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| | name = ''Cannabis | |||
| | image = Cannabis sativa Koehler drawing.jpg | |||
| | image_width = 203px | |||
| | regnum = ]ae | |||
| | divisio = ] | |||
| | classis = ] | |||
| | ordo = ] | |||
| | familia = ] | |||
| | genus = '''''Cannabis''''' | |||
| | genus_authority = ] | |||
| | subdivision_ranks = Species | |||
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| :''This article is about the plant genus Cannabis. For use as a psychoactive drug, see ]. For use as a therapeutic drug, see ]. For non-drug cultivation and uses, see ].'' | |||
| '''Cannabis''' is a ] of ] that includes one or more species. The plant is believed to be indigenous to Central Asia, China, and the north-west ]. The common name for ''Cannabis'' is ], although this term is sometimes used to refer only to strains cultivated for "industrial" (non-drug) use. ''Cannabis'' plants produce a unique family of compounds called ], several of which produce mental and/or physiological effects when consumed. The crude ] usually comes in the form of dried flowers and leaves, ] (]), or various extracts.<ref></ref>. The cultivation or possession of ''Cannabis'' for drug purposes is outlawed in most countries. | |||
| == Species == | |||
| ] | |||
| Putative species: | |||
| * ''C. indica'' Lam. | |||
| * ''C. ruderalis'' Janisch. | |||
| == Description == | |||
| ''Cannabis'' is an ], ], ] ]. The ] are ], with ] ]s. The first pair of leaves usually have a single leaflet, the number gradually increasing up to a maximum of about thirteen leaflets per leaf (usually seven or nine), depending on variety and growing conditions. At the top of a flowering plant, this number again diminishes to a single leaflet per leaf. The lower leaf pairs usually occur in an opposite ] and the upper leaf pairs in an alternate arrangement on the main stem of a mature plant. | |||
| ''Cannabis'' usually has ] ] with ] "male" and ] "female" flowers occuring on separate plants,<ref>{{cite journal | last=Lebel-Hardenack | coauthors= Grant|date=1997 |title=Genetics of sex determination in flowering plants |journal=Trends in Plant Science|volume=2|issue=4|pages=130–136|publisher=Elsevier}}</ref> although ] flowers sometimes occur.<ref name="moliterni2005">{{cite journal | author = V. M. Cristiana Moliterni | coauthors= Luigi Cattivelli, P. Ranalli and Giuseppe Mandolino | date = 2005 | title=The sexual differentiation of Cannabis sativa L.: A morphological and molecular study | journal=Euphytica | volume=140 | issue=1-2 | pages=95-106 }}</ref> Male flowers are borne on loose ]s, and female flowers are borne on ]s.<ref name="bouquet1950">{{cite web | last=Bouquet | first=R. J. | title=CANNABIS | publisher=United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime | url=http://www.unodc.org/unodc/bulletin/bulletin_1950-01-01_4_page003.html | accessed=2006-10-28 }}</ref> It is not unusual for individual plants to bear both male and female flowers in some strains, a condition called monoecy.<ref name="mignoni1999"> {{cite web | last=Mignoni | first=G | title=Cannabis as a licit crop: recent developments in Europe | publisher=United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime | date=1999 | url=http://www.unodc.org/unodc/bulletin/bulletin_1997-01-01_1_page003.html | accessdate=2006-10-05}} </ref> On ] plants, flowers of both sexes may occur on separate ]s, or on the same inflorescence. <ref name="moliterni2005"/> | |||
| ], ], and and other volatile compounds are secreted by glandular ] that occur most abundantly on the floral ]es and ]s of female plants. <ref name="mahlberg2001">{{cite journal |last=Mahlberg |first=Paul G.|coauthors=Eun Soo Kim |title=THC (Tetrahyrdocannabinol) Accumulation in Glands of Cannabis (Cannabaceae)|journal=The Hemp Report|volume=3|issue=17|date=2001|url=http://www.hempreport.com/issues/17/malbody17.html|accessdate=2006-11-23}}</ref> | |||
| All strains of ''Cannabis'' are ]<ref name="clarke1991">{{cite book | last=Clarke | first=Robert Connell | year=1991 | month=December | edition=2nd ed.|title=Marijuana Botany |publisher=Ronin Publishing |locatioan=CA|id= ISBN 0-914171-78-X }} </ref> and produce "]s" that are technically called ]s. <ref name="fleming1998">{{cite journal | last=Fleming | first=M. P. | coauthors=R. C. Clarke | date=1998 |title= Physical evidence for the antiquity of Cannabis sativa L. (Cannabaceae) | journal=Journal of the International Hemp Association | volume= 5 | issue= 2 |pages 80-92 | url=http://mojo.calyx.net/~olsen/HEMP/IHA/jiha5208.html }}</ref>. Most strains of ''Cannabis'' are ]s <ref name="clarke1991"/>, with the possible exception of ''C. sativa'' subsp. ''sativa'' var. ''spontanea'' (= ''C. ruderalis''), which is commonly described as "auto-flowering" and may be ]. | |||
| ''Cannabis'' is naturally ], having a ] complement of 2n=20, although polyploid individuals have been artificially produced. <ref name="small1976a">{{cite journal | last=Small | first= E. | coauthors= A. Cronquist | date=1976 | title=A practical and natural taxonomy for Cannabis | journal=Taxon | volume=25 | issue=4 | pages=405–435 }}</ref> | |||
| == Taxonomy == | |||
| The genus ''Cannabis'' was formerly placed in the ] (]) or ] (]) family, but is now considered along with ] (''Humulus'' sp.) to belong to the ] family (]). | |||
| Various types of ''Cannabis'' have been described, and classified as ], ], or ]:<ref name="small1975b"> {{cite web | last=Small | first=Ernest | title=American law and the species problem in Cannabis: Science and semantics | date=1975 | url=http://www.unodc.org/unodc/bulletin/bulletin_1975-01-01_3_page002.html | accessed = 2006-11-23 }}</ref> | |||
| *plants cultivated for fiber and seed production, described as low-intoxicant, non-drug, or fiber types | |||
| *plants cultivated for drug production, described as high-intoxicant or drug types | |||
| *escaped or wild forms of either of the above types. | |||
| ''Cannabis'' plants produce a unique family of terpeno-phenolic compounds called cannabinoids, which produce the "high" one experiences from smoking marijuana. The two cannabinoids usually produced in greatest abundance are cannabidiol (]) and/or Δ<sup>9</sup>-tetrahydrocannabinol (]), but only THC is psychoactive. Since the early 1970's, ''Cannabis'' plants have been categorized by their chemical ] or "chemotype," based on the overall amount of THC produced, and on the ratio of THC to CBD.<ref name="small1973">{{cite journal | author = Small, E. | coauthors= H. D. Beckstead | date= 1973 | title=Common cannabinoid phenotypes in 350 stocks of Cannabis |journal=Lloydia | volume=36 |pages=144–165}} </ref> Although overall ] production is influenced by environmental factors, the THC/CBD ratio is genetically determined and remains fixed throughout the life of a plant.<ref name="meijer2003">{{cite journal | author=Etienne P. M. de Meijer | coauthors= Manuela Bagatta, Andrea Carboni, Paola Crucitti, V. M. Cristiana Moliterni, Paolo Ranalli, and Giuseppe Mandolino | date= 2003 | url= http://www.genetics.org/cgi/reprint/163/1/335 |title=The Inheritance of Chemical Phenotype in Cannabis sativa L. |journal= Genetics | volume= 163 | issue=1 |pages= 335-346 | accessdate=2005-10-24 }} </ref> Non-drug plants produce relatively low levels of THC and high levels of CBD, while drug plants produce high levels of THC and low levels of CBD. When plants of these two chemotypes cross-pollinate, the plants in the first filial (F<sub>1</sub>) generation have an intermediate chemotype and produce similar amounts of CBD and THC. Female plants of this chemotype may produce enough THC to be utilized for drug production. <ref name="small1973"/><ref name="hillig2004">{{cite journal | last= Hillig | first=Karl W. | coauthors=Paul G. Mahlberg | title=A chemotaxonomic analysis of cannabinoid variation in Cannabis (Cannabaceae) | journal = American Journal of Botany. | volume = 91 | pages = 966-975 | date = 2004 | url= http://www.amjbot.org/cgi/content/full/91/6/966 | accessed = 2006-10-08 }} </ref> | |||
| ] | |||
| Whether the drug and non-drug, cultivated and wild types of ''Cannabis'' constitute a single, highly variable species, or the genus is polytypic with more than one species, has been a subject of debate for well over two centuries. This is a contentious issue because there is no universally accepted definition of a ].<ref name=”small1979”>Small, E. 1979. ''The Species Problem in Cannabis''. vol. 1. Corpus Information Services. Toronto, Canada.</ref> One widely applied criterion for species recognition is that species are "groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations which are reproductively isolated from other such groups."<ref name="glossary">{{cite book | title=Glossary of Genetics | author=Rieger, R., A. Michaelis, and M. M. Green | edition=Fifth Edition|date=1991 |pubisher=Springer-Verlag | id=ISBN 0-387-52054-6 |pages=458-459}}</ref> Populations that are physiologically capable of interbreeding, but morphologically or genetically divergent and isolated by geography or ecology, are sometimes considered to be separate species.<ref name="glossary"/> ] are not known to occur within ''Cannabis'', and plants from widely divergent sources are interfertile.<ref name=”small1972”>Small, E. 1972. Interfertility and chromosomal uniformity in ''Cannabis''. ''Canadian Journal of Botany'' '''50'''(9): 1947-1949.</ref> It remains controversial whether sufficient morphological and genetic divergence occurs within the genus as a result of geographical or ecological isolation to justify recognition of more than one species.<ref name="small1975a">{{cite journal | title=On Toadstool Soup and Legal Species of Marihuana |author= Ernest Small | journal= Plant Science Bulletin | date = 1975 | publisher=Botanical Society of America, Inc | volume= 21 | issue=3 |url=http://www.botany.org/PlantScienceBulletin/psb-1975-21-3.php |accessdate=2006-10-24 }}</ref><ref name="emboden1981">Emboden, W. A. 1981. The genus ''Cannabis'' and the correct use of taxonomic categories. ''Journal of Psychoactive Drugs'' '''13''': 15–21.</ref><ref name="schultes1980">Schultes, R. E., and A. Hofmann. 1980. ''Botany and Chemistry of Hallucinogens''. C. C. Thomas, Springfield, IL., pp. 82–116.</ref><ref name=”hillig2005a”>Hillig, Karl W. 2005. Genetic evidence for speciation in ''Cannabis'' (Cannabaceae). ''Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution'' '''52''': 161-180.</ref> | |||
| === Early classifications === | |||
| The ''Cannabis'' genus was first ] using the "modern" system of taxonomic ] by ] in 1753, who devised the system still in use for the naming of species.<ref name="linnaeus1753">Linnaeus, C. 1753. ''Species Plantarum'' 2: 1027. Salvius, Stockholm. </ref> He considered the genus to be monotypic, having just a single species that he named ''Cannabis sativa'' L. (L. stands for Linnaeus, and indicates the authority who first named the species). Linnaeus was familiar with European hemp, which was widely cultivated at the time. In 1785, noted evolutionary biologist ] published a description of a second species of ''Cannabis'', which he named ''Cannabis indica'' Lam.<ref name="lamarck1785">de Lamarck, J. B. 1785. ''Encyclopédie Méthodique de Botanique'', vol. 1, Pt. 2, Paris, France, pp. 694-695</ref> Lamarck based his description of the newly named species on plant specimens collected in India. He described ''C. indica'' as having poorer fiber quality than ''C. sativa'', but greater utility as an ]. Additional ''Cannabis'' species were proposed in the 19th century, including strains from China and Vietnam (Indo-China) assigned the names ''Cannabis chinensis'' Delile, and ''Cannabis gigantea'' Delile ex Vilmorin.<ref name="small1976a"/> However, many taxonomists found these putative species difficult to distinguish. In the early 20th century, the single-species concept was still widely accepted, except in the Soviet Union where ''Cannabis'' continued to be the subject of active taxonomic study. The name ''Cannabis indica'' was listed in various ]s, and was widely used to designate ''Cannabis'' suitable for the manufacture of medicinal preparations.<ref name=”winek1977”>Winek, Charles L. 1977. Some historical aspects of marijuana. ''Clinical Toxicology'' '''10'''(2): 243-253.</ref> | |||
| === 20th Century === | |||
| In 1924, Russian botanist D.E. Janischevsky concluded that ] ''Cannabis'' in central Russia is either a variety of ''C. sativa'' or a separate species, and proposed ''C. sativa'' L. var. ''ruderalis'' Janisch. and ''Cannabis ruderalis'' Janisch. as alternative names.<ref name="small1975b"/> In 1929, renown plant explorer ] assigned wild or feral populations of ''Cannabis'' in Afghanistan to ''C. indica'' Lam. var. ''kafiristanica'' Vav., and ruderal populations in Europe to ''C. sativa'' L. var. ''spontanea'' Vav. <ref name = "hillig2004">{{cite journal | last= Hillig | first=Karl W. | coauthors=Paul G. Mahlberg | title=A chemotaxonomic analysis of cannabinoid variation in Cannabis (Cannabaceae) | journal = American Journal of Botany. | volume = 91 | pages = 966-975 | date = 2004 | url= http://www.amjbot.org/cgi/content/full/91/6/966 | accessed = 2006-10-08 }} </ref><ref name="small1976a"/> In 1940, Russian botanists Serebriakova and Sizov proposed a complex classification in which they also recognized ''C. sativa'' and ''C. indica'' as separate species. Within ''C. sativa'' they recognized two subspecies: ''C. sativa'' L. subsp. ''culta'' Serebr. (consisting of cultivated plants), and ''C. sativa'' L. subsp. ''spontanea'' (Vav.) Serebr. (consisting of wild or feral plants). Serebriakova and Sizov split the two ''C. sativa'' subspecies into 13 varieties, including four distinct groups within subspecies ''culta''. However, they did not divide ''C. indica'' into subspecies or varieties.<ref name="small1975b"/><ref name="serebriakova1940">Serebriakova T. Ya. and I. A. Sizov. 1940. Cannabinaceae Lindl. In: Vavilov N. I. (ed.), ''Kulturnaya Flora SSSR'', vol. 5, Moscow-Leningrad, USSR, pp. 1-53. </ref> This excessive splitting of ''C. sativa'' proved too unwieldy, and never gained many adherents. | |||
| ] | |||
| In the 1970's, the taxonomic classification of ''Cannabis'' took on added significance in North America. Laws prohibiting ''Cannabis'' in the United States and Canada specifically named products of ''C. sativa'' as prohibited materials. Enterprising attorneys for the defense in a few drug busts argued that the seized ''Cannabis'' material may not have been ''C. sativa'', and was therefore not prohibited by law. Attorneys on both sides recruited botanists to provide expert testimony. Among those testifying for the prosecution was Dr. Ernest Small, and Dr. Richard E. Schultes and others testified for the defense. The botanists engaged in heated debate (outside of court), and both camps impugned the other's integrity.<ref name="small1975a"/><ref name="emboden1981"/> The defense attorneys were not often successful in winning their case, because the intent of the law was clear. | |||
| In 1976, Canadian botanist Ernest Small<ref name=”smallbiography”>{{cite web | url=http://pubs.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/cgi-bin/rp/rp2_gene_e?mlist-authors-small_e.html | publisher=National Research Council Canada | title=Ernest Small (biography) | accessdate=2006-10-28 }}</ref> and American taxonomist ] published a taxonomic revision that recognizes a single species of ''Cannabis'' with two subspecies: ''C. sativa'' L. subsp. ''sativa'', and ''C. sativa'' L. subsp. ''indica'' (Lam.) Small & Cronq.<ref name="small1976a"/> The authors hypothesized that the two subspecies diverged primarily as a result of human selection; ''C. sativa'' subsp. ''sativa'' was presumably ] for traits that enhance fiber or seed production, whereas ''C. sativa'' subsp. ''indica'' was primarily selected for drug production. Within these two subspecies, Small and Cronquist described ''C. sativa'' L. subsp. ''sativa'' var. ''spontanea'' Vav. as a wild or escaped variety of low-intoxicant ''Cannabis'', and ''C. sativa'' subsp. ''indica'' var. ''kafiristanica'' (Vav.) Small & Cronq. as a wild or escaped variety of the high-intoxicant type. This classification was based on several factors including interfertility, chromosome uniformity, chemotype, and numerical analysis of ] characters.<ref name="small1973"/><ref name="small1976a"/><ref name="small1976b"> {{cite journal | title=A Numerical Taxonomic Analysis of Cannabis with Special Reference to Species Delimitation | last=Small | first=Ernest | coathors=Perry Y. Jui, L. P. Lefkovitch | journal = Systematic Botany | volume=1 | issue= 1 | date=1976 | pages= pp. 67-84 }} </ref> | |||
| Professors William Emboden, Loran Anderson, and Harvard botanist ] and coworkers also conducted taxonomic studies of ''Cannabis'' in the 1970's, and concluded that stable ] differences exist that support recognition of at least three species, ''C. sativa'', ''C. indica'', and ''C. ruderalis.''<ref name=”schultes1974”>Schultes, R. E., et. al. 1974. ''Cannabis'': an example of taxonomic neglect. ''Harvard University Botanical Museum Leaflets'' '''23''': 337–367.</ref><ref name=”anderson1974”>Anderson, L. C. 1974. A study of systematic wood anatomy in ''Cannabis''. ''Harvard University Botanical Museum Leaflets'' '''24''': 29–36.</ref><ref name=”anderson1980”>Anderson, L. C. 1980. Leaf variation among ‘’Cannabis’’ species from a controlled garden. ''Harvard University Botanical Museum Leaflets'' '''28''': 61–69.</ref><ref name="emboden1974">{{cite journal | author=Emboden, W.A. | coauthors= | date=1974 | title=Cannabis – a polytypic genus |journal=Economic Botany | volume=28 |pages=304-310}} </ref> For Schultes, this was a reversal of his previous interpretation that ''Cannabis'' is monotypic, with only a single species.<ref name="schultes1970">Schultes, R. E. 1970. Random thoughts and queries on the botany of ''Cannabis''. In: Joyce C.R.B. and Curry S.H. (eds), ''The Botany and Chemistry of Cannabis''. J. and A. Churchill, London, pp. 11-38.</ref> According to Schultes' and Anderson's descriptions, ''C. sativa'' is tall and laxly branched with relatively narrow leaflets, ''C. indica'' is shorter, conical in shape, and has relatively wide leaflets, and ''C. ruderalis'' is short, branchless, and grows wild in ]. This taxonomic interpretation was embraced by ''Cannabis'' aficionados who commonly distinguish narrow-leafed "sativa" drug ] from wide-leafed "indica" drug strains.<ref name="clarke2005">Interview with Robert Connell Clarke. 1 Jan 2005. NORML, New Zealand. http://www.norml.org.nz/modules.php?name=News&file=print&sid=588 accessed 2007-02-19</ref> | |||
| === Ongoing research === | |||
| ] developed in the late twentieth century are being brought to bear on questions of scientific classification. This has resulted in many reclassifications based on ]. Scientific classification of ''Cannabis'' has been investigated using molecular biology and genetic techniques. | |||
| Several groups conducted genetic analyses of ] markers among drug and fiber cultivars. These analyses showed an extremely high degree of genetic polymorphism between and within populations, suggesting a very high degree of potential variation, even in heavily selected cultivars. <ref>{{cite journal |last=Faeti |first=V. |coauthors=G. Mandolino and P. Ranalli |date= 1996 |title=Genetic diversity of Cannabis sativa germplasm based on RAPD markers |journal=Plant Breeding |volume=115 |pages= 367–370 }}</ref> <ref>{{cite journal|last=Forapani |first= S. |coauthors=A. Carboni, C. Paoletti, V. M. C. Moliterni, and P. Ranalli et al. | date=2001 |title=Comparison of hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) varieties using RAPD markers | journal=Crop Science |volume= 41 | pages= 1682-1689 | url=http://crop.scijournals.org/cgi/content/full/41/6/1682?ijkey=d45a33b99c39b26ffbaeae9d9e570f7393aa6542 | |||
| | accessdate=2006-10-26}}</ref><ref name="mandolino2002">Giuseppe Mandolino and Paolo Ranalli. 2002. The applications of molecular markers in genetics and breeding of hemp. Journal of Industrial Hemp 7(1): 7-23.</ref> Long-time ''Cannabis'' researcher EPM de Meijer described these analyses as confirming the continuity of the gene pool throughout the studied accessions, and as further confirmation that the genus comprises a single species. <ref name="meijer2003">{{cite journal | author=Etienne P. M. de Meijer | coauthors= Manuela Bagatta, Andrea Carboni, Paola Crucitti, V. M. Cristiana Moliterni, Paolo Ranalli, and Giuseppe Mandolino | date= 2003 | url= http://www.genetics.org/cgi/reprint/163/1/335 |title=The Inheritance of Chemical Phenotype in Cannabis sativa L. |journal= Genetics | volume= 163 | issue=1 |pages= 335-346 | accessdate=2005-10-24 }} </ref> | |||
| In 2004, Karl W. Hillig, then a ] student at ] teamed with ''Cannabis'' expert<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.naihc.org/MahlbergArticles.html |accessdate=2006-10-26 | publisher=North American Industrial Hemp Council | title=Dr. Paul G. Mahlberg's Cannabis Research}}</ref> Paul Mahlberg to conduct a chemotaxomic analysis of ''Cannabis,'' using analytical chemistry of cannabinoid content to determine allele frequencies within studied populations. They concluded that observed chemotypes support recognition of ''C. sativa'' and ''C. indica'' as distinct species, but concluded that recognition of ''C. ruderalis'' was not supported but rather was consistent with classification of ''C. ruderalis'' as ''C. sativa'' var ''spontanea'' Vav. The authors categorized fiber/seed landraces and feral populations from Europe, central Asia, and Asia Minor in ''C. sativa.'', and categorized narrow-leaflet drug (NLD), wide-leaflet drug (WLD) cultivars, southern and eastern Asian hemp cultivars, and feral Himalayan populations as ''C. indica.'' <ref name="hillig2004"/> In 2005, Hillig published another paper based on the same research, with additional statistical analyses, and this time proposed a 3-species classification, recognizing ''C. sativa'', ''C. indica'', and ''C. ruderalis''.<ref>Hillig, K.W. 2005. Genetic evidence for speciation in ''Cannabis'' (Cannabaceae). ''Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution'' 52: 161-180.</ref> In his doctoral ], published the same year, Hillig stated that ] failed to differentiate the putative species, but that ] resulted in a high degree of discrimination of the putative species and infraspecific taxa. Hillig stated that the patterns of variation support a two-species concept, but not recognition of ''C. ruderalis'' as a separate species from ''C. sativa''. His conclusion was that taxonomic revision of ''Cannabis'' is warranted, but further research is needed to substantiate his proposed taxonomic treatment. <ref name=”hillig2005c”>Hillig, Karl William. 2005. A systematic investigation of ‘’Cannabis’’. Department of Biology, Indiana University. Bloomington, Indiana. Published by UMI. http://il.proquest.com/products_umi/dissertations/ access date 2007-02-21</ref> | |||
| As of 2006, the single-species concept of ''Cannabis'' continues to be widely accepted. <ref name="GRIN">{{cite web |title=Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN)| publisher=USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program |location=Beltsville, Maryland |url=http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/splist.pl?2034 | accessdate=2006-10-24 }}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="APNI">{{cite web |title=Multilingual Multiscript Plant Name Database| date=1995 - 2004 |publisher=The University of Melbourne |url=http://www.plantnames.unimelb.edu.au/Sorting/Cannabis.html |accessdate=2006-10-24 }}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="ITIS">{{cite web | title=Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS)| url=http://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=19109 |accessdate=2006-10-24 }}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="Plants"> {{cite web|author = USDA, NRCS | date=2006 | title=The PLANTS Database| publisher=National Plant Data Center| location=Baton Rouge, LA 70874-4490 USA | url=http://plants.usda.gov/java/ClassificationServlet?source=profile&symbol=CASA3&display=31 | accessdate=2006-11-01 }} </ref> | |||
| <ref name="meijer2003"/> <ref> {{cite book | last= Clarke |first= RC | coauthors = DP Watson | date= 2002 |title= Cannabis and Cannabinoids: Pharmacology, Toxicology,and Therapeutic Potential | editor= Grotenhermen and Russo (eds.) |publisher=The Haworth Integrative Healing Press | location= Binghamton, NY | id= ISBN 0-7890-1507-2 | pages= 10}} </ref> <ref> {{cite journal | author=Watts G | date=2006 | title=Cannabis confusions |journal=BMJ |volume=332| issue =7534 | pages= 175-6 }} </ref> | |||
| === Popular usage === | |||
| The scientific debate regarding taxonomy has had little effect on the terminology in widespread use among cultivators of drug-type ''Cannabis''. Cultivators recognize three distinct varieties based on morphology, native range, and subjective psychoactive characteristics. "Cannabis sativa" is the term used to describe the most widespread variety, which is tall, conical, and found in warm lowland regions. "Cannabis indica" is used to describe shorter, bushier plants adapted to cooler climates and highland environments. "Cannabis ruderalis" is the term used to describe the short, tough plants that grow wild in central Asia. <ref name="WDR2006_annex1">{{cite book | title=World Drug Report 2006, Volume I: Analysis| chapter= CANNABIS: WHY WE SHOULD CARE | author = United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime | publisher = United Nations | id=ISBN 92-1-148214-3| url=http://www.unodc.org/pdf/WDR_2006/wdr2006_chap2_annex1.pdf| format=PDF | accessdate = 2006-11-23 }} </ref> | |||
| Breeders, seed companies, and cultivators of drug type ''Cannabis'' often describe the ancestry or gross ] characteristics of ]s by categorizing them as pure indica, mostly indica, indica/sativa, mostly sativa, or pure sativa. | |||
| In September of 2005, ] reported that researchers at the ] had identified a new subspecies of ''Cannabis'', based on analysis of ]l and ] DNA. <ref> {{cite web | title=Rasta lends its name to a third type of cannabis | publisher=New Scientist | date=2005-09-20 | accessdate=2006-11-05 |url=http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=mg18725175.200 }}</ref>. The New Scientist story, which was picked up by many news agencies and web sites, indicated that the research was to be published in the journal ''Forensic Science International''. As of November 2006, the work has not appeared in that journal. | |||
| == Geographical distribution == | |||
| {{sectstub}} | |||
| === Wild cannabis === | |||
| Wild ''C. sativa'' subsp. ''indica'' is mainly confined to hash producing areas such as ], and parts of ]. Wild ''C. sativa'' subsp. ''sativa'' shows great local variation; for example, in warm places, it can reach heights up to 20 feet (6 m) tall, but in colder climates it can be as short as 1 foot (30 cm) in height. Almost every single flower branch bears a seed. The wild ''C. sativa'' subsp. ''sativa'' has long, thin and airy buds and a Christmas tree shape structure. Wild ''C. sativa'' subsp. ''indica'' remains compact and bushy with thick buds for the most part, and is sometimes used by the locals for hashish production. Generally, there are far fewer seeds in wild ''C. sativa'' subsp. ''indica''. | |||
| In many areas, wild or naturalized populations of ''Cannabis'' are considered ], and are often targeted by government-sponsored eradication programmes. | |||
| == Reproduction == | |||
| === Breeding systems === | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ''Cannabis'' has been described as predominantly ]<ref name="clarke1991"/> <ref name="ainsworth2000">{{cite journal | first = Charles | last = Ainsworth | title= Boys and Girls Come Out to Play: The Molecular Biology of Dioecious Plants | journal = Annals of Botany | volume = 86 | pages = 211-221 | date= 2000 | url= http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/86/2/211 | accessed = 2006-10-05}}</ref>, although some monoecious varieties have also been described <ref name="menzel1964">{{cite journal | title=Meiotic Chromosomes of Monoecious Kentucky Hemp (Cannabis sativa) | last= Menzel | first= Margaret Y | journal=Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club | volume=91 | issue=3 | date=1964 | pages=193-205 }} </ref> | |||
| Subdioecy (the occurrence of monoecious individuals and dioecious individuals within the same population) is widespread. <ref name="mignoni1999"/> <ref name="schumann1999"> {{cite journal |title=Preliminary results of a German field trial with different hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) accessions | last= Schumann | first=E | coauthors= Peil A, Weber WE | journal=Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution | volume=46 |issue=4 | date=1999 |pages=399-407 }}</ref> <ref name="ranalli2004">{{cite journal |title=Current status and future scenarios of hemp breeding | last=Ranalli | first=Paolo | journal=Euphytica | volume=140 | issue=1 | date=2004 | pages=121-131 }}</ref> Many populations have been described as sexually labile. <ref name="hirata1924">{{cite journal | last =Hirata | first =K | title =Sex reversal in hemp | journal =Journal of the Society of Agriculture and Forestry | volume =16 | issue = | pages =145-168 | date =1924 }}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="schaffner1931">{{cite journal | last= Schaffner | first= JH | title= The Fluctuation Curve of Sex Reversal in Staminate Hemp Plants Induced by Photoperiodicity | journal= American Journal of Botany | volume= 18 | issue= 6 | pages= 424-430 | date= 1931 }} </ref> <ref name="mandolino2002"/> | |||
| As a result of intensive selection in cultivation, ''Cannabis'' exhibits many sexual phenotypes, which can be described in terms of the ratio of female to male flowers occurring in the individual or typical in the cultivar<ref name="truta2002">{{cite journal | last =Truta | first =E | coauthors =Gille E, Toth E, Maniu M | title =Biochemical differences in Cannabis sativa L. depending on sexual phenotype | journal =Journal of Applied Genetics | volume =43 | issue =4 | pages =451-462 | publisher =Institute of Plant Genetics, Polish Academy of Sciences | date =2002 | url =http://jag.igr.poznan.pl/2002-Volume-43/4/pdf/2002_Volume_43_4-451-462.pdf | accessdate =2006-09-03}}</ref>. Dioecious varieties are preferred for drug production, where the ] are preferred. Dioecious varieties are also preferred for textile fiber production, whereas monecious varieties are preferred for pulp and paper production. It has been suggested that the presence of monoecy can be used to differentiate between licit crops of monoecious hemp and illicit dioecious drug crops. <ref name="mignoni1999"/> | |||
| === Mechanisms of sex determination === | |||
| ''Cannabis'' has been described as having one of the most complicated mechanisms of ] among the dioecious plants.<ref name="truta2002"/> Many models have been proposed to explain sex determination in ''Cannabis''. | |||
| Based on studies of sex reversal in ], it was first reported in 1924 by K. Hirata that an ] is present.<ref name="hirata1924"/> At the time, the XY system was the only known system of sex determination. The ] was first described in Drosophila spp in 1925.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Bridges | first = CB | date= 1925 | title= Sex in relation to chromosomes and genes | journal = American Naturalist | publisher = University of Chicago Press | volume = 59 | pages=127-137}}</ref> Soon thereafter, Schaffner disputed Hirata's interpretation,<ref name="schaffner1929">{{cite journal | last = Schaffner | first = JH | title = Heredity and Sex | journal = The Ohio Journal of Science | date = 1929 | volume = 29 | issue=1 | pages = 289-300 }}</ref> and | |||
| published results from his own studies of sex reversal in hemp, concluding that an X:A system was in use and that futhermore sex was strongly influenced by environmental conditions.<ref name="schaffner1931"/> | |||
| Since then, many different types of sex determination system have been discovered, particularly in plants<ref name="ainsworth2000"/>. Dioecy is relatively uncommon in the plant kingdom, and a very low percentage of dioecious plant species have been determined to use the XY system. In most cases where the XY system is found it is believed to have evolved recently and independently.<ref> {{ cite journal | title=Dioecious plants. A key to the early events of sex chromosome evolution | journal=Plant Physiology | date=2001 | volume=127 |issue=4| pages=418-24 | last=Negrutiu |First=I |coauthors= Vyskot B, Barbacar N, Georgiev S, Moneger F }}</ref> | |||
| Since the 1920's, a number of sex determination models have been proposed for ''Cannabis''. Ainsworth<ref name="ainsworth2000"/> describes sex determination in the genus as using "an X/autosome dosage-type." | |||
| ] | |||
| The question of whether heteromorphic sex chromosomes are indeed present is most conveniently answered if such chromosomes were clearly visible in a ]. ''Cannabis'' was one of the first plant species to be karyotyped, however, this was in a period when karyotype preparation was primitive by modern standards (see ]). Heteromorphic sex chromosomes were reported to occur in staminate individuals of dioecious 'Kentucky' hemp, but were not found in pistillate individuals of the same variety. Dioecious 'Kentucky' hemp was assumed to use an XY mechanism. Heterosomes were not observed in analyzed individuals of monoecious 'Kentucky' hemp, nor in an unidentified German cultivar. These varieties were assumed to have sex chromosome composition XX. <ref name="menzel1964"/> | |||
| But according to other researchers no modern karyotype of ''Cannabis'' had been published as of 1996.<ref>{{cite journal | title=Taxonomic studies of Cannabis in China | journal=Journal of the International Hemp Association | volume=3 |issue=2 |pages= 55-60 | url=http://www.hempfood.com/IHA/iha03207.html |first=Shao |last=Hong |coauthors=Robert C. Clarke }}</ref> Proponents of the XY system state that Y chromosome is slightly larger than the X, but difficult to differentiate cytologically. <ref name="peil2003">{{cite journal | title= "Sex-linked AFLP markers indicate a pseudoautosomal region in hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) | journal=Theoretical and Applied Genetics | volume=107 | issu= 1 | pages=102-109 | last=Peil | first=A. | coauthors=H. Flachowsky, E. Schumann, W. E. Weber | date=2003 }} </ref> | |||
| More recently, Sakamoto and various co-authors<ref>{{cite journal | |||
| | last =Sakamoto | first =K | coauthors =Shimomura K, Komeda Y, Kamada H, Satoh S | title =A male-associated DNA sequence in a dioecious plant, Cannabis sativa L. | journal =Plant & Cell Physiology | volume =36 | issue =8 | pages =1959-54 | publisher =Oxford University Press | date =1995 Dec }} | |||
| </ref><ref>{{cite journal | last =Sakamoto | first =K | coauthors = Abe T, Matsuyama T, Yoshida S, Ohmido N, Fukui K, Satoh S | title = RAPD markers encoding retrotransposable elements are linked to the male sex in Cannabis sativa L | |||
| | journal = Genome | volume =48 | issue = 5 | pages = 931-936 | date =2005 }}</ref> have used ] to isolate several ] sequences that they name Male-Associated DNA in Cannabis (MADC), and which they interpret as indirect evidence of a male chromosome. Several other research groups have reported identification of male-associated markers using RAPD and ]<ref>{{cite journal | last=Törjék | first= O | coauthors=Bucherna N., Kiss E., Homoki H., Finta-Korpelová Z., Bócsa I., Nagy I., Heszky L.E. | date=2002 | title=Novel male specific molecular markers (MADC5, MADC6) for sex identification in hemp | journal=Euphytica | volume= 127 |pages= 209-218 }}</ref> <ref name="mandolino2002"/> <ref name="meijer2003"/>. Ainsworth commented on these findings, stating that "It is not surprising that male-associated markers are relatively abundant. In dioecious plants where sex | |||
| chromosomes have not been identified, markers for maleness indicate either the presence of sex chromosomes which have not been distinguished by cytological methods or that the marker is tightly linked to a gene involved in sex determination." <ref name="ainsworth2000"/> | |||
| Environmental sex determination is known to occur in a variety of species.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Tanurdzic |first=M |coauthors= Banks JA | date= 2004 | title=Sex-determining mechanisms in land plants | journal= Plant Cell | volume=16 |issue= Suppl | pages = S61-71 }}</ref> Many researchers have suggested that sex in ''Cannabis'' is determined or strongly influenced by environmental factors <ref name="schaffner1931"/>. Ainsworth reviews that treatment with ] and ] have feminizing effects, and that treatment with ] and ] have masculinizing effects.<ref name="ainsworth2000"/> It has been reported that sex can be reversed in ''Cannabis'' using chemical treatment.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Mohan Ram | first= H.Y | coauthors= R. Sett | date= 1982 | title= Induction of fertile male flowers in genetically female Cannabis sativa plants by silver nitrate and silver thiosulfate anionic complex | journal= Theor. Appl. Genet. | volume=62 | pages=369–375}}</ref> | |||
| == Aspects of cannabis production and use == | |||
| ] | |||
| * ] discusses its use as a medication. | |||
| * ] discusses its use as a recreational ]. | |||
| * ] discusses sacramental and religious use. | |||
| * ] discusses its uses as a source of ], ], ], ], and industrial materials. | |||
| * ] discusses aspects of cultivation for medicinal and recreational drug purposes | |||
| * ] focuses on the law and enforcement aspects of growing, transporting, selling and using cannabis as a drug. | |||
| ** ] | |||
| * ] discusses the ], physical, and mental effects of ''Cannabis'' when used as drug. | |||
| == Etymology == | |||
| The plant name '''cannabis''' is of ] origin: ; | |||
| However, the earlier ] language used the word "kanubi", which means 'cane of two (sexes?)'. This is possibly the source for the Semitic usage. | |||
| The Biblical Hebrew term ''qěnēh bośem'', literally "reed of balm", probably <ref>]. 1980. ''Hebrew University''. ''Israel'' </ref> refers to cannabis according to some etymologists <ref>]. 1936. ''Institute of Anthropological Sciences''. ''Warsaw'' </ref>, but is more commonly thought to be lemon grass, calamus , or even sweet cane, due to widespread translation issues. <ref>]. 1925. ''Flora der Juden''. ''1924-1934, reprinted 1967'' </ref> The Hebrew Bible mentions it in ] where God commands ] to make a holy oil of ], ], ''qěnēh bośem'' and ] to anoint the ] and the Tabernacle (and thus God's Temple in Jerusalem). Notably, this anointing oil is a special herbal formula that functions as a kind of polish and fragrance for the Ark and Tabernacle, and the Bible forbids its manufacture and use to anoint people (]) with the exception of the Aaronic priesthood (]) | |||
| Elsewhere, the Hebrew Bible simply uses "reed" ''qānēh'' as the name of a plant in four places whose context seems to mean "reed of balm" as a fragrant resin, ], ], ] and ]. The Hebrew name "reed of balm" comes from ''qěnēh'' (the noun construct form of ''qāneh'') means a "reed" or "cane" and ''bośem'' means "balm" or "aromatic" resin. Hebrew may have adapted the name ''qannabbôs'' from "reed of balm" ''qěnēh bośem'' as a substitute for the ambiguous name "reed". | |||
| This Biblical Hebrew term is often mistranslated as "]", also called "lemon grass" (Cymbopogon citratus) or "sweet flag" (Acorus calamus), following an ancient misunderstanding in the Greek ] translation. The Hebrew Bible was written across centuries well up to the 5th Century BCE. However, centuries later, by the time the Septuagint was written around the 2nd Century BCE, the archaic Hebrew word ''qěnēh bośem'' appears to have already abbreviated into the later Hebrew form ''qannabbôs'', which is attested in Post Biblical Hebrew literature. Thus, the Septuagint did not recognize the Hebrew expression "reed of balm" and mistook it to refer to some unidentified plant. As a dynamic equivalent, the Septuagint rendered it as "calamus" (Greek ''kalamos''), which indeed is a "balmy" (scented) reed. The calamus plant was known in Greek mythology and processed into an aphrodisiac. | |||
| Unambiguous Hebrew or Aramaic references to cannabis are rare and obscure. Syriac has qanpa (a loan from kannabis) and tanuma (see the Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon.) but neither is found in the Peshitta, the Syriac Bible. Late Syriac Ahiqar texts include qanpa as "ropes of hemp" (tunbei de-qanpa). The Hebrew word qanbes, a loan word from kannabis, is used in the Mishnah as hemp in the sense of a constituent of clothing or other items. | |||
| The ] term ''cannabis'' probably derives from a Semitic origin as well. ] of the ] in Warsaw is quoted in the ] as saying: | |||
| <blockquote>''The astonishing resemblance between the Semitic '''kanbos''' and the Scythian '''cannabis''' lead me to suppose that the Scythian word was of Semitic origin. These etymological discussions run parallel to arguments drawn from history. The Iranian Scythians were probably related to the Medes, who were neighbors of the Semites and could easily have assimilated the word for hemp. The Semites could also have spread the word during their migrations through Asia Minor.''</blockquote> | |||
| Likely, the name 'cannabis' was known from the Semitic merchants who sold this commodity throughout the ancient trade routes of Southeast Asia. | |||
| Comparing the English word ''hemp'' and the ] word ''kannabis'' shows that the word came down from the presumed ]. Words like ''kanapish'' for "hemp" occur in some ] languages. It is likely that, soon after ] started, ] as a cultivated plant spread widely, carrying its name with it. Source of Rus. konoplja, Pers. kanab, Lith. kanapes "hemp," and Eng. canvas and hemp. | |||
| {{Herbs & spices}} | |||
| == References == | |||
| <!-- ---------------------------------------------------------- | |||
| See http://en.wikipedia.org/Wikipedia:Footnotes for a | |||
| discussion of different citation methods and how to generate | |||
| footnotes using the <ref>, </ref> and <reference /> tags | |||
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| <!-- Dead note anderson1980: Anderson, L. C. 1980. Leaf variation among ''Cannabis'' species from a controlled garden. ''Harvard University Botanical Museum Leaflets'' 28: 61–69. --> | |||
| == See Also== | |||
| ] | |||
| == Further reading == | |||
| * ''Cannabis: A History'' (2005) Martin Booth ISBN 0-312-32220-8 | |||
| * | |||
| == External links == | |||
| {{Portal}} | |||
| {{Wikispecies|Cannabis}} | |||
| {{commons|Cannabis sativa}} | |||
| * | |||
| * - Contains medical information to the Endocannabinoid System | |||
| {{Cannabis resources}} | |||
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| Smoke weed wvery day- Snoop dogg | |||
Revision as of 22:37, 21 February 2007
Ian =] 4:20 =D