided past techniques and genres in the lens of ], with some abandoning tonality in place of ], while others found new inspiration in folk melodies or ] sentiments. After World War II, for the first time audience members valued older music over ] works, a preference which has been catered to by the emergence and widespread availability of commercial recordings.{{sfn|Owens|2008|loc=§ para. 7}} Trends of the mid-20th century to the present day include ], ], ], ], and more recently ] and ]. Increasingly global, practitioners from the Americas, Africa and Asia have obtained crucial roles,{{sfn|Schulenberg|2000|p=100}} while symphony orchestras and ]s now appear across the world.
The term "classical music" did not appear until the early 19th century, in an attempt to distinctly canonize the period from ] to ] as a golden age.<ref>], ''Classical Music'', (London, 1994), 10</ref> The earliest reference to "classical music" recorded by the '']'' is from about 1829.{{sfn|Kennedy|Kennedy|2013|loc="Classical"}}<ref name="OED_Online_Classical">{{cite web|work=The Oxford English Dictionary|url=http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/50040930?single=1&query_type=word&queryword=classical&first=1&max_to_show=10|access-date=May 10, 2007|title=classical, a.|year=2007|quote=1829 V. Novello Diary 26 July in V. Novello & M. Novello Mozart Pilgrimage (1955) 181 This is the place I should come to every Sunday when I wished to hear classical music correctly and judiciously performed.}}</ref>


==Terminology and definition==
==Timeline==
===Ideological origins===
The major time divisions of Western art music are as follows:
{{multiple image
* ] period, before 500 AD<ref name="music">{{cite web |publisher= Encyclopedia Britannica|title= Western music|year=2017 | author= Ralph Thomas Daniel | url= https://www.britannica.com/art/Western-music|access-date=4 November 2020}}</ref>
| perrow = 3
* ] period, which includes
| total_width = 400
** ] (500–1420) including
| image1 = Haydn - Beethoven-Haydn-Mozart-Denkmal - Berlin, Germany - DSC09438.JPG
*** ] (1170–1310)
| link1 = Joseph Haydn
*** ] (1310–1377)
| image2 = Mozart - Beethoven-Haydn-Mozart-Denkmal - Berlin, Germany - DSC09446.JPG
*** ] (1360–1420)
| link2 = Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
** ] (1400–1600)
| image3 = Beethoven - Beethoven-Haydn-Mozart-Denkmal - Berlin, Germany - DSC09442.JPG
* Common-practice period, which includes
| link3 = Ludwig van Beethoven
** ] (1600–1750)
| footer = (from left to right) Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven from the 1904 ]. The three are part of the ] and among the first composers to be referred to as "Classical".
** ] era (1720s–1770s)
}}
** ] (1750–1820)
Both the English term ''classical'' and the German equivalent '']'' developed from the French '']'', itself derived from the Latin word '']'', which originally referred to the highest ] of ].{{sfn|Heartz|2001|loc=§ para. 1}}{{refn|The Ancient Roman citizenship classes in question were derived from the guidelines set forth by the legendary king ] in the ].<ref name="Howatson">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Howatson |first=M. C. |year=2011 |encyclopedia=The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature |title=classic |publisher=] |location=Oxford |url-access=subscription |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199548545.001.0001/acref-9780199548545-e-0735 |isbn=978-0-19-954854-5 |access-date=10 December 2021 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207104858/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199548545.001.0001/acref-9780199548545-e-0735 |url-status=live }}</ref>|group=n}} In Roman usage, the term later became a means to distinguish revered literary figures;{{sfn|Heartz|2001|loc=§ para. 1}} the Roman author ] commended writers such as ] and ] as ''classicus''.<ref name="Mignot">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Mignot |first=Claude |author-link=:fr:Claude Mignot |editor-last=Cassin |editor-first=Barbara |editor-link=Barbara Cassin |year=2017 |encyclopedia=Dictionary of Untranslatables: A Philosophical Lexicon |title=Classic |publisher=] |location=Princeton |isbn=978-0-19-068116-6 |url-access=subscription |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780190681166.001.0001/acref-9780190681166-e-48 |access-date=10 December 2021 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207002739/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780190681166.001.0001/acref-9780190681166-e-48 |url-status=live }}</ref> By the ], the adjective had acquired a more general meaning: an entry in ]'s 1611 ''A Dictionarie of the French and English Tongues'' is among the earliest extant definitions, translating ''classique'' as "classical, formall {{sic}}, orderlie, in due or fit ranke; also, approved, authenticall, chiefe, principall".{{sfn|Heartz|2001|loc=§ para. 1}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Cotgrave |first=Randle |author-link=Randle Cotgrave |year=1611 |title=A Dictionarie of the French and English Tongues |publisher=Adam Islip |location=London |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=IOhMAAAAcAAJ}} }}</ref> The musicologist ] summarizes this into two definitions: 1) a "formal discipline" and 2) a "model of excellence".{{sfn|Heartz|2001|loc=§ para. 1}} Like Gellius, later Renaissance scholars who wrote in Latin used ''classicus'' in reference to writers of ];<ref name="Howatson"/>{{refn|In 1690, many decades after Cotgrave's 1611 definition, ]'s posthumous '']'' echoed ] in praising ], ], ], ], and ] and referring to them as ''classique''.<ref name="Mignot"/>|group=n}} however, this meaning only gradually developed, and was for a while subordinate to the broader classical ideals of formality and excellence.{{sfn|Heartz|2001|loc=§ para. 2}} Literature and visual arts—for which substantial Ancient Greek and Roman examples existed—did eventually adopt the term "classical" as relating to classical antiquity, but virtually no music of that time was available to Renaissance musicians, limiting the connection between classical music and the ].{{sfn|Heartz|2001|loc=§ para. 2}}{{refn|This is why the ] movement of the mid 18th-century was widespread in fields such as architecture and painting but not music.{{sfn|Pauly|1988|p=}}|group=n}}
** ] (c.1800–1910)
* Late 19th-century to ] and ] (1890–present) which includes:
** ] (1890–1975) that overlaps from the late-19th century
*** ] (1890–1925) that also overlaps from the late-19th century
*** ] (1900–1930)
*** ] (1920–1950), predominantly in the inter-war period
** ]/] (1950–present)
*** ] (1950–present)
*** ] (early 1960s–1990)
*** ] (early 1980s–present)


It was in 18th-century England that the term 'classical' "first came to stand for a particular canon of works in performance."{{sfn|Heartz|2001|loc=§ para. 2}} ] had developed a prominent public concert music scene, unprecedented and unmatched by other European cities.{{sfn|Heartz|2001|loc=§ para. 1}} The royal court had gradually lost its monopoly on music, in large part from instability that the ]'s dissolution and the ] enacted on court musicians.{{sfn|Heartz|2001|loc=§ para. 1}}{{refn|Before the beginning of the 18th-century, there was a brief flowering of court music following the ].{{sfn|Heartz|2001|loc=§ para. 1}} Composers such as ] and later ] found considerable success,{{sfn|Taruskin|2005|loc="Restoration"}} particularly with the popular court ]s.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Walkling |first=Andrew R. |date=February 1996 |title=Masque and Politics at the Restoration Court: John Crowne's "Calisto" |journal=] |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages= 27–62|doi=10.1093/earlyj/XXIV.1.27 |jstor=3128449}}</ref>|group=n}} In 1672, the former court musician ] began giving popular public concerts at a London tavern;{{refn|]'s concerts quickly gained popularity, allowing him to later move his venue to ], and then ]; at its peak, his ensemble consisted of nearly 50 musicians.{{sfn|McVeigh|2001|loc=§ para. 1–4}}|group=n}} his popularity rapidly inaugurated the prominence of public concerts in the London.{{sfn|McVeigh|2001|loc=§ para. 1–4}} The conception of "classical"—or more often "ancient music"—emerged, which was still built on the principles of formality and excellence, and according to Heartz "civic ritual, religion and moral activism figured significantly in this novel construction of musical taste".{{sfn|Heartz|2001|loc=§ para. 2}} The performance of such music was specialized by the ] and later at the ] series, where the work of select 16th and 17th composers was featured,{{sfn|Weber|1999|p=345}} especially ].{{sfn|Heartz|2001|loc=§ para. 2}}{{refn|For further information on the development of a classical music canon in 18th-century England, see {{cite journal |last=Weber |first=William |date=Autumn 1994 |title=The Intellectual Origins of Musical Canon in Eighteenth-Century England |journal=] |volume=47 |issue=3 |pages=488–520 |jstor=3128800 |doi=10.2307/3128800 }}|group=n}} In France, the reign of ] ({{r.|1638|1715}}) saw a cultural renaissance, by the end of which writers such as ], ] and ] were considered to have surpassed the achievements of classical antiquity.{{sfn|Heartz|2001|loc="2. Earlier 'classicisms'": § para. 1}} They were thus characterized as "classical", as was the music of ] (and later ]), being designated as "l'opéra française classique".{{sfn|Heartz|2001|loc="2. Earlier 'classicisms'": § para. 1}} In the rest of ], the abandonment of defining "classical" as analogous to the Greco-Roman World was slower, primarily because the formation of canonical repertoires was either minimal or exclusive to the upper classes.{{sfn|Heartz|2001|loc=§ para. 2}}
==Characteristics==
Given the wide range of styles in European classical music, from Medieval ] sung by monks to Classical and Romantic ] for orchestra from the 1700s and 1800s to avant-garde ] compositions from the 1900s, it is difficult to list characteristics that can be attributed to all works of that type. Nonetheless, a universal characteristic of classical music written since the late 13th century is{{sfn|Kennedy|2006|p=178}}{{incomplete short citation|date=September 2020}} the invariable appliance of a standardized system of precise ] (which evolved into modern bar notation after 1600) for all compositions and their accurate performance.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/notationofpolyph00apel/page/n11|title=The notation of polyphonic music, 900–1600|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|publisher=Mediaeval Academy of America|author=Willi Apel|year=1961|access-date= May 20, 2019|author-link=Willi Apel}}</ref> Another is the creation and development of complex pieces of solo instrumental works (e.g., the ]). The first symphonies were produced during the ]; beginning in the mid 18th century, the ] and the compositions became prominent features of Classical-period music.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/art/symphony-music|title=Symphony, music|encyclopedia=]|author=Laurence Elliot Libin|access-date= May 20, 2019}}</ref>


Many European commentators of the early 19th century found new unification in their definition of classical music: to juxtapose the older composers ], ], and (excluding some of his ]) ] as "classical" against the emerging style of ].{{sfn|Heartz|2001|loc="1. The Viennese 'Classical' idiom": § para. 1}}{{sfn|Schulenberg|2000|pp=110–111}}<ref name="OED2">{{cite encyclopedia |title=classical (adj.) |encyclopedia=] |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/classical#etymonline_v_28167 |access-date=1 December 2021 |archive-date=17 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211117015901/https://www.etymonline.com/word/classical#etymonline_v_28167 |url-status=live }}</ref> These three composers in particular were grouped into the ], sometimes called the "Viennese classics",{{refn|Some critics, from the 19th to 21st centuries, defined the ] in different ways. Commentators such as ] and later ] excluded Beethoven from the school entirely, while the musicologist ] included all three in addition to ].{{sfn|Heartz|2001|loc="1. The Viennese 'Classical' idiom": § para. 1}} ] included Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven, but only their instrumental music.{{sfn|Heartz|2001|loc="1. The Viennese 'Classical' idiom": § para. 1}}|group=n}} a coupling that remains problematic by reason of none of the three being born in Vienna and the minimal time Haydn and Mozart spent in the city.{{sfn|Pauly|1988|p=}} While this was an often expressed characterization, it was not a strict one. In 1879 the composer ] defined the following composers as classical: ], Handel, Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, ], ] and ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Salaman |first=Charles K. |author-link=Charles Kensington Salaman |date=1 April 1879 |title=Classical Music |journal=] |volume=20 |issue=434 |pages=200–203 |jstor=3355606 |doi=10.2307/3355606 |url=https://zenodo.org/record/2388440 |access-date=7 February 2022 |archive-date=17 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220217100801/https://zenodo.org/record/2388440 |url-status=live }}</ref> More broadly, some writers used the term "classical" to generally praise well-regarded outputs from various composers, particularly those who produced many works in an established genre.{{sfn|Heartz|2001|loc=§ para. 1}}{{refn|The earliest use of the term "classical music" in ] given by the '']'' (''OED'') is in the 1829 diary of English musician ], who said "This is the place I should come to every Sunday when I wished to hear classical music correctly and judiciously performed".<ref name="OED">{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=] |title=classical, adj. and n.: A9 |publisher=] |location=Oxford |url-access=subscription |url=https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/33881 |access-date=10 December 2021 |archive-date=17 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220217100802/https://www.oed.com/start;jsessionid=15AD26346361B0F7A71C0E3C5CAB60C6?authRejection=true&url=%2Fview%2FEntry%2F33881 |url-status=live }}{{subscription required}}</ref> However, this is predated by at least 9 years from the title of the English writer ]'s 1820 ''Introduction to the Elementary Principles of Thorough Bass and Classical Music''.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Squire |first=W. B. |others=Revised by Anne Pimlott Baker |editor1-first=Anne Pimlott |editor1-last=Baker |year=2004 |encyclopedia=] |title=Danneley, John Feltham (bap. 1785, d. 1834x6), writer on music |publisher=] |location=Oxford |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/7129 |isbn=978-0-19-861412-8 |url-access=subscription |url=https://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-7129 |access-date=10 December 2021 |archive-date=4 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180604064640/http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-7129 |url-status=live }} {{ODNBsub}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Danneley |first=John Feltham |author-link=John Feltham Danneley |year=1820 |title=An Introduction to the Elementary Principles of Thorough Bass and Classical Music |publisher=R. Deck |location=Ipswich |oclc=1047597428 |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontoel00dann |url-access=limited }}</ref>|group=n}}
==Complexity==
Works of classical repertoire often exhibit complexity in their use of ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ]. Whereas most popular styles are usually written in ], classical music is noted for its development of highly sophisticated instrumental musical forms,<ref name="Julian Johnson 2002 p. 63"/> like the ], ] and ]. Classical music is also noted for its use of sophisticated vocal/instrumental forms, such as ].{{Citation needed|date=November 2017|reason=Who claims opera is a "sophisticated" form?}} In opera, vocal soloists and choirs perform staged dramatic works with an orchestra providing accompaniment.


===Contemporary understanding===
Longer instrumental works are often divided into self-contained pieces, called ], often with contrasting characters or moods. For instance, symphonies written during the Classical period are usually divided into four movements:
The contemporary understanding of the term "classical music" remains vague and multifaceted.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Kennedy |first=Michael |author-link=Michael Kennedy (music critic) |year=1994 |entry=classical |encyclopedia=The Oxford Dictionary of Music |publisher=] |location=Oxford and New York |edition=New |url=https://archive.org/details/oxforddictionary0000kenn |url-access=subscription |page= |isbn=978-0-19-869162-4 }}</ref>{{sfn|Pauly|1988|p=}} Other terms such as "art music", "canonic music", "cultivated music" and "serious music" are largely synonymous.<ref>{{cite book |last=Nettl |first=Bruno |author-link=Bruno Nettl |year=1995 |title=Heartland Excursions: Ethnomusicological Reflections on Schools of Music |publisher=] |location=Champaign |isbn=978-0-252-06468-5 |page= |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=wZZ1_pQJnKEC}} }}</ref> The term "classical music" is often indicated or implied to concern solely the ],{{sfn|Locke|2012|pp=320–322}} and conversely, in many academic histories the term "Western music" excludes non-classical Western music.{{sfn|Taruskin|2005|loc="Introduction: The History of What?"}}{{refn|In addition to the title of {{harvnb|Taruskin|2005}}, see also, the titles of {{harvnb|Grout|1973}}, {{harvnb|Hanning|2002}} and {{harvnb|Stolba|1998}}, all of which include the term "Western music" but essentially exclude non-classical music in the Western world. {{harvnb|Grout|1973}} was first published in 1960, and it was not until the fifth edition prepared by ] in 1996 that any information on ] and ] was included.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Burkholder |first=J. Peter |author-link=J. Peter Burkholder |date=2009–2010 |title=Changing the Stories We Tell: Repertoires, Narratives, Materials, Goals, and Strategies in Teaching Music History |journal=College Music Symposium|volume=49/50 |page=120 |jstor=41225238 }}</ref>|group=n}} Another complication lies in that "classical music" is sometimes used to describe non-Western art music exhibiting similar long-lasting and complex characteristics; examples include ] (i.e. ] ] and ]), ] music, and various styles of the court of Imperial China (see '']'' for instance).{{sfn|Owens|2008|loc=§ para. 1}} Thus in the later 20th century terms such as "Western classical music" and "Western art music" came in use to address this.{{sfn|Locke|2012|pp=320–322}} The musicologist ] notes that neither term is ideal, as they create an "intriguing complication" when considering "certain practitioners of Western-art music genres who come from non-Western cultures".{{sfn|Locke|2012|p=321}}{{refn|The musicologist ] cites composer ] as an example, and notes the title of a 2004 publication, ''Locating East Asia in Western Art Music''.{{sfn|Locke|2012|p=321}} See also the title of {{cite news |last=Barone |first=Joshua |date=23 July 2021 |title=Asian Composers Reflect on Careers in Western Classical Music |work=] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/23/arts/music/asian-composers-classical-music.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20211228/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/23/arts/music/asian-composers-classical-music.html |archive-date=28 December 2021 |url-access=limited }}{{cbignore}} {{harvnb|Burkholder|Grout|Palisca|2014|p=1009}} note that "We may well wonder whether the term "Western music" is still appropriate when Western culture has spread around the world, and some of the most practices performers and interesting new composers come from China, Japan and Korea. Given its global reach, it may be time to rename this tradition, but as eclectic and diverse as it has become, its roots are still in Western culture reaching back through Europe to ancient Greece".|group=n}}


Complexity in ] and ] are typical traits of classical music.{{sfn|Owens|2008|loc=§ para. 1}} The '']'' (''OED'') offers three definitions for the word "classical" in relation to music:<ref name="OED"/>
# an opening Allegro in ],
# "of acknowledged excellence"
# a slow movement,
# "of, relating to, or characteristic of a formal musical tradition, as distinguished from popular or folk music"
# a ] or ] (in a ], such as {{music|time|3|4}}), and
# and more specifically, "of or relating to formal European music of the late 18th and early 19th centuries, characterized by harmony, balance, and adherence to established compositional forms".
# a final Allegro.
The last definition concerns what is now termed the ], a specific stylistic era of European music from the second half of the 18th century to the beginning of the 19th century.{{sfn|Pauly|1988|pp=–}}

These movements can then be further broken down into a hierarchy of smaller units: first ], then ], and finally ].

==Performance==
] in performance]]

Performers who have studied classical music extensively are said to be "classically trained". This training may come from private lessons from instrument or voice teachers or from completion of a formal program offered by a Conservatory, college or university, such as a ] or ] degree (which includes individual lessons from professors). In classical music, "...extensive formal music education and training, often to postgraduate level" is required.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.inputyouth.co.uk/jobguides/job-classicalmusician.html |title=Job Guide – Classical Musician |publisher=Inputyouth.co.uk |access-date=November 27, 2015}}</ref>

Performance of classical music repertoire requires a proficiency in ] and ] playing, ] principles, strong ] (to correct and adjust pitches by ear), knowledge of ] (e.g., Baroque ornamentation), and a familiarity with the style/musical idiom expected for a given composer or musical work (e.g., a Brahms symphony or a Mozart concerto).{{Citation needed|date=November 2017}}

The key characteristic of European classical music that distinguishes it from ] and ] is that the repertoire tends to be written down in ], creating a musical part or ].<ref name="What is Classical Music? A Family Resemblance"/> This score typically determines details of rhythm, pitch, and, where two or more musicians (whether singers or instrumentalists) are involved, how the various parts are coordinated. The written quality of the music has enabled a high level of complexity within them: ]s, for instance, achieve a remarkable marriage of boldly distinctive melodic lines weaving in ] yet creating a coherent ].<ref name=" Knud Jeppesen 2007">]: "Bach's music grows out of an ideally harmonic background, against which the voices develop with bold independence that is often breath-taking." Quoted from {{harvnb|Katz|1946}}</ref> The use of written notation also preserves a record of the works and enables Classical musicians to perform music from many centuries ago.

Although Classical music in the 2000s has lost most of its tradition for ], from the Baroque era to the Romantic era, there are examples of performers who could improvise in the style of their era. In the Baroque era, organ performers would improvise ], keyboard performers playing ] would improvise ] from the ] symbols beneath the bass notes of the basso continuo part and both vocal and instrumental performers would improvise ]s.<ref>Gabriel Solis, Bruno Nettl. ''Musical Improvisation: Art, Education, and Society.'' University of Illinois Press, 2009. p. 150</ref> ] was particularly noted for his complex improvisations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://community.middlebury.edu/~harris/MusicPapers/baroque.html |title=On Baroque Improvisation |publisher=Community.middlebury.edu |access-date=November 27, 2015}}</ref> During the Classical era, the composer-performer ] was noted for his ability to improvise melodies in different styles.<ref>David Grayson. Mozart: Piano Concertos Nos. 20 and 21. Cambridge University Press, 1998. p. 95</ref> During the Classical era, some virtuoso soloists would improvise the ] sections of a concerto. During the Romantic era, ] would improvise at the piano.<ref>Tilman Skowronek. ''Beethoven the Pianist''. Cambridge University Press, 2010. p. 160</ref>

==Instrumentation and vocal practices==
{{See also|Woodwind section|Brass section|String section|Percussion section|Keyboard section}}
The instruments currently used in most classical music were largely invented before the mid-19th century (often much earlier) and systematized in the 18th and 19th centuries. They consist of the instruments found in an ] or in a ], together with several other solo instruments (such as the ], ], and ]). The symphony orchestra includes members of the ], ], ], and ] families of instruments. The concert band consists of members of the woodwind, brass, and percussion families. It generally has a larger variety and number of woodwind and brass instruments than the orchestra but does not have a string section. However, many concert bands use a ]. The vocal practices changed over the classical period, from the single line monophonic ] done by monks in the Medieval period to the complex, ] choral works of the Renaissance and subsequent periods, which used multiple independent vocal melodies at the same time.


==History== ==History==
{{Main|History of music}} {{further|History of music|List of classical music composers by era|Dates of classical music eras}}
{{History of Western art music}} {{History of Western art music}}
], featuring the head of Christ. Catholic monks developed the first forms of modern European musical notation in order to standardize liturgy throughout the worldwide Church.{{sfn|Hall, Neitz, and Battani|2003|p=99}}]]
The major time divisions of classical music up to 1900 are the ] period, which includes ] (500–1400) and ] (1400–1600) eras, and the ], which includes the ] (1600–1750), ] (1750–1820), and ] (1810–1910) eras. The current period encompasses the ] and the 21st-century to date and includes the ] musical era and the ] or ] musical era, the dates of which are often disputed.


===Roots===
The dates are ], since the periods and eras overlap and the categories are somewhat arbitrary, to the point that some authorities reverse terminologies and refer to a common practice "era" comprising baroque, classical, and romantic "periods".<ref name="Mode and tempo">{{cite journal|author=Vladimir J. Konečni|title=Mode and tempo in Western classical music of the common-practice era|journal=]|volume=4|number=1|year=2009|hdl=1811/36604}}</ref> For example, the use of ] and ], which is considered characteristic of the Baroque era (or period), was continued by ], who is classified as typical of the Classical era. Beethoven, who is often described as a founder of the Romantic era, and ], who is classified as Romantic, also used counterpoint and fugue, but the romantic and sometimes yearning qualities of their music define their era.
{{Further|Ancient music|Music of ancient Greece|Music of ancient Rome}}
The Western classical tradition formally begins with music created by and for the early Christian Church.{{sfn|Grout|1973|p=2}} It is probable that the early Church wished to disassociate itself from the predominant ] and ], as it was a reminder of the ] it had ] and ].{{sfn|Grout|1973|p=2}} As such, it remains unclear as to what extent the music of the Christian Church, and thus Western classical music as a whole, was influenced by preceding ].{{sfn|Grout|1973|p=11}} The general attitude towards music was adopted from the ] and ] music theorists and commentators.{{sfn|Yudkin|1989|p=20}}{{refn|From all available evidence, it appears that no, or few, significant musical developments can be credited to Ancient Rome, who largely adopted the practices of their Ancient Greek predecessors.{{sfn|Grout|1973|pp=10–11}}|group=n}} Just as in Greco-Roman society, music was considered central to education; along with arithmetic, geometry and astronomy, music was included in the ''],'' the four subjects of the upper division of a standard ] in the ].{{sfn|Yudkin|1989|pp=27–28}} This high regard for music was first promoted by the scholars ], ],{{sfn|Yudkin|1989|pp=28–29}} and particularly ],{{sfn|Yudkin|1989|p=25}} whose transmission and expansion on the perspectives of music from ], ] and ] were crucial in the development of medieval musical thought.{{sfn|Fassler|2014|p=28}} However, scholars, ] and ] regularly misinterpreted or misunderstood the writings of their Greek and Roman predecessors.{{sfn|Reese|1940|p=4}} This was due to the complete absence of surviving Greco-Roman musical works available to medieval musicians,{{sfn|Reese|1940|p=4}}{{refn|Musicologist ] notes that even by the 20th century there were only fragments and a few more sizable examples of such Greco-Roman music that survive.{{sfn|Grout|1973|p=2}}|group=n}} to the extent that Isidore of Seville ({{circa|559 – 636}}) stated "unless sounds are remembered by man, they perish, for they cannot be written down", unaware of the ] of Ancient Greece centuries before.{{sfn|Fassler|2014|p=20}}{{refn|The entirety of early medieval Europe may not have been without a notional system for music, see {{harvnb|Gampel|2012}}, who argues against the traditional conclusion of Isidore of Seville's remark.|group=n}} The musicologist ] notes, however, that many Greco-Roman texts can still be credited as influential to Western classical music, since medieval musicians regularly read their works—regardless of whether they were doing so correctly.{{sfn|Reese|1940|p=4}}


However, there are some indisputable musical continuations from the ].{{sfn|Grout|1973|p=4}} Basic aspects such as ], ] and the dominance of text in musical settings are prominent in both early medieval and music of nearly all ancient civilizations.{{sfn|Grout|1973|pp=4–5, 11}} Greek influences in particular include the ] (which were descendants of developments by ] and Pythagoras),{{sfn|Grout|1973|p=28}} basic ] from ],{{sfn|Grout|1973|p=11}} as well as the central function of ].{{sfn|Grout|1973|pp=11, 22}} Ancient Greek instruments such as the ] (a ]) and the ] (a stringed instrument similar to a small ]) eventually led to several modern-day instruments of a symphonic orchestra.{{sfn|Grout|1973|p=24}} However, ] notes that attempting to create a direct evolutionary connection from the ancient music to early medieval is baseless, as it was almost solely influenced by Greco-Roman music theory, not performance or practice.{{sfn|Grout|1973|p=5}}
The prefix ''neo-'' is used to describe a 19th-, 20th-, or 21st-century composition written in the style of an earlier era, such as Classical or Romantic. ] '']'', for example, is a ] composition because it is stylistically similar to works of the Baroque era.{{Clarify|date=November 2017|reason=So a "Neo-medieval" work might be so-called because it resembles Renaissance music?}}

===Roots===
{{Main|Ancient music}}


===Early music===
Burgh (2006), suggests that the roots of Western classical music ultimately lie in ancient Egyptian art music via ] and the ancient Egyptian orchestra, which dates to 2695 BC.<ref>{{cite book|title=Listening to Artifacts: Music Culture in Ancient Israel/Palestine|first=Theodore W.|last=Burgh|publisher=T. & T. Clark Ltd.|year=2006|isbn=978-0-567-02552-4}}</ref> The development of individual tones and scales was made by ancient Greeks such as ] and ].<ref name="Grout73p28">], p. 28</ref> Pythagoras created a ] system and helped to codify ]. Ancient Greek instruments such as the ] (a ]) and the ] (a stringed instrument similar to a small ]) eventually led to several modern-day instruments of a classical orchestra.{{sfn|Grout|Palisca|1988|p={{page needed|date=August 2019}}}} The antecedent to the early period was the era of ] before the fall of the ] (476 AD).
{{main article|Early music}}


===Early period=== ====Medieval====
====Medieval era====
{{Main|Medieval music}} {{Main|Medieval music}}
{{See also|List of medieval composers}}] (fourteenth-century ] ])]] {{see also|List of medieval composers|List of medieval music theorists|List of medieval musical instruments}}
] (fourteenth-century ] ])]]


The Medieval era includes music from after the fall of Rome to about 1400. ] chant, also called plainsong or ], was the dominant form until about 1100.<ref name="Grout73p75"/> Catholic monks developed the first forms of modern European musical notation in order to standardize liturgy throughout the worldwide Church.{{sfn|Hall, Neitz, and Battani|2003|p=99}}<ref>{{cite book | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=3fExcE3ouRYC&q=catholic%20monks%20classical%20music&pg=PA173 |title = Making Music and Having a Blast!: A Guide for All Music Students|first1= Bonnie |last1= Blanchard |first2= Cynthia |last2=Blanchard Acree |publisher = Indiana University Press|date = 2009|isbn = 978-0-253-00335-5 |page = 173}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fnu0BgAAQBAJ&q=catholic+monks+classical+music&pg=PA256|title=The Rough Guide to Classical Music|first=Rough|last=Guides|date=May 3, 2010|publisher=Rough Guides UK|access-date=June 21, 2018|via=Google Books|isbn=978-1-84836-677-0}}</ref> ] (multi-voiced) music developed from monophonic chant throughout the late ] and into the ], including the more complex voicings of ]s. Medieval music includes Western European music from after the ] by 476 to about 1400. ] chant, also called plainsong or ], was the dominant form until about 1100.{{sfn|Grout|1973|p=75}} Christian monks developed the first forms of European musical notation in order to standardize liturgy throughout the Church.<ref>{{cite book|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=3fExcE3ouRYC&q=catholic%20monks%20classical%20music&pg=PA173|title = Making Music and Having a Blast!: A Guide for All Music Students|first1 = Bonnie|last1 = Blanchard|first2 = Cynthia|last2 = Blanchard Acree|publisher = Indiana University Press|date = 2009|isbn = 978-0-253-00335-5|page = 173|access-date = 9 November 2020|archive-date = 17 February 2022|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220217100801/https://books.google.com/books?id=3fExcE3ouRYC&q=catholic+monks+classical+music&pg=PA173|url-status = live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fnu0BgAAQBAJ&q=catholic+monks+classical+music&pg=PA256|title=The Rough Guide to Classical Music|first=Rough|last=Guides|date=3 May 2010|publisher=Rough Guides UK|access-date=21 June 2018|via=Google Books|isbn=978-1-84836-677-0|archive-date=17 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220217100802/https://books.google.com/books?id=Fnu0BgAAQBAJ&q=catholic+monks+classical+music&pg=PA256|url-status=live}}</ref> ] (multi-voiced) music developed from monophonic chant throughout the late ] and into the ], including the more complex voicings of ]s. During the ], the vocal music from the ] genre, predominantly ], was ], using a single, unaccompanied vocal melody line.{{sfn|Hoppin|1978|p=57}} ] vocal genres, which used multiple independent vocal melodies, began to develop during the ], becoming prevalent by the later 13th and early 14th century. Notable Medieval composers include ], ], ], ], ], ], and ].


Many ] still exist, but in different forms. Medieval instruments included the ], the ] and plucked ]s like the ]. As well, early versions of the ] and ] (or ]) existed. Medieval instruments in Europe had most commonly been used singly, often self accompanied with a ] note, or occasionally in parts. From at least as early as the 13th century through the 15th century there was a division of instruments into ''haut'' (loud, shrill, outdoor instruments) and ''bas'' (quieter, more intimate instruments).{{sfn|Bowles|1954|loc=119 et passim}} A number of instrument have roots in Eastern predecessors that were ].<ref name=Sachs260>{{citation |last=Sachs |first=Curt |title=The History of Musical Instruments |publisher=Dover Publications |year=1940 |isbn=978-0-486-45265-4|page=260}}</ref> For example, the Arabic ] is the ancestor of all European ]s, including the ], ] and ].<ref name="britannica">{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/487848/rabab |title=rabab (musical instrument) |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=17 August 2013 |archive-date=17 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131217231213/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/487848/rabab |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{citation |last=Encyclopædia Britannica |title=lira |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/343204/lira |publisher=] |access-date=20 February 2009 |year=2009 |archive-date=1 August 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090801000612/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/343204/lira |url-status=live }}</ref>
], Kyrie "Au travail suis" excerpt]]


====Renaissance====
A number of European classical ]s have roots in Eastern instruments that were ].<ref name=Sachs260>{{citation |last=Sachs |first=Curt |title=The History of Musical Instruments |publisher=Dover Publications |year=1940 |isbn=978-0-486-45265-4|page=260}}</ref> For example, the Arabic ] is the ancestor of all European ]s, including the ], ] and ].<ref name="britannica">{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/487848/rabab |title=rabab (musical instrument) – Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher=Britannica.com |access-date=August 17, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{citation |last=Encyclopædia Britannica |title= lira |url= http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/343204/lira |publisher=] |access-date=February 20, 2009 |year=2009 }}</ref>
{{Main|Renaissance music}}
{{See also|List of Renaissance composers}}
The musical Renaissance era lasted from 1400 to 1600. It was characterized by greater use of ], multiple interweaving melodic lines, and the use of earlier forms of ]. Social dancing became more widespread, so musical forms appropriate to accompanying dance began to standardize. It is in this time that the notation of music on a ] and other elements of ] began to take shape.{{sfn|Grout|1973|p=61}} This invention made possible the separation of the ] of a piece of music from its ''transmission''; without written music, transmission was oral, and subject to change every time it was transmitted. With a ], a work of music could be performed without the composer's presence.{{sfn|Grout|1973|pp=75–76}} The invention of the movable-type ] in the 15th century had far-reaching consequences on the preservation and transmission of music.{{sfn|Grout|1973|pp=175–176}}


] featuring the ] of ]'s ''Missa Ecce ancilla Domini'']]
Many of the instruments used to perform medieval music still exist, but in different forms. Medieval instruments included the ], the ] and plucked ]s like the ]. As well, early versions of the ] and ] (or ]) existed. Medieval instruments in Europe had most commonly been used singly, often self accompanied with a ] note, or occasionally in parts. From at least as early as the 13th century through the 15th century there was a division of instruments into ''haut'' (loud, shrill, outdoor instruments) and ''bas'' (quieter, more intimate instruments).{{sfn|Bowles|1954|loc=119 et passim}} During the ], the vocal music from the ] genre, predominantly ], was ], using a single, unaccompanied vocal melody line.<ref>Hoppin (1978) p. 57<!-- I guess ], Medieval Music? -->{{incomplete short citation|date=January 2020}}</ref> ] vocal genres, which used multiple independent vocal melodies, began to develop during the ], becoming prevalent by the later 13th and early 14th century.
Many instruments originated during the Renaissance; others were variations of, or improvements upon, instruments that had existed previously. Some have survived to the present day; others have disappeared, only to be re-created in order to perform music on period instruments. As in the modern day, instruments may be classified as brass, strings, percussion, and woodwind. Brass instruments in the Renaissance were traditionally played by professionals who were members of ]s and they included the ], the wooden ], the valveless ] and the ]. Stringed instruments included the ], the ], the harp-like ], the ], the ], the ], the ], the ], and the ]. ] instruments with strings included the ] and the ]. Percussion instruments include the ], the ], the ], the bells, the rumble-pot, and various kinds of drums. Woodwind instruments included the double-reed ] (an early member of the ] family), the ], the ], the ], the ], the ], and the ]. Simple ]s existed, but were largely confined to churches, although there were portable varieties.{{sfn|Grout|1973|pp=72–74}} Printing enabled the standardization of descriptions and specifications of instruments, as well as instruction in their use.{{sfn|Grout|1973|p=222–225}}

Notable Medieval composers include ], ], ], ], ], ], and ].

====Renaissance era====
{{Main|Renaissance music}}
{{See also|List of Renaissance composers}}The Renaissance era was from 1400 to 1600. It was characterized by greater use of ], multiple interweaving melodic lines, and the use of the first ]. Social dancing became more widespread, so musical forms appropriate to accompanying dance began to standardize. It is in this time that the notation of music on a ] and other elements of ] began to take shape.<ref name="Grout73p61">], p. 61</ref> This invention made possible the separation of the ] of a piece of music from its ''transmission''; without written music, transmission was oral, and subject to change every time it was transmitted. With a ], a work of music could be performed without the composer's presence.<ref name="Grout73p75">], pp. 75–76</ref> The invention of the movable-type ] in the 15th century had far-reaching consequences on the preservation and transmission of music.<ref name="Grout73p175">], pp. 175–76</ref>
] featuring the ] of ]'s ''Missa Ecce ancilla Domini'']]
Many instruments originated during the Renaissance; others were variations of, or improvements upon, instruments that had existed previously. Some have survived to the present day; others have disappeared, only to be re-created in order to perform music on period instruments. As in the modern day, instruments may be classified as brass, strings, percussion, and woodwind. Brass instruments in the Renaissance were traditionally played by professionals who were members of ]s and they included the ], the wooden ], the valveless ] and the ]. Stringed instruments included the ], the ], the harp-like ], the ], the ], the ], the ], the ], and the ]. ] instruments with strings included the ] and the ]. Percussion instruments include the ], the ], the ], the bells, the rumble-pot, and various kinds of drums. Woodwind instruments included the double-reed ] (an early member of the ] family), the ], the ], the ], the ], the ], and the ]. Simple ]s existed, but were largely confined to churches, although there were portable varieties.<ref name="Grout73p72">], pp. 72–74</ref> Printing enabled the standardization of descriptions and specifications of instruments, as well as instruction in their use.<ref name="Grout73p222">], pp. 222–225</ref>


Vocal music in the Renaissance is noted for the flourishing of an increasingly elaborate ] style. The principal liturgical forms which endured throughout the entire Renaissance period were masses and motets, with some other developments towards the end, especially as composers of sacred music began to adopt secular forms (such as the ]) for their own designs. Towards the end of the period, the early dramatic precursors of opera such as monody, the ], and the ] are seen. Around 1597, Italian composer ] wrote '']'', the first work to be called an ] today. He also composed ], the first opera to have survived to the present day. Vocal music in the Renaissance is noted for the flourishing of an increasingly elaborate ] style. The principal liturgical forms which endured throughout the entire Renaissance period were masses and motets, with some other developments towards the end, especially as composers of sacred music began to adopt secular forms (such as the ]) for their own designs. Towards the end of the period, the early dramatic precursors of opera such as monody, the ], and the ] are seen. Around 1597, Italian composer ] wrote '']'', the first work to be called an ] today. He also composed '']'', the first opera to have survived to the present day.


Notable Renaissance composers include ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ]. Notable Renaissance composers include ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ].


===Common-practice period=== ===Common-practice period===
The ] is typically defined as the era between the formation and the dissolution of common-practice ].<!-- sentence copied in part from https://en.wikipedia.org/search/?title=Common_practice_period&oldid=799911529--> The term usually spans roughly two-and-a-half centuries, encompassing the Baroque, Classical, and Romantic periods. The ] is typically defined as the era between the formation and the dissolution of common-practice ].{{citation needed|date=August 2021}}<!-- sentence copied in part from https://en.wikipedia.org/search/?title=Common_practice_period&oldid=799911529--> The term usually spans roughly two-and-a-half centuries, encompassing the Baroque, Classical, and Romantic periods.


====Baroque era==== ====Baroque====
{{Main|Baroque music}} {{Main|Baroque music}}
{{See also|List of Baroque composers}} {{See also|List of Baroque composers}}
], ], ], ], ], and ]]] ], ], ], ], ], and ]]]
Baroque music is characterized by the use of complex tonal ] and the use of a ], a continuous bass line. Music became more complex in comparison with the simple songs of all previous periods.<ref name=Kirgiss>{{cite book|last=Kirgiss|first=Crystal|title=Classical Music|year=2004|page=6|publisher=Black Rabbit Books|isbn=978-1-58340-674-8}}</ref> The beginnings of the ] took shape in the ], as did a more formalized notion of ]. The tonalities of ] as means for managing dissonance and ] in music took full shape.<ref name="Grout73p300">], pp. 300–32</ref> Baroque music is characterized by the use of complex tonal ] and the use of a ], a continuous bass line. Music became more complex in comparison with the simple songs of all previous periods.<ref name=Kirgiss>{{cite book|last=Kirgiss|first=Crystal|title=Classical Music|year=2004|page=6|publisher=Black Rabbit Books|isbn=978-1-58340-674-8}}</ref> The beginnings of the ] took shape in the ], as did a more formalized notion of ]. The tonalities of ] as means for managing dissonance and ] in music took full shape.{{sfn|Grout|1973|pp=300–32}}


During the Baroque era, keyboard music played on the ] and ] became increasingly popular, and the violin family of stringed instruments took the form generally seen today. Opera as a staged musical drama began to differentiate itself from earlier musical and dramatic forms, and vocal forms like the ] and ] became more common.<ref name="Grout73p341">], pp. 341–55</ref> Vocalists for the first time began adding extra notes to the music.<ref name=Kirgiss/> During the Baroque era, keyboard music played on the ] and ] became increasingly popular, and the violin family of stringed instruments took the form generally seen today. Opera as a staged musical drama began to differentiate itself from earlier musical and dramatic forms, and vocal forms like the ] and ] became more common.{{sfn|Grout|1973|pp=341–355}} For the first time, vocalists began adding ornamentals to the music.<ref name=Kirgiss/>


The theories surrounding ] began to be put in wider practice, especially as it enabled a wider range of chromatic possibilities in hard-to-tune keyboard instruments. Although ] did not use equal temperament, as a modern piano is generally tuned, changes in the temperaments from the ], common at the time, to various temperaments that made modulation between all keys musically acceptable, made possible his '']''.<ref name="Grout73p378">], p. 378</ref><!-- This sentence is very wordy/hard to read. --> The theories surrounding ] began to be put in wider practice, as it enabled a wider range of chromatic possibilities in hard-to-tune keyboard instruments. Although ] did not use equal temperament, changes in the temperaments from the then-common ] to various temperaments that made modulation between all keys musically acceptable made possible his '']''.{{sfn|Grout|1973|p=378}}<!-- -->


Baroque instruments included some instruments from the earlier periods (e.g., the hurdy-gurdy and recorder) and a number of new instruments (e.g., the oboe, bassoon, cello, contrabass and fortepiano). Some instruments from previous eras fell into disuse, such as the shawm, ], ], and the wooden cornet. The key Baroque instruments for strings included the ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] (which often played the ] parts), ], ], ] and hurdy-gurdy. Woodwinds included the ], ], ] and the ]. Brass instruments included the ], ], ], ] and the ]. Keyboard instruments included the ], the ], the ], the ], and, later in the period, the ] (an early version of the piano). Percussion instruments included the ], ], ] and the ].
{{more citations needed|section|date=November 2017}}
Baroque instruments included some instruments from the earlier periods (e.g., the hurdy-gurdy and recorder) and a number of new instruments (e.g., the oboe, bassoon, cello, contrabass and fortepiano). Some instruments from previous eras fell into disuse, such as the shawm, ], ], and the wooden cornet. The key Baroque instruments for strings included the ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] (which often played the ] parts), ], ], ] and hurdy-gurdy. Woodwinds included the ], ], ] and the ]. Brass instruments included the ], ], ], ] and the ]. Keyboard instruments included the ], the ], the ], the ], and, later in the period, the ] (an early version of the piano). Percussion instruments included the ], ], ] and the ].


One major difference between Baroque music and the classical era that followed it is that the types of instruments used in Baroque ensembles were much less standardized. A Baroque ensemble could include one of several different types of keyboard instruments (e.g., pipe organ or harpsichord),<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/bitesize/guides/z2mv34j/revision/2|title=Baroque orchestral music|website=BBC|access-date=June 6, 2019}}</ref> additional stringed chordal instruments (e.g., a lute), bowed strings, woodwinds, and brass instruments, and an unspecified number of bass instruments performing the basso continuo,(e.g., a cello, contrabass, viola, bassoon, serpent, etc.). One major difference between Baroque music and the classical era that followed it is that the types of instruments used in Baroque ensembles were much less standardized. A Baroque ensemble could include one of several different types of keyboard instruments (e.g., pipe organ or harpsichord),<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/bitesize/guides/z2mv34j/revision/2|title=Baroque orchestral music|website=BBC|access-date=6 June 2019|archive-date=7 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190607011803/https://www.bbc.com/bitesize/guides/z2mv34j/revision/2|url-status=live}}</ref> additional stringed chordal instruments (e.g., a lute), bowed strings, woodwinds, and brass instruments, and an unspecified number of bass instruments performing the basso continuo,(e.g., a cello, contrabass, viola, bassoon, serpent, etc.).


Vocal developments in the Baroque era included the development of ] types such as ] and ], and related forms such as ]s and ]s.<ref name="BritannicaCantata">{{cite web|title=Cantata|url=https://www.britannica.com/art/cantata-music|website=]|access-date=November 4, 2017}}</ref><ref name="BritannicaOratorio">{{cite web|title=Oratorio|url=https://www.britannica.com/art/oratorio|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=November 4, 2017}}</ref> Vocal oeuvres of the Baroque era included suites such as ]s and ]s.<ref name="BritannicaCantata">{{cite web|title=Cantata|url=https://www.britannica.com/art/cantata-music|website=]|access-date=4 November 2017|archive-date=7 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210507153049/https://www.britannica.com/art/cantata-music|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="BritannicaOratorio">{{cite web|title=Oratorio|url=https://www.britannica.com/art/oratorio|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=4 November 2017|archive-date=3 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210603170947/https://www.britannica.com/art/oratorio|url-status=live}}</ref> Secular music was less common, and was typically characterized only by instrumental music. Like ],<ref name="SmarthistoryTheSacredBaroqueintheCatholicWorld">{{cite web |title=TheSacredBaroqueintheCatholicWorld |url=https://smarthistory.org/reframing-art-history/sacred-baroque-catholic-world/ |access-date=18 May 2023 |website=]}}</ref> themes were generally sacred and for the purpose of a catholic setting.


Important composers of this era include ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ]. Important composers of this era include ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ].


====Classical era==== ====Classical====
{{or-section|date=April 2017}}
{{Main|Classical period (music)}} {{Main|Classical period (music)}}
{{See also|List of Classical-era composers}} {{See also|List of Classical-era composers}}
] (1732–1809), portrayed by ] (1791)]]
Though the term "classical music" includes all Western art music from the medieval era to the early 2010s, the Classical era was the period of Western art music from the 1750s to the early 1820s<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 January 1750 |title=Classical Time Period timeline. |url=https://www.timetoast.com/timelines/classical-time-period |access-date=10 November 2023 |website=Timetoast timelines |language=en}}</ref>—the era of ], ], and ].


The Classical era established many of the norms of composition, presentation, and style, and when the piano became the predominant keyboard instrument. The ''basic'' forces required for an ] became somewhat standardized (though they would grow as the potential of a wider array of instruments was developed). Chamber music grew to include ensembles with as many as 8-10 performers for ]. ] continued to develop, with regional styles in Italy, France, and German-speaking lands. The '']'', a form of comic opera, rose in popularity. The ] came into its own as a musical form, and the concerto was developed as a vehicle for displays of virtuoso playing skill. Orchestras no longer required a ], and were often led by the lead violinist (now called the ]).{{sfn|Grout|1973|p=463}}
] (1732–1809) portrayed by ] (1791)]]
Though the term "classical music" includes all Western art music from the Medieval era to the 2000s, the Classical Era was the period of Western art music from the 1750s to the early 1820s—the era of ], ], and ].


Classical era musicians continued to use many of the instruments from the Baroque era, such as the cello, contrabass, recorder, trombone, timpani, fortepiano (the precursor to the modern ]) and organ. While some Baroque instruments fell into disuse e.g. the theorbo and rackett, many Baroque instruments were changed into the versions still in use today, such as the Baroque violin (which became the ]), Baroque oboe (which became the ]) and Baroque trumpet, which transitioned to the regular valved trumpet. During the Classical era, the stringed instruments used in orchestra and ] such as ]s were standardized as the four instruments which form the ] of the orchestra: the violin, viola, cello, and double bass. Baroque-era stringed instruments such as fretted, bowed ]s were phased out. Woodwinds included the ], ], ], the Classical ], the ], the flute, oboe and bassoon. Keyboard instruments included the ] and the ]. While the ] was still used in basso continuo accompaniment in the 1750s and 1760s, it fell out of use at the end of the century. Brass instruments included the ], the ] (a replacement for the bass ], which was the precursor of the ]) and the ].
The Classical era established many of the norms of composition, presentation, and style, and was also when the piano became the predominant keyboard instrument. The ''basic'' forces required for an ] became somewhat standardized (although they would grow as the potential of a wider array of instruments was developed in the following centuries). Chamber music grew to include ensembles with as many as 8 to 10 performers for ]. ] continued to develop, with regional styles in Italy, France, and German-speaking lands. The '']'', a form of comic opera, rose in popularity. The ] came into its own as a musical form, and the concerto was developed as a vehicle for displays of virtuoso playing skill. Orchestras no longer required a ] (which had been part of the traditional ''continuo'' in the Baroque style), and were often led by the lead violinist (now called the ]).<ref name="Grout73p463">], p. 463</ref>


Wind instruments became more refined in the Classical era. While ] instruments like the oboe and ] became somewhat standardized in the Baroque, the ] family of ]s was not widely used until Mozart expanded its role in orchestral, chamber, and concerto settings.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ward Kingdon|first1=Martha|title=Mozart and the clarinet|issue=2|pages=126–153|url=https://academic.oup.com/ml/article-abstract/XXVIII/2/126/1375956?redirectedFrom=PDF|journal=]|volume=XXVIII|access-date=5 November 2017|doi=10.1093/ml/XXVIII.2.126|date=1 April 1947|archive-date=24 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191224195107/https://academic.oup.com/ml/article-abstract/XXVIII/2/126/1375956?redirectedFrom=PDF|url-status=live}}</ref>
Classical era musicians continued to use many of instruments from the Baroque era, such as the cello, contrabass, recorder, trombone, timpani, fortepiano (the precursor to the modern ]) and organ. While some Baroque instruments fell into disuse (e.g., the theorbo and rackett), many Baroque instruments were changed into the versions that are still in use today, such as the Baroque violin (which became the ]), the Baroque oboe (which became the ]) and the Baroque trumpet, which transitioned to the regular valved trumpet. During the Classical era, the stringed instruments used in orchestra and ] such as ]s were standardized as the four instruments which form the ] of the ]: the violin, viola, cello, and double bass. Baroque-era stringed instruments such as fretted, bowed ]s were phased out. Woodwinds included the ], ], ], the Classical ], the ], the flute, oboe and bassoon. Keyboard instruments included the ] and the ]. While the ] was still used in basso continuo accompaniment in the 1750s and 1760s, it fell out of use at the end of the century. Brass instruments included the ], the ] (a replacement for the bass ], which was the precursor of the ]) and the ].


====Romantic====
Wind instruments became more refined in the Classical era. While ] instruments like the ] and ] became somewhat standardized in the Baroque, the ] family of ]s was not widely used until ] expanded its role in orchestral, chamber, and concerto settings.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ward Kingdon|first1=Martha|title=Mozart and the clarinet|issue=2|pages=126–153|url=https://academic.oup.com/ml/article-abstract/XXVIII/2/126/1375956?redirectedFrom=PDF|journal=]|volume=XXVIII|access-date=November 5, 2017|doi=10.1093/ml/XXVIII.2.126|date=April 1, 1947}}</ref>

Major composers of this period include ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ].

====Romantic era====
{{Main|Romantic music}} {{Main|Romantic music}}
{{See also|List of Romantic-era composers}} {{See also|List of Romantic-era composers}}
]'s 1840 painting of ] at the piano surrounded by (from left to right) ], ], ], ], ], and ] with a bust of ] on the piano]]
The music of the ], from roughly the first decade of the 19th century to the early 20th century, was characterized by increased attention to an extended melodic line, as well as expressive and emotional elements, paralleling ] in other art forms. Musical forms began to break from the Classical era forms (even as those were being codified), with free-form pieces like ]s, ], and ] being written where accepted ideas about the exposition and development of themes were ignored or minimized.{{sfn|Swafford|1992|p=200}} The music became more chromatic, dissonant, and tonally colorful, with tensions (with respect to accepted norms of the older forms) about key signatures increasing.<ref name="Swafford201">{{harvnb|Swafford|1992|p=201}}</ref> The ] (or ''Lied'') came to maturity in this era, as did the epic scales of ], ultimately transcended by ]'s ].{{sfn|Grout|1973|pp=595–612}}


In the 19th century, musical institutions emerged from the control of wealthy patrons, as composers and musicians could construct lives independent of the nobility. Increasing interest in music by the growing middle classes throughout western Europe spurred the creation of organizations for the teaching, performance, and preservation of music. The piano, which achieved its modern construction in this era (in part due to industrial advances in ]) became widely popular with the middle class, whose demands for the instrument spurred many piano builders. Many symphony orchestras date their founding to this era.<ref name="Swafford201"/> Some musicians and composers were the stars of the day; some, like ] and ], fulfilled both roles.{{sfn|Grout|1973|p=543}}
The music of the Romantic era, from roughly the first decade of the 19th century to the early 20th century, was characterized by increased attention to an extended melodic line, as well as expressive and emotional elements, paralleling ] in other art forms. Musical forms began to break from the Classical era forms (even as those were being codified), with free-form pieces like ]s, ], and ] being written where accepted ideas about the exposition and development of themes were ignored or minimized.<ref name="Swafford200">], p. 200</ref> The music became more chromatic, dissonant, and tonally colorful, with tensions (with respect to accepted norms of the older forms) about key signatures increasing.<ref name="Swafford201">], p. 201</ref> The ] (or ''Lied'') came to maturity in this era, as did the epic scales of ], ultimately transcended by ]'s ].<ref name="Grout73p595">], pp. 595–612</ref>


European cultural ideas and institutions began to follow colonial expansion into other parts of the world. There was also a rise, especially toward the end of the era, of ] (echoing, in some cases, political sentiments of the time), as composers such as ], ], and ] echoed traditional music of their homelands in their compositions.{{sfn|Grout|1973|pp=634, 641–642}}
In the 19th century, musical institutions emerged from the control of wealthy patrons, as composers and musicians could construct lives independent of the nobility. Increasing interest in music by the growing middle classes throughout western Europe spurred the creation of organizations for the teaching, performance, and preservation of music. The piano, which achieved its modern construction in this era (in part due to industrial advances in ]) became widely popular with the middle class, whose demands for the instrument spurred many piano builders. Many symphony orchestras date their founding to this era.<ref name="Swafford201"/> Some musicians and composers were the stars of the day; some, like ] and ], fulfilled both roles.<ref name="Grout73p543">], p. 543</ref>


In the Romantic era, the modern ], with a more powerful, sustained tone and a wider range took over from the more delicate-sounding fortepiano. In the orchestra, the existing Classical instruments and sections were retained (], woodwinds, brass, and percussion), but these sections were typically expanded to make a fuller, bigger sound. For example, while a Baroque orchestra may have had two double bass players, a Romantic orchestra could have as many as ten. "As music grew more expressive, the standard orchestral palette just wasn't rich enough for many Romantic composers."<ref name="classicfm.com">{{cite web |url=https://www.classicfm.com/discover/periods/romantic/romantic-music-beginners-guide/#FaXJhIVlfVSph9bq.97 |title=Romantic music: a beginner's guide – Music Periods |publisher=Classic FM |access-date=27 November 2015 |archive-date=30 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151130041816/http://www.classicfm.com/discover/periods/romantic/romantic-music-beginners-guide/#FaXJhIVlfVSph9bq.97 |url-status=live }}</ref>
European cultural ideas and institutions began to follow colonial expansion into other parts of the world. There was also a rise, especially toward the end of the era, of ] (echoing, in some cases, political sentiments of the time), as composers such as ], ], and ] echoed traditional music of their homelands in their compositions.<ref name="Grout73p634">], pp. 634, 641–42</ref>


The families of instruments used, especially in orchestras, grew larger; a process that climaxed in the early 20th century with very large orchestras used by late romantic and modernist composers. A wider array of percussion instruments began to appear. Brass instruments took on larger roles, as the introduction of ]s made it possible for them to play a wider range of notes. The size of the orchestra (typically around 40 in the Classical era) grew to be over 100.<ref name="Swafford201" /> ]'s 1906 ], for example, has been performed with over 150 instrumentalists and choirs of over 400.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Pitcher |first=John |date=January 2013 |title=Nashville Symphony |journal=] |volume=76 |number=1 |pages=8–10 }}</ref> New woodwind instruments were added, such as the ], ] and ] and new percussion instruments were added, including ]s, ]s, ]s (a bell-like keyboard instrument), ]s, and ],<ref name="classicfm.com" /> large ]s, and even ]s for ]s. ]s appear in some scores from the late 19th century onwards, usually featured as a solo instrument rather than as in integral part of the orchestra.
]


The ], a modified member of the horn family, appears in ]'s cycle '']''. It also has a prominent role in ]'s ] and is also used in several late romantic and modernist works by Richard Strauss, ], and others<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.wagner-tuba.com/ |title=The Wagner Tuba |publisher=The Wagner Tuba |access-date=4 June 2014 |archive-date=10 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140210182632/http://www.wagner-tuba.com/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Cornets appear regularly in 19th century scores, alongside trumpets which were regarded as less agile, at least until the end of the century.
In the Romantic era, the modern ], with a more powerful, sustained tone and a wider range took over from the more delicate-sounding fortepiano. In the orchestra, the existing Classical instruments and sections were retained (], woodwinds, brass, and percussion), but these sections were typically expanded to make a fuller, bigger sound. For example, while a Baroque orchestra may have had two double bass players, a Romantic orchestra could have as many as ten. "As music grew more expressive, the standard orchestral palette just wasn't rich enough for many Romantic composers." <ref name="classicfm.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.classicfm.com/discover/periods/romantic/romantic-music-beginners-guide/#FaXJhIVlfVSph9bq.97 |title=Romantic music: a beginner's guide – Music Periods |publisher=Classic FM |access-date=November 27, 2015}}</ref>


Prominent composers of this era include ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ]. ] and ] are commonly regarded as transitional composers whose music combines both late romantic and early modernist elements.
The families of instruments used, especially in orchestras, grew larger; a process that climaxed in the early 20th century with very large orchestras used by late romantic and modernist composers. A wider array of percussion instruments began to appear. Brass instruments took on larger roles, as the introduction of ]s made it possible for them to play a wider range of notes. The size of the orchestra (typically around 40 in the Classical era) grew to be over 100.<ref name="Swafford201" /> ]'s 1906 ], for example, has been performed with over 150 instrumentalists and choirs of over 400.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pitcher|first=John|date=January 2013|title=Nashville Symphony|journal=]|volume=76|number=1|pages=8–10|via=EBSCOhost}}</ref> New woodwind instruments were added, such as the ], ] and ] and new percussion instruments were added, including ]s, ]s, ]s (a bell-like keyboard instrument), ]s, and ],<ref name="classicfm.com" /> large ]s, and even ]s for ]s. ]s appear in some scores from the late 19th century onwards, usually featured as a solo instrument rather than as in integral part of the orchestra.

The ], a modified member of the horn family, appears in ]'s cycle '']''. It also has a prominent role in ]'s ] and is also used in several late romantic and modernist works by Richard Strauss, ], and others<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wagner-tuba.com/ |title=The Wagner Tuba |publisher=The Wagner Tuba |access-date=June 4, 2014}}</ref> Cornets appear regularly in 19th century scores, alongside trumpets which were regarded as less agile, at least until the end of the century.

Prominent composers of this era include ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ]. ] and ] are commonly regarded as transitional composers whose music combines both late romantic and early modernist elements.


===20th and 21st centuries=== ===20th and 21st centuries===
]. Many early 20th century composers such as Mahler, Sibelius and Vaughan Williams were heavily influenced by the forces of nature.]]{{Main|Neue Musik|20th-century classical music|21st-century classical music}}


At the turn of the century, music was characteristically late ] in style with its expressive melodies, complex harmonies, and expansive forms. This era was marked by the works of several composers who pushed forward ] ]. Composers such as ] and ] continued to develop the western classical tradition with expansive symphonies and operas, while the likes of ] and ] infused their compositions with nationalistic elements and influences from folk songs. ] began in this tradition but soon ventured into modernist territories. At the same time, the impressionist movement, spearheaded by ], was being developed in France, with ] as another notable pioneer.<ref>Robert P. Morgan (1991). Twentieth-century Music: A History of Musical Style in Modern Europe and America. Norton. ISBN 9780393952728.</ref>
{{Main|20th-century classical music|21st-century classical music}}

====Modernist era====
], by ], collaborators on '']'' (1920)]]
{{Main| Modernism (music)}}


====Modernist====
Encompassing a wide variety of ] styles, modernist classical music includes late romantic, impressionist, expressionist, and neoclassical styles of composition. Modernism marked an era when many composers rejected certain values of the common practice period, such as traditional tonality, melody, instrumentation, and structure. Some music historians regard musical modernism as an era extending from about 1890 to 1930.<ref>{{harvnb|Károlyi|1994|loc=135}}; {{harvnb|Meyer|1994|loc=331–332}}</ref> Others consider that modernism ended with one or the other of the two world wars.{{sfn|Albright|2004|loc=13}} Still other authorities claim that modernism is not associated with any historical era, but rather is "an ''attitude'' of the composer; a living construct that can evolve with the times".{{sfn|McHard|2008|loc=14}} Despite its decline in the last third of the 20th century, there remained at the end of the century an active core of composers who continued to advance the ideas and forms of modernism, such as ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ].{{sfn|Botstein|2001|loc=§9}}
{{Main|Modernism (music)}}
Modernist classical music encompasses many styles of composition that can be characterised as post romantic, impressionist, expressionist, and neoclassical. Modernism marked an era when many composers rejected certain values of the common practice period, such as traditional tonality, melody, instrumentation, and structure.<ref>Eero Tarasti, 1979. Myth and Music: A Semiotic Approach to the Aesthetics of Myth in Music. Mouton, The Hague.</ref> Some music historians regard musical modernism as an era extending from about 1890 to 1930.<ref name = karolyi>{{harvnb|Károlyi|1994|p=135}}</ref><ref name = two>{{harvnb|Meyer|1994 |pp=331–332}}</ref> Others consider that modernism ended with one or the other of the two world wars.{{sfn|Albright|2004|p=13}} Still other authorities claim that modernism is not associated with any historical era, but rather is "an ''attitude'' of the composer; a living construct that can evolve with the times".{{sfn|McHard|2008|p=14}} Despite its decline in the last third of the 20th century, there remained at the end of the century an active core of composers who continued to advance the ideas and forms of modernism, such as ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ].{{sfn|Botstein|2001|loc=§9}}


Two musical movements that were dominant during this time were the ] beginning around 1890 and the ] that started around 1908. It was a period of diverse reactions in challenging and reinterpreting older categories of music, innovations that lead to new ways of organizing and approaching harmonic, melodic, sonic, and rhythmic aspects of music, and changes in aesthetic worldviews in close relation to the larger identifiable period of ] in the arts of the time. The operative word most associated with it is "innovation".{{sfn|Metzer|2009|loc=3}} Its leading feature is a "linguistic plurality", which is to say that no single ] ever assumed a dominant position.{{sfn|Morgan|1984|loc=443}} Two musical movements that were dominant during this time were the ] beginning around 1890 and the ] that started around 1908. It was a period of diverse reactions in challenging and reinterpreting older categories of music, innovations that lead to new ways of organizing and approaching harmonic, melodic, sonic, and rhythmic aspects of music, and changes in aesthetic worldviews in close relation to the larger identifiable period of ] in the arts of the time. The operative word most associated with it is "innovation".{{sfn|Metzer|2009|p=3}} Its leading feature is a "linguistic plurality", which is to say that no single ] ever assumed a dominant position.{{sfn|Morgan|1984|p=443}}


The orchestra continued to grow in size during the early years modernist era, peaking in the first two decades of the 20th century. Saxophones that appeared only rarely during the 19th century became more commonly used as supplementary instruments, but never became core members of the orchestra. While appearing only as featured solo instruments in some works, for example ]'s orchestration of ]'s '']'' and ]'s '']'', the saxophone is included in other works such as ]'s ] and many other works as a member of the orchestral ensemble. In some compositions such as Ravel's '']'', two or more saxophones of different sizes are used to create an entire section like the other sections of the orchestra. The ] is featured in a few late ] and ] works, usually playing parts marked "tenor tuba", including ]'s '']'', and ]'s '']''. The orchestra continued to grow during the early years modernist era, peaking in the first two decades of the 20th century. Saxophones that appeared only rarely during the 19th century became more commonly used as supplementary instruments, but never became core members of the orchestra. While appearing only as featured solo instruments in some works, for example ]'s orchestration of ]'s '']'' and ]'s '']'', the saxophone is included in other works such as ]'s ] and many other works as a member of the orchestral ensemble. In some compositions such as Ravel's '']'', two or more saxophones of different sizes are used to create an entire section like the other sections of the orchestra. The ] is featured in a few late ] and ] works, usually playing parts marked "tenor tuba", including ]'s '']'', and ]'s '']''.


Prominent composers of the early 20th century include ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ], along with the aforementioned Mahler and Strauss as transitional figures who carried over from the 19th century. Prominent composers of the early 20th century include ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ], along with the aforementioned Mahler and Strauss as transitional figures who carried over from the 19th century.


====Post-modern/contemporary era==== ====Post-modern/contemporary====
{{Main|Postmodern music|Contemporary classical music}} {{Main|Postmodern music|Contemporary classical music}}
{{See also| High modernism|List of 20th-century classical composers|List of 21st-century classical composers}} {{See also| High modernism|List of 20th-century classical composers|List of 21st-century classical composers}}
] is a period of music that began as early as 1930 according to some authorities.<ref name="auto">{{harvnb|Károlyi|1994|loc=135}}</ref><ref name="auto1">{{harvnb|Meyer|1994|loc=331–32}}</ref> It shares characteristics with ] – that is, art that comes after and reacts against ]. ] is a period of music that began as early as 1930 according to some authorities.<ref name = karolyi/><ref name="two" /> It shares characteristics with ] – that is, art that comes after and reacts against ].


Some other authorities have more or less equated postmodern music with the "contemporary music" composed well after 1930, from the late 20th century through to the early 21st century.{{sfn|Sullivan|1995|p=217}}{{sfn|Beard and Gloag|2005|loc=142}} Some of the diverse movements of the postmodern/contemporary era include the neoromantic, neomedieval, minimalist, and post minimalist. Some other authorities have more or less equated postmodern music with the "contemporary music" composed well after 1930, from the late 20th century through to the early 21st century.{{sfn|Sullivan|1995|p=217}}{{sfn|Beard|Gloag|2005|p=142}} Some of the diverse movements of the postmodern/contemporary era include the neoromantic, neomedieval, minimalist, and post minimalist.


] at the beginning of the 21st century was often considered to include all post-1945 musical forms.<ref>"Contemporary" in {{harvnb|Du Noyer|2003|p=272}}</ref> A generation later, this term now properly refers to the music of today written by composers who are still alive; music that came into prominence in the mid-1970s. It includes different variations of ], ], ], and ].<ref>], "Modernism", §9: The Late 20th Century, ''Grove Music'' (subscription access).</ref> ] at the beginning of the 21st century was often considered to include all post-1945 musical forms.<ref>"Contemporary" in {{harvnb|Du Noyer|2003|p=272}}</ref> A generation later, this term now properly refers to the music of today written by composers who are still alive; music that came into prominence in the mid-1970s. It includes different variations of ], ], ], and ].{{sfn |Botstein|2001|loc=§9}}


==Performance==
==Timeline of composers==
] performing for the ] Year 2006 in Vienna]]
{{Unreferenced section|date=November 2020}}
] who have studied classical music extensively are said to be "classically trained". This training may come from private lessons from instrument or voice teachers or from completion of a formal program offered by a Conservatory, college or university, such as a ] or ] degree (which includes individual lessons from professors). In classical music, "...extensive formal music education and training, often to postgraduate level" is required.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.inputyouth.co.uk/jobguides/job-classicalmusician.html |title=Job Guide – Classical Musician |publisher=Inputyouth.co.uk |access-date=27 November 2015 |archive-date=1 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151001211945/http://www.inputyouth.co.uk/jobguides/job-classicalmusician.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
{{see also|List of classical music composers by era}}
<timeline>
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Performance of classical music repertoire requires a proficiency in ] and ] playing, ] principles, strong ] (to correct and adjust pitches by ear), knowledge of ] (e.g., Baroque ornamentation), and a familiarity with the style/musical idiom expected for a given composer or musical work (e.g., a Brahms symphony or a Mozart concerto).{{Citation needed|date=November 2017}}
Define $living = 2019 # !!need to update manually to current year


The key characteristic of European classical music that distinguishes it from ], ], and some other classical music traditions such as ], is that the repertoire tends to be written down in ], creating a musical part or ]. This score typically determines details of rhythm, pitch, and, where two or more musicians (whether singers or instrumentalists) are involved, how the various parts are coordinated. The written quality of the music has enabled a high level of complexity within them: ]s, for instance, achieve a remarkable marriage of boldly distinctive melodic lines weaving in ] yet creating a coherent ]. The use of written notation also preserves a record of the works and enables Classical musicians to perform music from many centuries ago.
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Although Classical music in the 2000s has lost most of its tradition for ], from the Baroque era to the Romantic era, there are examples of performers who could improvise in the style of their era. In the Baroque era, organ performers would improvise ], keyboard performers playing ] would improvise ] from the ] symbols beneath the bass notes of the basso continuo part and both vocal and instrumental performers would improvise ]s.<ref>Gabriel Solis, ]. ''Musical Improvisation: Art, Education, and Society.'' University of Illinois Press, 2009. p. 150</ref> ] was particularly noted for his complex improvisations.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://community.middlebury.edu/~harris/MusicPapers/baroque.html |title=On Baroque Improvisation |publisher=Community.middlebury.edu |access-date=27 November 2015 |archive-date=27 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151127221717/http://community.middlebury.edu/~harris/MusicPapers/baroque.html |url-status=live }}</ref> During the Classical era, the composer-performer ] was noted for his ability to improvise melodies in different styles.<ref>David Grayson. Mozart: Piano Concertos Nos. 20 and 21. Cambridge University Press, 1998. p. 95</ref> During the Classical era, some virtuoso soloists would improvise the ] sections of a concerto. During the Romantic era, ] would improvise at the piano.<ref>Tilman Skowronek. ''Beethoven the Pianist''. Cambridge University Press, 2010. p. 160</ref>
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==Women in classical music==
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{{Main|Women in classical music}}
{{further|Women in music}}
] was a renowned 19th-century composer and pianist, known for her symphonic works, chamber music, and art songs. ]]


] American composer and one of the first women to compose large-scale symphonic works. 1908.]]
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Almost all of the composers who are described in music textbooks on classical music and whose works are widely performed as part of the ] are male composers, even though there have been a ] throughout the history of classical music. Musicologist ] has asked "hy is ] so marginal to the standard 'classical' repertoire?"<ref name=Citron>{{cite book|last=Citron|first=Marcia J.|author-link=Marcia Citron|title=Gender and the Musical Canon|publisher=]|year=1993|isbn=978-0-521-39292-1|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/gendermusicalcan00citr}}.{{page needed|date=August 2019}}</ref> Citron "examines the practices and attitudes that have led to the exclusion of women composers from the received ']' of performed musical works". She argues that in the 1800s, women composers typically wrote ]s for performance in small recitals rather than ] intended for performance with an orchestra in a large hall, with the latter works being seen as the most important genre for composers; since women composers did not write many symphonies, they were deemed not to be notable as composers.<ref name=Citron /> In the "...''Concise Oxford History of Music'', humann]] is one of the only female composers mentioned."<ref name=rvanews>{{cite web|author=Abbey Philips|url=https://rvanews.com/features/spacebomb-truth-lies-somewhere-in-between/49992|title=The history of women and gender roles in music|publisher=Rvanews.com|date=1 September 2011|access-date=27 November 2015|archive-date=1 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151001212614/http://rvanews.com/features/spacebomb-truth-lies-somewhere-in-between/49992|url-status=live}}</ref> Abbey Philips states that "uring the 20th century the women who were composing/playing gained far less attention than their male counterparts."<ref name=rvanews />
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] French composer and the first woman to win the ]. Her emotionally deep works were highly praised, though her career was tragically cut short by illness.]]
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Historically, major professional ]s have been mostly or entirely composed of musicians who are men. Some of the earliest cases of ] was in the position of ]ist. The ], for example, did not accept women to permanent membership until 1997, far later than the other orchestras ranked among the world's top five by '']'' in 2008.<ref name="The world's greatest orchestras">{{cite web |url=https://www.gramophone.co.uk/editorial/the-world%E2%80%99s-greatest-orchestras |title=The world's greatest orchestras |work=gramophone.co.uk |date=24 October 2012 |access-date=29 April 2013 |archive-date=4 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191204191751/https://www.gramophone.co.uk/editorial/the-world%E2%80%99s-greatest-orchestras |url-status=live }}</ref>{{refn|In 1997, the Vienna Philharmonic was "facing protests during a tour" by the ] and the ]. Finally, "after being held up to increasing ridicule even in socially conservative Austria, members of the orchestra gathered in an extraordinary meeting on the eve of their departure and agreed to admit a woman, Anna Lelkes, as harpist."<ref name=JP>Jane Perlez, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170625050629/http://www.nytimes.com/1997/02/28/world/vienna-philharmonic-lets-women-join-in-harmony.html |date=25 June 2017 }}, ''The New York Times'', 28 February 1997</ref> As of 2013, the orchestra has six female members; one of them, violinist Albena Danailova became one of the orchestra's ]s in 2008, the first woman to hold that position.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.france24.com/en/20080508-vienna-opera-albena-danailova-first-female-concertmaster-austria|title=Vienna opera appoints first ever female concertmaster|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090505070427/https://www.france24.com/en/20080508-vienna-opera-albena-danailova-first-female-concertmaster-austria|archive-date=5 May 2009|publisher=]|date=8 May 2008}}</ref> In 2012, women still made up just 6% of the orchestra's membership. VPO president ] said the VPO now uses completely screened ]s.<ref name=Legends>], {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170625035851/http://www.nytimes.com/1998/02/28/arts/even-legends-adjust-to-time-and-trend-even-the-vienna.html |date=25 June 2017 }}, ''The New York Times'', 28 February 1998</ref>|group=n}} The last major orchestra to appoint a woman to a permanent position was the ].<ref>], {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071119104822/http://artsbeat.blogs.nytimes.com/2007/11/16/berlin-in-lights-the-woman-question/ |date=19 November 2007 }}, Arts Beat, ''The New York Times'', 16 November 2007</ref> As late as February 1996, the Vienna Philharmonic's principal flute, ], told '']'' that accepting women would be "gambling with the emotional unity ({{Lang|de|emotionelle Geschlossenheit}}) that this organism currently has".<ref>], "Musikalische Misogynie", 13 February 1996, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191222075311/https://www.osborne-conant.org/wdrgerm.htm |date=22 December 2019 }}; {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210718055425/http://www.osborne-conant.org/wdr.htm |date=18 July 2021 }}</ref> In April 1996, the orchestra's press secretary wrote that "compensating for the expected leaves of absence" of ] would be a problem.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.osborne-conant.org/posts/schuster.htm |title=The Vienna Philharmonic's Letter of Response to the Gen-Mus List |work=Osborne-conant.org |date=25 February 1996 |access-date=5 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181022051001/https://www.osborne-conant.org/posts/schuster.htm |archive-date=22 October 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
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] at the ], ]]]
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In 2013, an article in '']'' stated that while "any prestigious orchestras have significant female membership—women outnumber men in the ]'s violin section—and several renowned ensembles, including the ], the ], and the Minnesota Orchestra, are led by women violinists", the ], brass, and percussion sections of major orchestras "...are still predominantly male".<ref>{{cite web |author=Hannah Levintova |url=https://www.motherjones.com/media/2013/09/women-conductors-gap-charts-marin-alsop-proms |title=Here's Why You Seldom See Women Leading a Symphony |publisher=Mother Jones |access-date=27 November 2015 |archive-date=24 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151124021929/http://www.motherjones.com/media/2013/09/women-conductors-gap-charts-marin-alsop-proms |url-status=live }}</ref> A 2014 BBC article stated that the "...introduction of ], where a prospective instrumentalist performs behind a screen so that the judging panel can exercise no gender or racial prejudice, has seen the gender balance of traditionally male-dominated symphony orchestras gradually shift."<ref>{{cite web |last=Burton |first=Clemency |url=https://www.bbc.com/culture/story/20130821-why-so-few-women-conductors |title=Culture – Why aren't there more women conductors? |publisher=BBC |date=21 October 2014 |access-date=27 November 2015 |archive-date=23 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151123122422/http://www.bbc.com/culture/story/20130821-why-so-few-women-conductors |url-status=live }}</ref>
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==Relationship to other music traditions==
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===Popular music===
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] is a renowned American composer known for blending popular music elements with classical works.]]


Classical music has often incorporated elements or material from ] of the composer's time. Examples include occasional music such as Brahms' use of student ] in his '']'', genres exemplified by ]'s '']'', and the influence of ] on early and mid-20th-century composers including ], exemplified by the movement entitled "Blues" in his sonata for violin and piano.<ref>{{Cite Grove |last=Kelly |first=Barbara L. |title=Ravel, Maurice, §3: 1918–37}}</ref> Some ], ] and ] classical composers acknowledge a debt to popular music.<ref>See, for example, {{Cite Grove |last=Siôn |first=Pwyll Ap |title=Nyman, Michael}}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=June 2018|reason=A single instance cannot verify a broader claim.}}
Define $living = 2020 # !!need to update manually to current year


]'s 1924 orchestral composition '']'' has been described as ]. The composition combines elements of classical music with jazz-influenced effects.
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==Women in classical music==
{{see also|Women in classical music}}
{{Main|Women in music}}

Almost all of the composers who are described in music textbooks on classical music and whose works are widely performed as part of the ] are male composers, even though there has been a ] throughout the classical music period. Musicologist ] has asked "hy is ] so marginal to the standard 'classical' repertoire?"<ref name=Citron>{{cite book|last=Citron|first=Marcia J.|author-link=Marcia Citron|title=Gender and the Musical Canon|publisher=]|year=1993|isbn=9780521392921|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/gendermusicalcan00citr}}.{{page needed|date=August 2019}}</ref> Citron "examines the practices and attitudes that have led to the exclusion of women composers from the received ']' of performed musical works". She argues that in the 1800s, women composers typically wrote ]s for performance in small recitals rather than ] intended for performance with an orchestra in a large hall, with the latter works being seen as the most important genre for composers; since women composers did not write many symphonies, they were deemed not to be notable as composers.<ref name=Citron /> In the "...''Concise Oxford History of Music'', humann]] is one of the only{{sic}} female composers mentioned."<ref name=rvanews>{{cite web|author=Abbey Philips|url=http://rvanews.com/features/spacebomb-truth-lies-somewhere-in-between/49992|title=The history of women and gender roles in music|publisher=Rvanews.com|date=September 1, 2011|access-date=November 27, 2015}}</ref> Abbey Philips states that "uring the 20th century the women who were composing/playing gained far less attention than their male counterparts."<ref name=rvanews />

Historically, major professional ]s have been mostly or entirely composed of musicians who are men. Some of the earliest cases of ] was in the position of ]ist. The ], for example, did not accept women to permanent membership until 1997, far later than the other orchestras ranked among the world's top five by '']'' in 2008.<ref name="The world's greatest orchestras">{{cite web|url=http://www.gramophone.co.uk/editorial/the-world%E2%80%99s-greatest-orchestras |title=The world's greatest orchestras |work=gramophone.co.uk |date= October 24, 2012|access-date=April 29, 2013}}</ref> The last major orchestra to appoint a woman to a permanent position was the ].<ref>], , Arts Beat, ''The New York Times'', November 16, 2007</ref> As late as February 1996, the Vienna Philharmonic's principal flute, ], told '']'' that accepting women would be "gambling with the emotional unity ({{Lang|de|emotionelle Geschlossenheit}}) that this organism currently has".<ref name=WDR5>Westdeutscher Rundfunk Radio 5, "Musikalische Misogynie", February 13, 1996, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191222075311/http://www.osborne-conant.org/wdrgerm.htm |date=December 22, 2019 }}; </ref> In April 1996, the orchestra's press secretary wrote that "compensating for the expected leaves of absence" of ] would be a problem.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.osborne-conant.org/posts/schuster.htm |title=The Vienna Philharmonic's Letter of Response to the Gen-Mus List |work=Osborne-conant.org |date=February 25, 1996 |access-date=October 5, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181022051001/http://www.osborne-conant.org/posts/schuster.htm |archive-date=October 22, 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In 1997, the Vienna Philharmonic was "facing protests during a tour" by the ] and the ]. Finally, "after being held up to increasing ridicule even in socially conservative Austria, members of the orchestra gathered in an extraordinary meeting on the eve of their departure and agreed to admit a woman, Anna Lelkes, as harpist."<ref name=JP>Jane Perlez, , ''The New York Times'', February 28, 1997</ref> As of 2013, the orchestra has six female members; one of them, violinist Albena Danailova became one of the orchestra's ]s in 2008, the first woman to hold that position.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.france24.com/en/20080508-vienna-opera-albena-danailova-first-female-concertmaster-austria|title=Vienna opera appoints first ever female concertmaster|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090505070427/http://www.france24.com/en/20080508-vienna-opera-albena-danailova-first-female-concertmaster-austria|archive-date=May 5, 2009|publisher=]|date=May 8, 2008}}</ref> In 2012, women still made up just 6% of the orchestra's membership. VPO president ] said the VPO now uses completely screened ]s.<ref name=Legends>], , ''The New York Times'', February 28, 1998</ref>

In 2013, an article in ''Mother Jones'' stated that while "any prestigious orchestras have significant female membership—women outnumber men in the ]'s violin section—and several renowned ensembles, including the ], the ], and the Minnesota Symphony, are led by women violinists," the ], brass, and percussion sections of major orchestras "...are still predominantly male".<ref>{{cite web|author=Hannah Levintova |url=https://www.motherjones.com/media/2013/09/women-conductors-gap-charts-marin-alsop-proms |title=Here's Why You Seldom See Women Leading a Symphony |publisher=Mother Jones |access-date=November 27, 2015}}</ref> A 2014 BBC article stated that the "...introduction of ], where a prospective instrumentalist performs behind a screen so that the judging panel can exercise no gender or racial prejudice, has seen the gender balance of traditionally male-dominated symphony orchestras gradually shift."<ref>{{cite web|last=Burton |first=Clemency |url=http://www.bbc.com/culture/story/20130821-why-so-few-women-conductors |title=Culture – Why aren't there more women conductors? |publisher=BBC |date=October 21, 2014 |access-date=November 27, 2015}}</ref>

==Relationship to other music traditions==

===Popular music===
Classical music has often incorporated elements or material from popular music of the composer's time. Examples include occasional music such as Brahms' use of student drinking songs in his '']'', genres exemplified by ]'s '']'', and the influence of jazz on early and mid-20th-century composers including ], exemplified by the movement entitled "Blues" in his sonata for violin and piano.<ref>{{GroveOnline |last=Kelly |first=Barbara L. |title=Ravel, Maurice, §3: 1918–37}}</ref> Some ], ] and ] classical composers acknowledge a debt to popular music.<ref>See, for example, {{GroveOnline |last=Siôn |first=Pwyll Ap |title=Nyman, Michael}}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=June 2018|reason=A single instance cannot verify a broader claim.}}


Numerous examples show influence in the opposite direction, including popular songs based on classical music, the use to which '']'' has been put since the 1970s, and the musical ] phenomenon, where classical musicians have achieved success in the popular music arena.<ref>Notable examples are the '']'' series of recordings made by the ] in the early 1980s and the classical crossover violinists ] and ].</ref> In ], a number of ]s (playing ]), including ] and ],<ref>{{Cite thesis|last1=Carew|first1=Francis Wayne|title=The Guitar Voice of Randy Rhoads|date=January 1, 2018|pages=1–2|type=Master of Arts|publisher=]|url=https://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1668&context=oa_theses|access-date=October 2, 2019}}</ref> modeled their playing styles on Baroque or Classical-era instrumental music.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Walser|first=Robert|author-link=Robert Walser (musicologist)|date=October 1992|title=Eruptions: heavy metal appropriations of classical virtuosity|journal=Popular Music|volume=11|issue=3|pages=263–308|doi=10.1017/s0261143000005158|issn=0261-1430}}</ref> Numerous examples show influence in the opposite direction, including popular songs based on classical music, the use to which '']'' has been put since the 1970s, and the musical ] phenomenon, where classical musicians have achieved success in the popular music arena.<ref>Notable examples are the '']'' series of recordings made by the ] in the early 1980s and the classical crossover violinists ] and ].</ref> In ], a number of ]s (playing ]), including ] and ],<ref>{{Cite thesis|last1=Carew|first1=Francis Wayne|title=The Guitar Voice of Randy Rhoads|date=1 January 2018|pages=1–2|type=Master of Arts|publisher=]|url=https://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1668&context=oa_theses|access-date=2 October 2019|archive-date=29 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190329085902/https://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1668&context=oa_theses|url-status=live}}</ref> modeled their playing styles on Baroque or Classical-era instrumental music.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Walser|first=Robert|author-link=Robert Walser (musicologist)|date=October 1992|title=Eruptions: heavy metal appropriations of classical virtuosity|journal=Popular Music|volume=11|issue=3|pages=263–308|doi=10.1017/s0261143000005158|s2cid=162682249 |issn=0261-1430}}</ref>


===Folk music=== ===Folk music===
Composers of classical music have often made use of ] (music created by musicians who are commonly not classically trained, often from a purely oral tradition). Some composers, like ] and ],<ref name="Yeomans2">{{cite book|last=Yeomans|first=David|title=Piano Music of the Czech Romantics: A Performer's Guide|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=2006|isbn=978-0-253-21845-2|page=2}}</ref> have used folk themes to impart a nationalist flavor to their work, while others like ] have used specific themes lifted whole from their folk-music origins.<ref name="Stevens129">{{cite book|last=Stevens|first=Haley|author2=Gillies, Malcolm|title=The Life and Music of Béla Bartók|year=1993|isbn=978-0-19-816349-7|page=129|publisher=Clarendon Press|location=Oxford}}</ref> Composers of classical music have often made use of ] (music created by musicians who are commonly not classically trained, often from a purely oral tradition). Some composers, like ] and ],<ref name="Yeomans2">{{cite book|last=Yeomans|first=David|title=Piano Music of the Czech Romantics: A Performer's Guide|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=2006|isbn=978-0-253-21845-2|page=2}}</ref> have used folk themes to impart a nationalist flavor to their work, while others like ] have used specific themes lifted whole from their folk-music origins.<ref name="Stevens129">{{cite book|last=Stevens|first=Haley|author2=Gillies, Malcolm|title=The Life and Music of Béla Bartók|year=1993|isbn=978-0-19-816349-7|page=129|publisher=Clarendon Press|location=Oxford}}</ref> ] widely incorporated into his work the folk music of his native ], but also other ethnic groups of the Middle East and Eastern Europe.<ref>{{cite book|chapter=Khachaturyan|last=Bakst|first=James|title=A History of Russian-Soviet Music|date=1977|publisher=]|location=Westport, Connecticut|isbn=0837194229|edition=Reprint|page=336}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Rosenberg|first=Kenyon C.|chapter=Khachaturian, Aram|title=A Basic Classical and Operatic Recordings Collection for Libraries|year=1987|publisher=]|location=Metuchen, New Jersey|isbn=9780810820418|pages=112}}</ref>


==Commercialization== ==Commercialization==
] and ], live classical music performances have been compiled into compilation CDs (] for ], 1986).]]
Certain staples of classical music are often used commercially (either in advertising or in movie soundtracks). In television commercials, several passages have become ]d, particularly the opening of ]' '']'' (made famous in the film '']'') and the opening section "]" of ]'s '']''; other examples include the "]" from the ] ], ]'s "]" from '']'', the opening bars of ]'s ], ]'s "]" from '']'', ]'s "]", and excerpts of ]'s '']''.{{Citation needed|date=March 2016}} Several works from the ] matched the action to classical music. Notable examples are ]'s '']'', ]'s '']'', and ]' '']'' and '']''
Certain staples of classical music are often used commercially (either in advertising or in movie soundtracks). In television commercials, several passages have become ]d, particularly the opening of ]' '']'' (made famous in the film '']'') and the opening section "]" of ]'s '']''; other examples include the "]" from the ] ], ]'s "]" from '']'', the opening bars of ]'s ], ]'s "]", ]'s "]" from '']'', ]'s "]", and excerpts of ]'s '']''.{{Citation needed|date=March 2016}} Several works from the ] matched the action to classical music. Notable examples are ]'s '']'', ]'s '']'', and ]' '']'' and '']''


Similarly, movies and television often revert to standard, clichéd excerpts of classical music to convey refinement or opulence: some of the most-often heard pieces in this category include ]´s ], ]'s '']'', ]'s '']'', ]'s '']'' (as orchestrated by Rimsky-Korsakov), and ]'s "]". Shawn Vancour argues that the commercialization of classical music in the early 20th century may have harmed the ] through inadequate representation.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Vancour|first=Shawn|title=Popularizing the Classics: Radio's Role in the Music Appreciation Movement 1922–34.|journal=Media, Culture and Society|date=March 2009|volume=31|issue=2|page=19|doi=10.1177/0163443708100319|s2cid=144331723}}</ref> Similarly, movies and television often use standard, clichéd excerpts of classical music to convey refinement or opulence: some of the most-often heard pieces in this category include ]'s ], ]'s '']'', ]'s '']'', ]'s '']'' (as orchestrated by Rimsky-Korsakov), and ]'s "]". Shawn Vancour argues the commercialization of classical music in the 1920s may have harmed the ].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Vancour|first=Shawn|title=Popularizing the Classics: Radio's Role in the Music Appreciation Movement 1922–34.|journal=Media, Culture & Society|date=March 2009|volume=31|issue=2|page=19|doi=10.1177/0163443708100319|s2cid=144331723}}</ref>


==Education== ==Education==
{{Main|Music education}} {{further|Music education}}
During the 1990s, several research papers and popular books wrote on what came to be called the "]": an observed temporary, small elevation of scores on certain tests as a result of listening to Mozart's works. The approach has been popularized in a book by Don Campbell, and is based on an experiment published in '']'' suggesting that listening to Mozart temporarily boosted students' ] by 8 to 9 points.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1038/23611|pmid=10476959|title=Prelude or requiem for the 'Mozart effect'?|journal=]|volume=400|issue=6747|pages=827–828|year=1999|last1=Steele|first1=Kenneth M.|last2=Bella|first2=Simone Dalla|last3=Peretz|first3=Isabelle|last4=Dunlop|first4=Tracey|last5=Dawe|first5=Lloyd A.|last6=Humphrey|first6=G. Keith|last7=Shannon|first7=Roberta A.|last8=Kirby|first8=Johnny L.|last9=Olmstead|first9=C. G.|bibcode=1999Natur.400..827S|s2cid=4352029|url=http://libres.uncg.edu/ir/asu/f/Steele_KM_1999_Prelude_or_Requiem.pdf}}</ref> This popularized version of the theory was expressed succinctly by the '']'' music columnist ]: "researchers... have determined that listening to Mozart actually makes you smarter."<ref>]. , '']'', August 28, 1994. Retrieved on May 16, 2008.</ref> Promoters marketed CDs claimed to induce the effect. Florida passed a law requiring toddlers in state-run schools to listen to classical music every day, and in 1998 the governor of Georgia budgeted $105,000 per year to provide every child born in Georgia with a tape or CD of classical music. One of the co-authors of the original studies of the Mozart effect commented "I don't think it can hurt. I'm all for exposing children to wonderful cultural experiences. But I do think the money could be better spent on ] programs."<ref>Goode, Erica. , '']'', August 3, 1999. Retrieved on May 16, 2008.</ref> During the 1990s, several research papers and popular books wrote on what came to be called the "]": an observed temporary, small elevation of scores on ] tests as a result of listening to Mozart's music. The approach has been popularized in a book by Don Campbell, and is based on an experiment published in '']'' suggesting that listening to Mozart temporarily boosted students' ] by 8 to 9 points.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1038/23611|pmid=10476959|title=Prelude or requiem for the 'Mozart effect'?|journal=]|volume=400|issue=6747|pages=827–828|year=1999|last1=Steele|first1=Kenneth M.|last2=Bella|first2=Simone Dalla|last3=Peretz|first3=Isabelle|last4=Dunlop|first4=Tracey|last5=Dawe|first5=Lloyd A.|last6=Humphrey|first6=G. Keith|last7=Shannon|first7=Roberta A.|last8=Kirby|first8=Johnny L.|last9=Olmstead|first9=C. G.|bibcode=1999Natur.400..827S|s2cid=4352029|url=https://libres.uncg.edu/ir/asu/f/Steele_KM_1999_Prelude_or_Requiem.pdf|access-date=17 February 2022|archive-date=30 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211030091404/http://libres.uncg.edu/ir/asu/f/Steele_KM_1999_Prelude_or_Requiem.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> This popularized version of the theory was expressed succinctly by the '']'' music columnist ]: "researchers... have determined that listening to Mozart actually makes you smarter."<ref>]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220217100802/https://www.nytimes.com/1994/08/28/arts/classical-view-listening-to-prozac-er-mozart.html |date=17 February 2022 }}, '']'', 28 August 1994. Retrieved on 16 May 2008.</ref> Promoters marketed CDs claimed to induce the effect. Florida passed a law requiring toddlers in state-run schools to listen to classical music every day, and in 1998 the governor of Georgia budgeted $105,000 per year to provide every child born in Georgia with a tape or CD of classical music. One of the co-authors of the original studies of the Mozart effect commented "I don't think it can hurt. I'm all for exposing children to wonderful cultural experiences. But I do think the money could be better spent on ] programs."<ref>Goode, Erica. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220217100804/https://www.nytimes.com/1999/08/03/science/mozart-for-baby-some-say-maybe-not.html |date=17 February 2022 }}, '']'', 3 August 1999. Retrieved on 16 May 2008.</ref>


==References==
{{citation needed-span|date=April 2019|text=In 1996/97, a research study was conducted on a population of preschool through college students in the ] in Denver, Colorado, US. The study showed that students who actively listen to classical music before studying had higher academic scores. The research further indicated that students who listened to the music prior to an examination also had positively elevated achievement scores. Students who listened to ] or ] had moderately lower scores. The study further indicated that students who used classical music during the course of study had a significant leap in their academic performance; whereas, those who listened to other types of music had significantly lowered academic scores. The research was conducted over several schools within the Cherry Creek School District and was conducted through the ].}} This study is reflective of several recent studies (i.e. Mike Manthei and Steve N. Kelly of the University of Nebraska at Omaha; Donald A. Hodges and Debra S. O'Connell<ref>{{cite book|chapter-url=http://www.issaquah.wednet.edu/documents/highschool/Schedule/Arts/Achievement.pdf|chapter=2. The Impact of Music Education on Academic Achievement|author1=Donald A. Hodges|author2=Debra S. O'Connell|title=Sounds of Learning: the Impact of Music Education|editor=M Luehrsen|publisher=International Foundation for Music Research|year=2005|via=]|access-date=February 1, 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120916075557/http://www.issaquah.wednet.edu/documents/highschool/Schedule/Arts/Achievement.pdf |archive-date=September 16, 2012|postscript=none}}, review of several studies in this field.</ref> of the ]) and others.{{Full citation needed|date=September 2016}}
===Notes===
{{Reflist|group=n}}


==See also== ===Citations===
{{Reflist|22em}}
{{Portal|Classical music}}
* ]
* ]


===Sources===
'''Nation-specific:'''
==== Books ====
* ]
{{refbegin|30em}}
* ]
* {{cite book |last=Albright |first=Daniel |year=2004 |title=Modernism and Music: An Anthology of Sources |publisher=] |location=Chicago |isbn=0-226-01267-0 }}
* ]
* {{cite book |last1=Beard |first1=David |last2=Gloag |first2=Kenneth |year=2005 |title=Musicology: The Key Concepts |publisher=] |location=London |isbn=978-0-415-31692-7 }}
* ]
* {{cite book |last1=Burkholder |first1=J. Peter |author-link1=J. Peter Burkholder |last2=Grout |first2=Donald Jay |author-link2=Donald Jay Grout |last3=Palisca |first3=Claude V. |author-link3=Claude V. Palisca |year=2014 |title=A History of Western Music |edition=9th |publisher=] |location=New York |isbn=978-0-393-91829-8 }}
* ]
* {{cite book |editor-last=Du Noyer |editor-first=Paul |editor-link=Paul Du Noyer |year=2003 |title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Music: From Rock, Pop, Jazz, Blue, and Hip-Hop to Classical, Folk, World, and More |publisher=Flame Tree |location=London |isbn=978-1-904041-70-2 }}
* ]
* {{cite book |last=Fassler |first=Margot |author-link=Margot Fassler |editor-last=Frisch |editor-first=Walter |year=2014 |title=Music in the Medieval West |series=Western Music in Context: A Norton History |edition=1st |publisher=] |location=New York |isbn=978-0-393-92915-7 }}
* ]
* {{cite book |last=Grout |first=Donald Jay |author-link=Donald Jay Grout |year=1973 |title=A History of Western Music |publisher=] |location=New York |isbn=978-0-393-09416-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofwestern00grou |url-access=limited }}
* ]
* {{cite book |last=Hanning |first=Barbara Russano |author-link=Barbara Russano Hanning |year=2002 |orig-year=1998 |title=Concise History of Western Music |edition=2nd |publisher=] |location=New York |isbn=0-393-97775-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof0000hann |url-access=limited }}
* ]
* {{cite book |last=Hoppin |first=Richard |author-link=Richard Hoppin |year=1978 |title=Medieval Music |series=The Norton Introduction to Music History |edition=1st |publisher=] |location=New York |isbn=978-0-393-09090-1}}
* ]
* {{cite book |last=Károlyi |first=Ottó |author-link=Ottó Károlyi |year=1994 |title=Modern British Music: The Second British Musical Renaissance – From Elgar to P. Maxwell Davies |publisher=] |location=Madison |isbn=0-8386-3532-6 }}
* ]
* {{cite book |last=McHard |first=James L. |year=2008 |title=The Future of Modern Music: A Philosophical Exploration of Modernist Music in the 20th Century and Beyond |edition=3rd |publisher=Iconic Press |location=Livonia |isbn=978-0-9778195-1-5 }}
* ]
* {{cite book |last=Metzer |first=David Joel |year=2009 |title=Musical Modernism at the Turn of the Twenty-first Century |series=Music in the Twentieth Century 26 |publisher=] |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-51779-9 }}
* ]
* {{cite book |last=Meyer |first=Leonard B. |year=1994 |title=Music, the Arts, and Ideas: Patterns and Predictions in Twentieth-Century Culture |edition=2nd |publisher=] |location=Chicago |isbn=0-226-52143-5 }}
* ]
* {{cite book |last=Pauly |first=Reinhard G. |year=1988 |title=Music in the Classic Period |edition=1st |publisher=] |location=Englewood Cliffs |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/musicinclassicpe0000paul_u2j5 |url-access=limited }}
* {{cite book |last=Reese |first=Gustave |author-link=Gustave Reese |year=1940 |title=Music in the Middle Ages: With an Introduction on the Music of Ancient Times |publisher=] |location=Lanham, Maryland |isbn=978-0-393-09750-4 }}
* {{cite book |last=Stolba |first=K Marie |year=1998 |title=The Development of Western Music: A History |edition=3rd |publisher=] |location=New York |isbn=0-697-29379-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/developmentofwes0000stol_t2w0 |url-access=limited }}
* {{cite book |last=Sullivan |first=Henry W. |year=1995 |title=The Beatles with Lacan: Rock 'n' Roll as Requiem for the Modern Age |series=Sociocriticism: Literature, Society and History Series 4 |publisher=] |location=New York |isbn=0-8204-2183-9 }}
* {{cite book |last=Swafford |first=Jan |author-link=Jan Swafford |year=1992 |title=The Vintage Guide to Classical Music |publisher=Vintage Books |location=New York |isbn=978-0-679-72805-4 }}
* {{cite book |last=Taruskin |first=Richard |author-link=Richard Taruskin |year=2005 |title=Oxford History of Western Music |publisher=] |location=New York |isbn=978-0-19-516979-9 |url=https://www.oxfordwesternmusic.com/ |url-access=subscription }}
* {{cite book |last=Weber |first=William |editor-last1=Cook |editor-first1=Nicholas |editor-link1=Nicholas Cook |editor-last2=Everist |editor-first2=Mark |editor-link2=Mark Everist |year=1999 |title=Rethinking Music |chapter=The History of Musical Canon |pages=336–355 |publisher=] |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-879003-7 |chapter-url=https://www.some.ox.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/2.-Weber-1999-The-history-of-musical-canon.pdf }}
* {{cite book |last=Yudkin |first=Jeremy |year=1989 |title=Music in Medieval Europe |edition=1st |publisher=] |location=Upper Saddle River |isbn=978-0-13-608192-0 }}
{{refend}}


==== Journal and encyclopedia articles ====
==References==
{{Reflist}} {{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Botstein |first=Leon |author-link=Leon Botstein |year=2001 |encyclopedia=] |title=Modernism |publisher=] |location=Oxford |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.40625 |isbn=978-1-56159-263-0 |url-access=subscription |url=https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-0000040625 }} {{Grove Music subscription}}

* {{cite journal |last=Bowles |first=Edmund A. |date=1954 |title=Haut and Bas: The Grouping of Musical Instruments in the Middle Ages |journal=] |volume=8 |pages=115–140 |jstor=20531877 }}
===Sources===
* {{cite journal |last=Gampel |first=Alan |date=2012 |title=Papyrological Evidence of Musical Notation From the 6th to the 8th Centuries |journal=] |volume=57 |pages=5–50 |jstor=24427165 }}
* {{wikicite|ref={{harvid|Albright|2004}}|reference=Albright. 2004. {{Full citation needed|date=April 2020|reason=orphaned short citation in the text lacks a target here in the reflist}}.}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Heartz |first=Daniel |author-link=Daniel Heartz |others=Revised by ] |year=2001 |encyclopedia=] |title=Classical |publisher=] |location=Oxford |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.05889 |isbn=978-1-56159-263-0 |url-access=subscription |url=https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-0000005889 }} {{Grove Music subscription}}
* {{wikicite|ref={{harvid|Botstein|2001}}|reference=Botstein, Leon. 2001. {{Full citation needed|date=April 2020|reason=Almost certainly one of his articles from the New Grove, second edition, but which one? Inline short citation was orphaned}} {{GroveOnline||||}}.}}
* {{cite journal |last=Locke |first=Ralph P. |author-link=Ralph P. Locke |date=2012 |title=On Exoticism, Western Art Music, and the Words We Use |journal=] |volume=69 |issue=H. 4 |pages=318–328 |doi=10.25162/afmw-2012-0028 |jstor=23375158 |s2cid=252447994 }}
* {{wikicite|ref={{harvid|Beard and Gloag|2005}}|reference=Beard, David, and Kenneth Gloag. 2005. ''Musicology: The Key Concepts''. New York: Routledge. {{ISBN|978-0-415-31692-7}}.}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=McVeigh |first=Simon |year=2001 |encyclopedia=] |title=London (i) |publisher=] |location=Oxford |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.16904 |isbn=978-1-56159-263-0 |url-access=subscription |url=https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-0000016904 }} {{Grove Music subscription}}
* {{wikicite|ref={{harvid|Bowles|1954}}|reference=Bowles, Edmund A. 1954. "Haut and Bas: The Grouping of Musical Instruments in the Middle Ages". ''Musica Disciplina'' 8: 115–40.}}
* {{cite journal |last=Morgan |first=Robert P. |date=1984 |title=Secret Languages: The Roots of Musical Modernism |journal=] |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=442–461 |doi=10.1086/448257 |jstor=1343302 |s2cid=161937907 }}
*{{wikicite|ref={{harvid|Du Noyer|2003}}|reference=Du Noyer, Paul (ed.). 2003. ''The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Music: From Rock, Pop, Jazz, Blue, and Hip-Hop to Classical, Folk, World, and More''. London: Flame Tree. {{ISBN|978-1-904041-70-2}}.}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Schulenberg |first=David |author-link=:fr:David Schulenberg |editor-last1=Rice |editor-first1=Timothy |editor-last2=Porter |editor-first2=James |editor-last3=Goertzen |editor-first3=Chris |year=2000 |encyclopedia=]: Europe |title=History of European Art Music |publisher=] |location=Abingdon-on-Thames |url= |isbn=0-8240-6034-2 |pages=99–119 }}
* {{cite book|title=A History of Western Music|first=Donald Jay|last=Grout|author-link=Donald Jay Grout|publisher=W. W. Norton|year=1973|isbn=978-0-393-09416-9|ref=Grout73|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofwestern00grou}} (limited book preview)
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Owens |first=Tom C. |editor-last=Stearns |editor-first=Peter N. |editor-link=Peter Stearns |year=2008 |entry=Classical Music |encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern World |publisher=] |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-517632-2 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195176322.001.0001/acref-9780195176322-e-320?rskey=HyY0tY&result=3 |url-access=subscription }}
* {{cite book|title=A History of Western Music|last1=Grout|first1=Donald J.|last2=Palisca|first2=Claude V.|author-link2=Claude V. Palisca|year=1988|publisher=W. W. Norton|isbn=978-0-393-95627-6|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofwestern0004grou}} (limited book preview)
{{refend}}
* {{Cite book|last=Johnson|first=Julian|year=2002|title=Who Needs Classical Music?: Cultural Choice and Musical Value|publisher=Oxford University Press}}
* {{wikicite|ref={{harvid|Hall, Neitz, and Battani|2003}}|reference=Hall, John R., Mary Jo Neitz, and Marshall Battani. 2003. ''Sociology on Culture''. Sociology/Cultural Studies. London and New York: Routledge. {{ISBN|978-0-415-28484-4}} (cloth); {{ISBN|978-0-415-28485-1}} (pbk).}}
* {{wikicite|ref={{harvid|Károlyi|1994}}|reference=]. 1994. ''Modern British Music: The Second British Musical Renaissance – From Elgar to P. Maxwell Davies''. Rutherford, Madison, Teaneck: Farleigh Dickinson University Press; London and Toronto: Associated University Presses. {{ISBN|0-8386-3532-6}}.}}
* {{wikicite|ref={{harvid|Katz|1946}}|reference=] (1946; reprinted 2007), ''Challenge to Musical Tradition – A New Concept of Tonality''. Alfred A. Knopf/reprinted by Katz Press, 444pp., {{ISBN|1-4067-5761-6}}.}}
* {{wikicite|ref={{harvid|Kennedy|2006}}|reference=] (2006), ''The Oxford Dictionary of Music'', 985 pages, {{ISBN|0-19-861459-4}}}}
* {{cite encyclopedia|last1=Kennedy|first1=Michael |last2=Kennedy |first2=Joyce B.|author-link1=Michael Kennedy (music critic)|year=2013|orig-year=2012|edition=6th paperback|editor=Tim Rutherford-Johnson|title=The Oxford Dictionary of Music|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XX2sAQAAQBAJ|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-957854-2 }}
* {{wikicite|ref={{harvid|McHard|2008}}|reference=McHard. 2008. {{Full citation needed|date=April 2020|reason=Short citation in the text does not have a corresponding target here in the reflist}}.}}
* {{wikicite|ref={{harvid|Metzer|2009}}|reference=Metzer, David Joel. 2009. ''Musical Modernism at the Turn of the Twenty-first Century''. Music in the Twentieth Century 26. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-521-51779-9}}.}}
* {{wikicite|ref={{harvid|Meyer|1994}}|reference=Meyer, Leonard B. 1994. ''Music, the Arts, and Ideas: Patterns and Predictions in Twentieth-Century Culture'', second edition. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. {{ISBN|0-226-52143-5}}.}}
* {{wikicite|ref={{harvid|Morgan|1984}}|reference=Morgan, Robert P. 1984. "Secret Languages: The Roots of Musical Modernism". '']'' 10, no. 3 (March): 442–61.}}
* {{wikicite|ref={{harvid|Sullivan|1995}}|reference=Sullivan, Henry W. 1995. ''The Beatles with Lacan: Rock 'n' Roll as Requiem for the Modern Age''. Sociocriticism: Literature, Society and History Series 4. New York: Lang. {{ISBN|0-8204-2183-9}}.}}
* {{cite book|title=The Vintage Guide to Classical Music|first=Jan|last=Swafford|author-link=Jan Swafford|publisher=Vintage Books|location=New York|year=1992|isbn=978-0-679-72805-4|ref=Swafford}}


==Further reading== ==Further reading==
{{div col|colwidth=45em}}
* ] (1957) ''What to Listen for in Music''; rev. ed. McGraw-Hill. (paperback).
* {{cite book |editor-last1=Beckerman |editor-first1=Michael |editor-last2=Boghossian |editor-first2=Paul |editor-link2=Paul Boghossian |year=2021 |title=Classical Music: Contemporary Perspectives and Challenges |publisher=] |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-1-80064-116-7 |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=Q7goEAAAQBAJ}} }}
* Gray, Anne; (2007) ''The World of Women in Classical Music'', Wordworld Publications. {{ISBN|1-59975-320-0}} (Paperback)
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Bryant |first=Wanda |editor-last1=Rice |editor-first1=Timothy |editor-last2=Porter |editor-first2=James |editor-last3=Goertzen |editor-first3=Chris |year=2000 |encyclopedia=]: Europe |title=Ancient Greek Music |publisher=] |location=Abingdon-on-Thames |url= |isbn=0-8240-6034-2 |pages=77–79|ref=none}}
* ]; Grout, Donald Jay (1998 rev. 2009) ''Concise History of Western Music''. W.W. Norton & Company. {{ISBN|0-393-92803-9}} (hardcover).
* {{cite book |last=Hanning |first=Barbara Russano |author-link=Barbara Russano Hanning |year=2002 |orig-year=1998 |title=Concise History of Western Music |edition=2nd |publisher=] |location=New York |isbn=0-393-97775-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof0000hann |url-access=limited |ref=none }}
* ] (2008) ''Music: an appreciation''; 6th brief ed. McGraw-Hill {{ISBN|978-0-07-340134-8}}
* {{cite book|last=Lebrecht|first=Norman|author-link=Norman Lebrecht|title=When the Music Stops: Managers, Maestros and the Corporate Murder of Classical Music|publisher=Simon & Schuster|year=1996|isbn=978-0-671-01025-6|ref=none}} * {{Cite book|last=Johnson |first=Julian |year=2002 |title=Who Needs Classical Music?: Cultural Choice and Musical Value |publisher=] |location=Oxford|ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Kramer |first=Lawrence |author-link=Lawrence Kramer (musicologist) |year=2007 |title=Why Classical Music Still Matters |series=Simpson Book in the Humanities |publisher=] |location=Berkeley |isbn=978-0-520-25082-6 }}
* Lihoreau, Tim; ] (2004) '']''. Boxtree. {{ISBN|978-0-7522-2534-0}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Nettl |first=Bruno |author-link=Bruno Nettl |editor-last1=Rice |editor-first1=Timothy |editor-last2=Porter |editor-first2=James |editor-last3=Goertzen |editor-first3=Chris |year=2000 |encyclopedia=]: Europe |title=The Role of History in Contemporary European Art-Music Culture |publisher=] |location=Abingdon-on-Thames |url= |isbn=0-8240-6034-2 |pages=89–98|ref=none}}
* ]; ] (1988) '']''. Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-311316-3}} (paperback).
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Nettl |first=Bruno|year=2014 |orig-year=2001 |encyclopedia=] |title=Music |publisher=] |location=Oxford |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.40476 |isbn=978-1-56159-263-0|url-access=subscription |url=https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-0000040476|ref=none}} {{Grove Music subscription}}
* Schick, Kyle (2012). , Musical Offerings: Vol. 3: No. 1, Article 3.
* {{cite book |editor-last=Randel |editor-first=Don Michael |editor-link=Don Michael Randel |year=2003 |title=The Harvard Dictionary of Music |publisher=] |location=Cambridge |edition=4th |isbn=978-0674011632 |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=02rFSecPhEsC}}|ref=none}}
* Sorce Keller, Marcello (2011) ''What Makes Music European. Looking Beyond Sound''. Latham, New Jersey: Scarecrow Press.
* {{cite book |last=Scholes |first=Percy |author-link1=Percy Scholes |author-link2=Denis Arnold |year=1988 |title=] |publisher=] |location=Oxford |isbn=0-19-311316-3 |ref=none }}
* ] (2005, rev. paperback version 2009) ''Oxford History of Western Music''. Oxford University Press (US). {{ISBN|978-0-19-516979-9}} (Hardback), {{ISBN|978-0-19-538630-1}} (Paperback)
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Seebass |first=Tilman |editor-last1=Rice |editor-first1=Timothy |editor-last2=Porter |editor-first2=James |editor-last3=Goertzen |editor-first3=Chris |year=2000 |encyclopedia=]: Europe |title=Notation and Transmission in European Music History |publisher=] |location=Abingdon-on-Thames |url= |isbn=0-8240-6034-2 |pages=80–88|ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Stolba |first=K Marie |year=1998 |title=The Development of Western Music: A History |edition=3rd |publisher=] |location=New York |isbn=0-697-29379-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/developmentofwes0000stol_t2w0 |url-access=limited |ref=none }}
{{div col end}}


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Latest revision as of 00:31, 2 January 2025

Broad tradition of Western art music This article is about Western art music from the Middle Ages to the present. For other uses, see Classical music (disambiguation).

Members of a youth orchestra standing to acknowledge applause after performing.

Classical music generally refers to the art music of the Western world, considered to be distinct from Western folk music or popular music traditions. It is sometimes distinguished as Western classical music, as the term "classical music" can also be applied to non-Western art musics. Classical music is often characterized by formality and complexity in its musical form and harmonic organization, particularly with the use of polyphony. Since at least the ninth century it has been primarily a written tradition, spawning a sophisticated notational system, as well as accompanying literature in analytical, critical, historiographical, musicological and philosophical practices. A foundational component of Western culture, classical music is frequently seen from the perspective of individual or groups of composers, whose compositions, personalities and beliefs have fundamentally shaped its history.

Rooted in the patronage of churches and royal courts in Western Europe, surviving early medieval music is chiefly religious, monophonic and vocal, with the music of ancient Greece and Rome influencing its thought and theory. The earliest extant music manuscripts date from the Carolingian Empire (800–888), around the time which Western plainchant gradually unified into what is termed Gregorian chant. Musical centers existed at the Abbey of Saint Gall, the Abbey of Saint Martial and Saint Emmeram's Abbey, while the 11th century saw the development of staff notation and increasing output from medieval music theorists. By the mid-12th century France became the major European musical center: The religious Notre-Dame school first fully explored organized rhythms and polyphony, while secular music flourished with the troubadour and trouvère traditions led by poet-musician nobles. This culminated in the court sponsored French ars nova and Italian Trecento, which evolved into ars subtilior, a stylistic movement of extreme rhythmic diversity. Beginning in the early 15th century, Renaissance composers of the influential Franco-Flemish School built off the harmonic principles in the English contenance angloise, bringing choral music to new standards, particularly the mass and motet. Northern Italy soon emerged as the central musical region, where the Roman School engaged in highly sophisticated methods of polyphony in genres such as the madrigal, which inspired the brief English Madrigal School.

The Baroque period (1580–1750) saw the relative standardization of common-practice tonality, as well as the increasing importance of musical instruments, which grew into ensembles of considerable size. Italy remained dominant, being the birthplace of opera, the soloist centered concerto genre, the organized sonata form as well as the large scale vocal-centered genres of oratorio and cantata. The fugue technique championed by Johann Sebastian Bach exemplified the Baroque tendency for complexity, and as a reaction the simpler and song-like galant music and empfindsamkeit styles were developed. In the shorter but pivotal Classical period (1730–1820) composers such as Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Joseph Haydn, and Ludwig van Beethoven created widely admired representatives of absolute music, including symphonies, string quartets and concertos. The subsequent Romantic music (1800–1910) focused instead on programmatic music, for which the art song, symphonic poem and various piano genres were important vessels. During this time virtuosity was celebrated, immensity was encouraged, while philosophy and nationalism were embedded—all aspects that converged in the operas of Richard Wagner. By the 20th century, stylistic unification gradually dissipated while the prominence of popular music greatly increased. Many composers actively avoided past techniques and genres in the lens of modernism, with some abandoning tonality in place of serialism, while others found new inspiration in folk melodies or impressionist sentiments. After World War II, for the first time audience members valued older music over contemporary works, a preference which has been catered to by the emergence and widespread availability of commercial recordings. Trends of the mid-20th century to the present day include New Simplicity, New Complexity, Minimalism, Spectral music, and more recently Postmodern music and Postminimalism. Increasingly global, practitioners from the Americas, Africa and Asia have obtained crucial roles, while symphony orchestras and opera houses now appear across the world.

Terminology and definition

Ideological origins

(from left to right) Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven from the 1904 Beethoven–Haydn–Mozart Memorial. The three are part of the First Viennese School and among the first composers to be referred to as "Classical".

Both the English term classical and the German equivalent Klassik developed from the French classique, itself derived from the Latin word classicus, which originally referred to the highest class of Ancient Roman citizens. In Roman usage, the term later became a means to distinguish revered literary figures; the Roman author Aulus Gellius commended writers such as Demosthenes and Virgil as classicus. By the Renaissance, the adjective had acquired a more general meaning: an entry in Randle Cotgrave's 1611 A Dictionarie of the French and English Tongues is among the earliest extant definitions, translating classique as "classical, formall [sic], orderlie, in due or fit ranke; also, approved, authenticall, chiefe, principall". The musicologist Daniel Heartz summarizes this into two definitions: 1) a "formal discipline" and 2) a "model of excellence". Like Gellius, later Renaissance scholars who wrote in Latin used classicus in reference to writers of classical antiquity; however, this meaning only gradually developed, and was for a while subordinate to the broader classical ideals of formality and excellence. Literature and visual arts—for which substantial Ancient Greek and Roman examples existed—did eventually adopt the term "classical" as relating to classical antiquity, but virtually no music of that time was available to Renaissance musicians, limiting the connection between classical music and the Greco-Roman world.

It was in 18th-century England that the term 'classical' "first came to stand for a particular canon of works in performance." London had developed a prominent public concert music scene, unprecedented and unmatched by other European cities. The royal court had gradually lost its monopoly on music, in large part from instability that the Commonwealth of England's dissolution and the Glorious Revolution enacted on court musicians. In 1672, the former court musician John Banister began giving popular public concerts at a London tavern; his popularity rapidly inaugurated the prominence of public concerts in the London. The conception of "classical"—or more often "ancient music"—emerged, which was still built on the principles of formality and excellence, and according to Heartz "civic ritual, religion and moral activism figured significantly in this novel construction of musical taste". The performance of such music was specialized by the Academy of Ancient Music and later at the Concerts of Antient Music series, where the work of select 16th and 17th composers was featured, especially George Frideric Handel. In France, the reign of Louis XIV (r. 1638–1715) saw a cultural renaissance, by the end of which writers such as Molière, Jean de La Fontaine and Jean Racine were considered to have surpassed the achievements of classical antiquity. They were thus characterized as "classical", as was the music of Jean-Baptiste Lully (and later Christoph Willibald Gluck), being designated as "l'opéra française classique". In the rest of continental Europe, the abandonment of defining "classical" as analogous to the Greco-Roman World was slower, primarily because the formation of canonical repertoires was either minimal or exclusive to the upper classes.

Many European commentators of the early 19th century found new unification in their definition of classical music: to juxtapose the older composers Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Joseph Haydn, and (excluding some of his later works) Ludwig van Beethoven as "classical" against the emerging style of Romantic music. These three composers in particular were grouped into the First Viennese School, sometimes called the "Viennese classics", a coupling that remains problematic by reason of none of the three being born in Vienna and the minimal time Haydn and Mozart spent in the city. While this was an often expressed characterization, it was not a strict one. In 1879 the composer Charles Kensington Salaman defined the following composers as classical: Bach, Handel, Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Weber, Spohr and Mendelssohn. More broadly, some writers used the term "classical" to generally praise well-regarded outputs from various composers, particularly those who produced many works in an established genre.

Contemporary understanding

The contemporary understanding of the term "classical music" remains vague and multifaceted. Other terms such as "art music", "canonic music", "cultivated music" and "serious music" are largely synonymous. The term "classical music" is often indicated or implied to concern solely the Western world, and conversely, in many academic histories the term "Western music" excludes non-classical Western music. Another complication lies in that "classical music" is sometimes used to describe non-Western art music exhibiting similar long-lasting and complex characteristics; examples include Indian classical music (i.e. Carnatic Music Hindustani music and Odissi Music), Gamelan music, and various styles of the court of Imperial China (see yayue for instance). Thus in the later 20th century terms such as "Western classical music" and "Western art music" came in use to address this. The musicologist Ralph P. Locke notes that neither term is ideal, as they create an "intriguing complication" when considering "certain practitioners of Western-art music genres who come from non-Western cultures".

Complexity in musical form and harmonic organization are typical traits of classical music. The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) offers three definitions for the word "classical" in relation to music:

  1. "of acknowledged excellence"
  2. "of, relating to, or characteristic of a formal musical tradition, as distinguished from popular or folk music"
  3. and more specifically, "of or relating to formal European music of the late 18th and early 19th centuries, characterized by harmony, balance, and adherence to established compositional forms".

The last definition concerns what is now termed the Classical period, a specific stylistic era of European music from the second half of the 18th century to the beginning of the 19th century.

History

Further information: History of music, List of classical music composers by era, and Dates of classical music eras
Major eras of
Western classical music
Early music
Medieval c. 500–1400
Transition to Renaissance
Renaissance c. 1400–1600
Transition to Baroque
Common practice period
Baroque c. 1600–1750
Transition to Classical
Classical c. 1730–1820
Transition to Romantic
Romantic c. 1800–1910
Transition to Modernism
New music
Modernism from c. 1890
Contemporary from c. 1945
 • 20th-century
 • 21st-century

Roots

Further information: Ancient music, Music of ancient Greece, and Music of ancient Rome

The Western classical tradition formally begins with music created by and for the early Christian Church. It is probable that the early Church wished to disassociate itself from the predominant music of ancient Greece and Rome, as it was a reminder of the pagan religion it had persecuted and by which it had been persecuted. As such, it remains unclear as to what extent the music of the Christian Church, and thus Western classical music as a whole, was influenced by preceding ancient music. The general attitude towards music was adopted from the Ancient Greek and Roman music theorists and commentators. Just as in Greco-Roman society, music was considered central to education; along with arithmetic, geometry and astronomy, music was included in the quadrivium, the four subjects of the upper division of a standard liberal arts education in the Middle Ages. This high regard for music was first promoted by the scholars Cassiodorus, Isidore of Seville, and particularly Boethius, whose transmission and expansion on the perspectives of music from Pythagoras, Aristotle and Plato were crucial in the development of medieval musical thought. However, scholars, medieval music theorists and composers regularly misinterpreted or misunderstood the writings of their Greek and Roman predecessors. This was due to the complete absence of surviving Greco-Roman musical works available to medieval musicians, to the extent that Isidore of Seville (c. 559 – 636) stated "unless sounds are remembered by man, they perish, for they cannot be written down", unaware of the systematic notational practices of Ancient Greece centuries before. The musicologist Gustave Reese notes, however, that many Greco-Roman texts can still be credited as influential to Western classical music, since medieval musicians regularly read their works—regardless of whether they were doing so correctly.

However, there are some indisputable musical continuations from the ancient world. Basic aspects such as monophony, improvisation and the dominance of text in musical settings are prominent in both early medieval and music of nearly all ancient civilizations. Greek influences in particular include the church modes (which were descendants of developments by Aristoxenus and Pythagoras), basic acoustical theory from pythagorean tuning, as well as the central function of tetrachords. Ancient Greek instruments such as the aulos (a reed instrument) and the lyre (a stringed instrument similar to a small harp) eventually led to several modern-day instruments of a symphonic orchestra. However, Donald Jay Grout notes that attempting to create a direct evolutionary connection from the ancient music to early medieval is baseless, as it was almost solely influenced by Greco-Roman music theory, not performance or practice.

Early music

Main article: Early music

Medieval

Main article: Medieval music See also: List of medieval composers, List of medieval music theorists, and List of medieval musical instruments
Musician playing the vielle (fourteenth-century Medieval manuscript)

Medieval music includes Western European music from after the fall of the Western Roman Empire by 476 to about 1400. Monophonic chant, also called plainsong or Gregorian chant, was the dominant form until about 1100. Christian monks developed the first forms of European musical notation in order to standardize liturgy throughout the Church. Polyphonic (multi-voiced) music developed from monophonic chant throughout the late Middle Ages and into the Renaissance, including the more complex voicings of motets. During the earlier medieval period, the vocal music from the liturgical genre, predominantly Gregorian chant, was monophonic, using a single, unaccompanied vocal melody line. Polyphonic vocal genres, which used multiple independent vocal melodies, began to develop during the high medieval era, becoming prevalent by the later 13th and early 14th century. Notable Medieval composers include Hildegard of Bingen, Léonin, Pérotin, Philippe de Vitry, Guillaume de Machaut, Francesco Landini, and Johannes Ciconia.

Many medieval musical instruments still exist, but in different forms. Medieval instruments included the flute, the recorder and plucked string instruments like the lute. As well, early versions of the organ and fiddle (or vielle) existed. Medieval instruments in Europe had most commonly been used singly, often self accompanied with a drone note, or occasionally in parts. From at least as early as the 13th century through the 15th century there was a division of instruments into haut (loud, shrill, outdoor instruments) and bas (quieter, more intimate instruments). A number of instrument have roots in Eastern predecessors that were adopted from the medieval Islamic world. For example, the Arabic rebab is the ancestor of all European bowed string instruments, including the lira, rebec and violin.

Renaissance

Main article: Renaissance music See also: List of Renaissance composers

The musical Renaissance era lasted from 1400 to 1600. It was characterized by greater use of instrumentation, multiple interweaving melodic lines, and the use of earlier forms of bass instruments. Social dancing became more widespread, so musical forms appropriate to accompanying dance began to standardize. It is in this time that the notation of music on a staff and other elements of musical notation began to take shape. This invention made possible the separation of the composition of a piece of music from its transmission; without written music, transmission was oral, and subject to change every time it was transmitted. With a musical score, a work of music could be performed without the composer's presence. The invention of the movable-type printing press in the 15th century had far-reaching consequences on the preservation and transmission of music.

An illuminated opening from the Chigi codex featuring the Kyrie of Ockeghem's Missa Ecce ancilla Domini

Many instruments originated during the Renaissance; others were variations of, or improvements upon, instruments that had existed previously. Some have survived to the present day; others have disappeared, only to be re-created in order to perform music on period instruments. As in the modern day, instruments may be classified as brass, strings, percussion, and woodwind. Brass instruments in the Renaissance were traditionally played by professionals who were members of Guilds and they included the slide trumpet, the wooden cornet, the valveless trumpet and the sackbut. Stringed instruments included the viol, the rebec, the harp-like lyre, the hurdy-gurdy, the lute, the guitar, the cittern, the bandora, and the orpharion. Keyboard instruments with strings included the harpsichord and the clavichord. Percussion instruments include the triangle, the Jew's harp, the tambourine, the bells, the rumble-pot, and various kinds of drums. Woodwind instruments included the double-reed shawm (an early member of the oboe family), the reed pipe, the bagpipe, the transverse flute, the recorder, the dulcian, and the crumhorn. Simple pipe organs existed, but were largely confined to churches, although there were portable varieties. Printing enabled the standardization of descriptions and specifications of instruments, as well as instruction in their use.

Vocal music in the Renaissance is noted for the flourishing of an increasingly elaborate polyphonic style. The principal liturgical forms which endured throughout the entire Renaissance period were masses and motets, with some other developments towards the end, especially as composers of sacred music began to adopt secular forms (such as the madrigal) for their own designs. Towards the end of the period, the early dramatic precursors of opera such as monody, the madrigal comedy, and the intermedio are seen. Around 1597, Italian composer Jacopo Peri wrote Dafne, the first work to be called an opera today. He also composed Euridice, the first opera to have survived to the present day.

Notable Renaissance composers include Josquin des Prez, Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina, John Dunstaple, Johannes Ockeghem, Orlande de Lassus, Guillaume Du Fay, Gilles Binchois, Thomas Tallis, William Byrd, Giovanni Gabrieli, Carlo Gesualdo, John Dowland, Jacob Obrecht, Adrian Willaert, Jacques Arcadelt, and Cipriano de Rore.

Common-practice period

The common practice period is typically defined as the era between the formation and the dissolution of common-practice tonality. The term usually spans roughly two-and-a-half centuries, encompassing the Baroque, Classical, and Romantic periods.

Baroque

Main article: Baroque music See also: List of Baroque composers
Baroque instruments including hurdy-gurdy, harpsichord, bass viol, lute, violin, and baroque guitar

Baroque music is characterized by the use of complex tonal counterpoint and the use of a basso continuo, a continuous bass line. Music became more complex in comparison with the simple songs of all previous periods. The beginnings of the sonata form took shape in the canzona, as did a more formalized notion of theme and variations. The tonalities of major and minor as means for managing dissonance and chromaticism in music took full shape.

During the Baroque era, keyboard music played on the harpsichord and pipe organ became increasingly popular, and the violin family of stringed instruments took the form generally seen today. Opera as a staged musical drama began to differentiate itself from earlier musical and dramatic forms, and vocal forms like the cantata and oratorio became more common. For the first time, vocalists began adding ornamentals to the music.

The theories surrounding equal temperament began to be put in wider practice, as it enabled a wider range of chromatic possibilities in hard-to-tune keyboard instruments. Although J.S. Bach did not use equal temperament, changes in the temperaments from the then-common meantone system to various temperaments that made modulation between all keys musically acceptable made possible his Well-Tempered Clavier.

Baroque instruments included some instruments from the earlier periods (e.g., the hurdy-gurdy and recorder) and a number of new instruments (e.g., the oboe, bassoon, cello, contrabass and fortepiano). Some instruments from previous eras fell into disuse, such as the shawm, cittern, rackett, and the wooden cornet. The key Baroque instruments for strings included the violin, viol, viola, viola d'amore, cello, contrabass, lute, theorbo (which often played the basso continuo parts), mandolin, Baroque guitar, harp and hurdy-gurdy. Woodwinds included the Baroque flute, Baroque oboe, recorder and the bassoon. Brass instruments included the cornett, natural horn, natural trumpet, serpent and the trombone. Keyboard instruments included the clavichord, the tangent piano, the harpsichord, the pipe organ, and, later in the period, the fortepiano (an early version of the piano). Percussion instruments included the timpani, snare drum, tambourine and the castanets.

One major difference between Baroque music and the classical era that followed it is that the types of instruments used in Baroque ensembles were much less standardized. A Baroque ensemble could include one of several different types of keyboard instruments (e.g., pipe organ or harpsichord), additional stringed chordal instruments (e.g., a lute), bowed strings, woodwinds, and brass instruments, and an unspecified number of bass instruments performing the basso continuo,(e.g., a cello, contrabass, viola, bassoon, serpent, etc.).

Vocal oeuvres of the Baroque era included suites such as oratorios and cantatas. Secular music was less common, and was typically characterized only by instrumental music. Like Baroque art, themes were generally sacred and for the purpose of a catholic setting.

Important composers of this era include Johann Sebastian Bach, Antonio Vivaldi, George Frideric Handel, Johann Pachelbel, Henry Purcell, Claudio Monteverdi, Barbara Strozzi, Domenico Scarlatti, Georg Philipp Telemann, Arcangelo Corelli, Alessandro Scarlatti, Jean-Philippe Rameau, Jean-Baptiste Lully, and Heinrich Schütz.

Classical

Main article: Classical period (music) See also: List of Classical-era composers
Joseph Haydn (1732–1809), portrayed by Thomas Hardy (1791)

Though the term "classical music" includes all Western art music from the medieval era to the early 2010s, the Classical era was the period of Western art music from the 1750s to the early 1820s—the era of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Joseph Haydn, and Ludwig van Beethoven.

The Classical era established many of the norms of composition, presentation, and style, and when the piano became the predominant keyboard instrument. The basic forces required for an orchestra became somewhat standardized (though they would grow as the potential of a wider array of instruments was developed). Chamber music grew to include ensembles with as many as 8-10 performers for serenades. Opera continued to develop, with regional styles in Italy, France, and German-speaking lands. The opera buffa, a form of comic opera, rose in popularity. The symphony came into its own as a musical form, and the concerto was developed as a vehicle for displays of virtuoso playing skill. Orchestras no longer required a harpsichord, and were often led by the lead violinist (now called the concertmaster).

Classical era musicians continued to use many of the instruments from the Baroque era, such as the cello, contrabass, recorder, trombone, timpani, fortepiano (the precursor to the modern piano) and organ. While some Baroque instruments fell into disuse e.g. the theorbo and rackett, many Baroque instruments were changed into the versions still in use today, such as the Baroque violin (which became the violin), Baroque oboe (which became the oboe) and Baroque trumpet, which transitioned to the regular valved trumpet. During the Classical era, the stringed instruments used in orchestra and chamber music such as string quartets were standardized as the four instruments which form the string section of the orchestra: the violin, viola, cello, and double bass. Baroque-era stringed instruments such as fretted, bowed viols were phased out. Woodwinds included the basset clarinet, basset horn, clarinette d'amour, the Classical clarinet, the chalumeau, the flute, oboe and bassoon. Keyboard instruments included the clavichord and the fortepiano. While the harpsichord was still used in basso continuo accompaniment in the 1750s and 1760s, it fell out of use at the end of the century. Brass instruments included the buccin, the ophicleide (a replacement for the bass serpent, which was the precursor of the tuba) and the natural horn.

Wind instruments became more refined in the Classical era. While double-reed instruments like the oboe and bassoon became somewhat standardized in the Baroque, the clarinet family of single reeds was not widely used until Mozart expanded its role in orchestral, chamber, and concerto settings.

Romantic

Main article: Romantic music See also: List of Romantic-era composers
Josef Danhauser's 1840 painting of Franz Liszt at the piano surrounded by (from left to right) Alexandre Dumas, Hector Berlioz, George Sand, Niccolò Paganini, Gioachino Rossini, and Marie d'Agoult with a bust of Ludwig van Beethoven on the piano

The music of the Romantic era, from roughly the first decade of the 19th century to the early 20th century, was characterized by increased attention to an extended melodic line, as well as expressive and emotional elements, paralleling romanticism in other art forms. Musical forms began to break from the Classical era forms (even as those were being codified), with free-form pieces like nocturnes, fantasias, and preludes being written where accepted ideas about the exposition and development of themes were ignored or minimized. The music became more chromatic, dissonant, and tonally colorful, with tensions (with respect to accepted norms of the older forms) about key signatures increasing. The art song (or Lied) came to maturity in this era, as did the epic scales of grand opera, ultimately transcended by Richard Wagner's Ring cycle.

In the 19th century, musical institutions emerged from the control of wealthy patrons, as composers and musicians could construct lives independent of the nobility. Increasing interest in music by the growing middle classes throughout western Europe spurred the creation of organizations for the teaching, performance, and preservation of music. The piano, which achieved its modern construction in this era (in part due to industrial advances in metallurgy) became widely popular with the middle class, whose demands for the instrument spurred many piano builders. Many symphony orchestras date their founding to this era. Some musicians and composers were the stars of the day; some, like Franz Liszt and Niccolò Paganini, fulfilled both roles.

European cultural ideas and institutions began to follow colonial expansion into other parts of the world. There was also a rise, especially toward the end of the era, of nationalism in music (echoing, in some cases, political sentiments of the time), as composers such as Edvard Grieg, Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, and Antonín Dvořák echoed traditional music of their homelands in their compositions.

In the Romantic era, the modern piano, with a more powerful, sustained tone and a wider range took over from the more delicate-sounding fortepiano. In the orchestra, the existing Classical instruments and sections were retained (string section, woodwinds, brass, and percussion), but these sections were typically expanded to make a fuller, bigger sound. For example, while a Baroque orchestra may have had two double bass players, a Romantic orchestra could have as many as ten. "As music grew more expressive, the standard orchestral palette just wasn't rich enough for many Romantic composers."

The families of instruments used, especially in orchestras, grew larger; a process that climaxed in the early 20th century with very large orchestras used by late romantic and modernist composers. A wider array of percussion instruments began to appear. Brass instruments took on larger roles, as the introduction of rotary valves made it possible for them to play a wider range of notes. The size of the orchestra (typically around 40 in the Classical era) grew to be over 100. Gustav Mahler's 1906 Symphony No. 8, for example, has been performed with over 150 instrumentalists and choirs of over 400. New woodwind instruments were added, such as the contrabassoon, bass clarinet and piccolo and new percussion instruments were added, including xylophones, snare drums, celestas (a bell-like keyboard instrument), bells, and triangles, large orchestral harps, and even wind machines for sound effects. Saxophones appear in some scores from the late 19th century onwards, usually featured as a solo instrument rather than as in integral part of the orchestra.

The Wagner tuba, a modified member of the horn family, appears in Richard Wagner's cycle Der Ring des Nibelungen. It also has a prominent role in Anton Bruckner's Symphony No. 7 in E Major and is also used in several late romantic and modernist works by Richard Strauss, Béla Bartók, and others Cornets appear regularly in 19th century scores, alongside trumpets which were regarded as less agile, at least until the end of the century.

Prominent composers of this era include Ludwig van Beethoven, Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, Frédéric Chopin, Hector Berlioz, Franz Schubert, Robert Schumann, Felix Mendelssohn, Franz Liszt, Giuseppe Verdi, Richard Wagner, Johannes Brahms, Alexander Scriabin, Nikolai Medtner, Edvard Grieg, and Johann Strauss II. Gustav Mahler and Richard Strauss are commonly regarded as transitional composers whose music combines both late romantic and early modernist elements.

20th and 21st centuries

Concept art for the 1913 production of Stravinsky's The Rite of Spring. Many early 20th century composers such as Mahler, Sibelius and Vaughan Williams were heavily influenced by the forces of nature.
Main articles: Neue Musik, 20th-century classical music, and 21st-century classical music

At the turn of the century, music was characteristically late romantic in style with its expressive melodies, complex harmonies, and expansive forms. This era was marked by the works of several composers who pushed forward post-romantic symphonic writing. Composers such as Gustav Mahler and Richard Strauss continued to develop the western classical tradition with expansive symphonies and operas, while the likes of Jean Sibelius and Vaughan Williams infused their compositions with nationalistic elements and influences from folk songs. Sergei Prokofiev began in this tradition but soon ventured into modernist territories. At the same time, the impressionist movement, spearheaded by Claude Debussy, was being developed in France, with Maurice Ravel as another notable pioneer.

Modernist

Main article: Modernism (music)

Modernist classical music encompasses many styles of composition that can be characterised as post romantic, impressionist, expressionist, and neoclassical. Modernism marked an era when many composers rejected certain values of the common practice period, such as traditional tonality, melody, instrumentation, and structure. Some music historians regard musical modernism as an era extending from about 1890 to 1930. Others consider that modernism ended with one or the other of the two world wars. Still other authorities claim that modernism is not associated with any historical era, but rather is "an attitude of the composer; a living construct that can evolve with the times". Despite its decline in the last third of the 20th century, there remained at the end of the century an active core of composers who continued to advance the ideas and forms of modernism, such as Pierre Boulez, Pauline Oliveros, Toru Takemitsu, George Benjamin, Jacob Druckman, Brian Ferneyhough, George Perle, Wolfgang Rihm, Richard Wernick, Richard Wilson, and Ralph Shapey.

Two musical movements that were dominant during this time were the impressionist beginning around 1890 and the expressionist that started around 1908. It was a period of diverse reactions in challenging and reinterpreting older categories of music, innovations that lead to new ways of organizing and approaching harmonic, melodic, sonic, and rhythmic aspects of music, and changes in aesthetic worldviews in close relation to the larger identifiable period of modernism in the arts of the time. The operative word most associated with it is "innovation". Its leading feature is a "linguistic plurality", which is to say that no single music genre ever assumed a dominant position.

The orchestra continued to grow during the early years modernist era, peaking in the first two decades of the 20th century. Saxophones that appeared only rarely during the 19th century became more commonly used as supplementary instruments, but never became core members of the orchestra. While appearing only as featured solo instruments in some works, for example Maurice Ravel's orchestration of Modest Mussorgsky's Pictures at an Exhibition and Sergei Rachmaninoff's Symphonic Dances, the saxophone is included in other works such as Sergei Prokofiev's Romeo and Juliet Suites 1 and 2 and many other works as a member of the orchestral ensemble. In some compositions such as Ravel's Boléro, two or more saxophones of different sizes are used to create an entire section like the other sections of the orchestra. The euphonium is featured in a few late Romantic and 20th century works, usually playing parts marked "tenor tuba", including Gustav Holst's The Planets, and Richard Strauss's Ein Heldenleben.

Prominent composers of the early 20th century include Igor Stravinsky, Claude Debussy, Sergei Rachmaninoff, Sergei Prokofiev, Arnold Schoenberg, Nikos Skalkottas, Heitor Villa-Lobos, Karol Szymanowski, Anton Webern, Alban Berg, Cécile Chaminade, Paul Hindemith, Aram Khachaturian, George Gershwin, Amy Beach, Béla Bartók, and Dmitri Shostakovich, along with the aforementioned Mahler and Strauss as transitional figures who carried over from the 19th century.

Post-modern/contemporary

Main articles: Postmodern music and Contemporary classical music See also: High modernism, List of 20th-century classical composers, and List of 21st-century classical composers

Postmodern music is a period of music that began as early as 1930 according to some authorities. It shares characteristics with postmodernist art – that is, art that comes after and reacts against modernism.

Some other authorities have more or less equated postmodern music with the "contemporary music" composed well after 1930, from the late 20th century through to the early 21st century. Some of the diverse movements of the postmodern/contemporary era include the neoromantic, neomedieval, minimalist, and post minimalist.

Contemporary classical music at the beginning of the 21st century was often considered to include all post-1945 musical forms. A generation later, this term now properly refers to the music of today written by composers who are still alive; music that came into prominence in the mid-1970s. It includes different variations of modernist, postmodern, neoromantic, and pluralist music.

Performance

A string quartet performing for the Mozart Year 2006 in Vienna

Performers who have studied classical music extensively are said to be "classically trained". This training may come from private lessons from instrument or voice teachers or from completion of a formal program offered by a Conservatory, college or university, such as a Bachelor of Music or Master of Music degree (which includes individual lessons from professors). In classical music, "...extensive formal music education and training, often to postgraduate level" is required.

Performance of classical music repertoire requires a proficiency in sight-reading and ensemble playing, harmonic principles, strong ear training (to correct and adjust pitches by ear), knowledge of performance practice (e.g., Baroque ornamentation), and a familiarity with the style/musical idiom expected for a given composer or musical work (e.g., a Brahms symphony or a Mozart concerto).

The key characteristic of European classical music that distinguishes it from popular music, folk music, and some other classical music traditions such as Indian classical music, is that the repertoire tends to be written down in musical notation, creating a musical part or score. This score typically determines details of rhythm, pitch, and, where two or more musicians (whether singers or instrumentalists) are involved, how the various parts are coordinated. The written quality of the music has enabled a high level of complexity within them: fugues, for instance, achieve a remarkable marriage of boldly distinctive melodic lines weaving in counterpoint yet creating a coherent harmonic logic. The use of written notation also preserves a record of the works and enables Classical musicians to perform music from many centuries ago.

Although Classical music in the 2000s has lost most of its tradition for musical improvisation, from the Baroque era to the Romantic era, there are examples of performers who could improvise in the style of their era. In the Baroque era, organ performers would improvise preludes, keyboard performers playing harpsichord would improvise chords from the figured bass symbols beneath the bass notes of the basso continuo part and both vocal and instrumental performers would improvise musical ornaments. Johann Sebastian Bach was particularly noted for his complex improvisations. During the Classical era, the composer-performer Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was noted for his ability to improvise melodies in different styles. During the Classical era, some virtuoso soloists would improvise the cadenza sections of a concerto. During the Romantic era, Ludwig van Beethoven would improvise at the piano.

Women in classical music

Main article: Women in classical music Further information: Women in music
Lithograph of a young girl at the piano, with a hand on the keyboard but the face turned back, dressed in a festive gown
Clara Schumann was a renowned 19th-century composer and pianist, known for her symphonic works, chamber music, and art songs.
Amy Beach American composer and one of the first women to compose large-scale symphonic works. 1908.

Almost all of the composers who are described in music textbooks on classical music and whose works are widely performed as part of the standard concert repertoire are male composers, even though there have been a large number of women composers throughout the history of classical music. Musicologist Marcia Citron has asked "hy is music composed by women so marginal to the standard 'classical' repertoire?" Citron "examines the practices and attitudes that have led to the exclusion of women composers from the received 'canon' of performed musical works". She argues that in the 1800s, women composers typically wrote art songs for performance in small recitals rather than symphonies intended for performance with an orchestra in a large hall, with the latter works being seen as the most important genre for composers; since women composers did not write many symphonies, they were deemed not to be notable as composers. In the "...Concise Oxford History of Music, Clara Shumann is one of the only female composers mentioned." Abbey Philips states that "uring the 20th century the women who were composing/playing gained far less attention than their male counterparts."

Lili Boulanger French composer and the first woman to win the Prix de Rome. Her emotionally deep works were highly praised, though her career was tragically cut short by illness.

Historically, major professional orchestras have been mostly or entirely composed of musicians who are men. Some of the earliest cases of women being hired in professional orchestras was in the position of harpist. The Vienna Philharmonic, for example, did not accept women to permanent membership until 1997, far later than the other orchestras ranked among the world's top five by Gramophone in 2008. The last major orchestra to appoint a woman to a permanent position was the Berlin Philharmonic. As late as February 1996, the Vienna Philharmonic's principal flute, Dieter Flury, told Westdeutscher Rundfunk that accepting women would be "gambling with the emotional unity (emotionelle Geschlossenheit) that this organism currently has". In April 1996, the orchestra's press secretary wrote that "compensating for the expected leaves of absence" of maternity leave would be a problem.

Martha Argerich at the Kirchner Cultural Centre, Buenos Aires

In 2013, an article in Mother Jones stated that while "any prestigious orchestras have significant female membership—women outnumber men in the New York Philharmonic's violin section—and several renowned ensembles, including the National Symphony Orchestra, the Detroit Symphony, and the Minnesota Orchestra, are led by women violinists", the double bass, brass, and percussion sections of major orchestras "...are still predominantly male". A 2014 BBC article stated that the "...introduction of 'blind' auditions, where a prospective instrumentalist performs behind a screen so that the judging panel can exercise no gender or racial prejudice, has seen the gender balance of traditionally male-dominated symphony orchestras gradually shift."

Relationship to other music traditions

Popular music

Joan Tower is a renowned American composer known for blending popular music elements with classical works.

Classical music has often incorporated elements or material from popular music of the composer's time. Examples include occasional music such as Brahms' use of student drinking songs in his Academic Festival Overture, genres exemplified by Kurt Weill's The Threepenny Opera, and the influence of jazz on early and mid-20th-century composers including Maurice Ravel, exemplified by the movement entitled "Blues" in his sonata for violin and piano. Some postmodern, minimalist and postminimalist classical composers acknowledge a debt to popular music.

George Gershwin's 1924 orchestral composition Rhapsody in Blue has been described as orchestral jazz or symphonic jazz. The composition combines elements of classical music with jazz-influenced effects.

Numerous examples show influence in the opposite direction, including popular songs based on classical music, the use to which Pachelbel's Canon has been put since the 1970s, and the musical crossover phenomenon, where classical musicians have achieved success in the popular music arena. In heavy metal, a number of lead guitarists (playing electric guitar), including Ritchie Blackmore and Randy Rhoads, modeled their playing styles on Baroque or Classical-era instrumental music.

Folk music

Composers of classical music have often made use of folk music (music created by musicians who are commonly not classically trained, often from a purely oral tradition). Some composers, like Dvořák and Smetana, have used folk themes to impart a nationalist flavor to their work, while others like Bartók have used specific themes lifted whole from their folk-music origins. Khachaturian widely incorporated into his work the folk music of his native Armenia, but also other ethnic groups of the Middle East and Eastern Europe.

Commercialization

With the advent of radio broadcasting and record shop, live classical music performances have been compiled into compilation CDs (WQXR for Tower Records, 1986).

Certain staples of classical music are often used commercially (either in advertising or in movie soundtracks). In television commercials, several passages have become clichéd, particularly the opening of Richard Strauss' Also sprach Zarathustra (made famous in the film 2001: A Space Odyssey) and the opening section "O Fortuna" of Carl Orff's Carmina Burana; other examples include the "Dies irae" from the Verdi Requiem, Edvard Grieg's "In the Hall of the Mountain King" from Peer Gynt, the opening bars of Beethoven's Symphony No. 5, Aram Khachaturian's "Sabre Dance", Wagner's "Ride of the Valkyries" from Die Walküre, Rimsky-Korsakov's "Flight of the Bumblebee", and excerpts of Aaron Copland's Rodeo. Several works from the Golden Age of Animation matched the action to classical music. Notable examples are Walt Disney's Fantasia, Tom and Jerry's Johann Mouse, and Warner Bros.' Rabbit of Seville and What's Opera, Doc?

Similarly, movies and television often use standard, clichéd excerpts of classical music to convey refinement or opulence: some of the most-often heard pieces in this category include Bach's Cello Suite No. 1, Mozart's Eine kleine Nachtmusik, Vivaldi's Four Seasons, Mussorgsky's Night on Bald Mountain (as orchestrated by Rimsky-Korsakov), and Rossini's "William Tell Overture". Shawn Vancour argues the commercialization of classical music in the 1920s may have harmed the music industry.

Education

Further information: Music education

During the 1990s, several research papers and popular books wrote on what came to be called the "Mozart effect": an observed temporary, small elevation of scores on spatial reasoning tests as a result of listening to Mozart's music. The approach has been popularized in a book by Don Campbell, and is based on an experiment published in Nature suggesting that listening to Mozart temporarily boosted students' IQ by 8 to 9 points. This popularized version of the theory was expressed succinctly by the New York Times music columnist Alex Ross: "researchers... have determined that listening to Mozart actually makes you smarter." Promoters marketed CDs claimed to induce the effect. Florida passed a law requiring toddlers in state-run schools to listen to classical music every day, and in 1998 the governor of Georgia budgeted $105,000 per year to provide every child born in Georgia with a tape or CD of classical music. One of the co-authors of the original studies of the Mozart effect commented "I don't think it can hurt. I'm all for exposing children to wonderful cultural experiences. But I do think the money could be better spent on music education programs."

References

Notes

  1. The Ancient Roman citizenship classes in question were derived from the guidelines set forth by the legendary king Servius Tullius in the Servian constitution.
  2. In 1690, many decades after Cotgrave's 1611 definition, Antoine Furetière's posthumous Dictionnaire universel echoed Aulus Gellius in praising Cicero, Julius Caesar, Sallust, Virgil, and Horace and referring to them as classique.
  3. This is why the Neoclassicism movement of the mid 18th-century was widespread in fields such as architecture and painting but not music.
  4. Before the beginning of the 18th-century, there was a brief flowering of court music following the Stuart Restoration. Composers such as Matthew Locke and later Henry Purcell found considerable success, particularly with the popular court masques.
  5. John Banister's concerts quickly gained popularity, allowing him to later move his venue to Lincoln's Inn Fields, and then Essex Street; at its peak, his ensemble consisted of nearly 50 musicians.
  6. For further information on the development of a classical music canon in 18th-century England, see Weber, William (Autumn 1994). "The Intellectual Origins of Musical Canon in Eighteenth-Century England". Journal of the American Musicological Society. 47 (3): 488–520. doi:10.2307/3128800. JSTOR 3128800.
  7. Some critics, from the 19th to 21st centuries, defined the First Viennese School in different ways. Commentators such as Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and later Ludwig Finscher excluded Beethoven from the school entirely, while the musicologist Friedrich Blume included all three in addition to Franz Schubert. Charles Rosen included Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven, but only their instrumental music.
  8. The earliest use of the term "classical music" in English literature given by the Oxford English Dictionary (OED) is in the 1829 diary of English musician Vincent Novello, who said "This is the place I should come to every Sunday when I wished to hear classical music correctly and judiciously performed". However, this is predated by at least 9 years from the title of the English writer John Feltham Danneley's 1820 Introduction to the Elementary Principles of Thorough Bass and Classical Music.
  9. In addition to the title of Taruskin 2005, see also, the titles of Grout 1973, Hanning 2002 and Stolba 1998, all of which include the term "Western music" but essentially exclude non-classical music in the Western world. Grout 1973 was first published in 1960, and it was not until the fifth edition prepared by Claude V. Palisca in 1996 that any information on jazz and popular music was included.
  10. The musicologist Ralph P. Locke cites composer Tan Dun as an example, and notes the title of a 2004 publication, Locating East Asia in Western Art Music. See also the title of Barone, Joshua (23 July 2021). "Asian Composers Reflect on Careers in Western Classical Music". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 28 December 2021. Burkholder, Grout & Palisca 2014, p. 1009 note that "We may well wonder whether the term "Western music" is still appropriate when Western culture has spread around the world, and some of the most practices performers and interesting new composers come from China, Japan and Korea. Given its global reach, it may be time to rename this tradition, but as eclectic and diverse as it has become, its roots are still in Western culture reaching back through Europe to ancient Greece".
  11. From all available evidence, it appears that no, or few, significant musical developments can be credited to Ancient Rome, who largely adopted the practices of their Ancient Greek predecessors.
  12. Musicologist Donald Jay Grout notes that even by the 20th century there were only fragments and a few more sizable examples of such Greco-Roman music that survive.
  13. The entirety of early medieval Europe may not have been without a notional system for music, see Gampel 2012, who argues against the traditional conclusion of Isidore of Seville's remark.
  14. In 1997, the Vienna Philharmonic was "facing protests during a tour" by the National Organization for Women and the International Alliance for Women in Music. Finally, "after being held up to increasing ridicule even in socially conservative Austria, members of the orchestra gathered in an extraordinary meeting on the eve of their departure and agreed to admit a woman, Anna Lelkes, as harpist." As of 2013, the orchestra has six female members; one of them, violinist Albena Danailova became one of the orchestra's concertmasters in 2008, the first woman to hold that position. In 2012, women still made up just 6% of the orchestra's membership. VPO president Clemens Hellsberg said the VPO now uses completely screened blind auditions.

Citations

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  2. ^ Schulenberg 2000, p. 99.
  3. ^ Schulenberg 2000, p. 100.
  4. Schulenberg 2000, pp. 100–101.
  5. ^ Schulenberg 2000, pp. 102–104.
  6. ^ Schulenberg 2000, pp. 104–105.
  7. Schulenberg 2000, p. 110.
  8. Schulenberg 2000, p. 113.
  9. Owens 2008, § para. 2.
  10. Owens 2008, § para. 7.
  11. ^ Heartz 2001, § para. 1.
  12. ^ Howatson, M. C. (2011). "classic". The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-954854-5. Archived from the original on 7 December 2021. Retrieved 10 December 2021.
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  16. Pauly 1988, p. 3.
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  18. Walkling, Andrew R. (February 1996). "Masque and Politics at the Restoration Court: John Crowne's "Calisto"". Early Music. 24 (1): 27–62. doi:10.1093/earlyj/XXIV.1.27. JSTOR 3128449.
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  37. Pauly 1988, pp. 34.
  38. ^ Grout 1973, p. 2.
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