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In the philosophy of science, protoscience is a research field that has the characteristics of an undeveloped science that may ultimately develop into an established science. Philosophers use protoscience to understand the history of science and distinguish protoscience from science and pseudoscience. The word roots proto- + science indicate first science.

History

Protoscience as a research field with the characteristics of an undeveloped science appeared in the early 20th century. In 1910, Jones described economics:

I confess to a personal predilection for some term such as proto-science, pre-science, or nas-science, to give expression to what I conceive to be the true state of affairs, which I take to be this, that economics and kindred subjects are not sciences, but are on the way to become sciences.

Kuhn later provided a more precise description, protoscience as a field that generates testable conclusions, faces "incessant criticism and continually strive for a fresh start", but currently, like art and philosophy, appears to have failed to progress in a way similar to the progress seen in the established sciences. He applies protoscience to the fields of natural philosophy, medicine and the crafts in the past that ultimately became established sciences. Philosophers later developed more precise criteria to identify protoscience using the cognitive field concept.

Conceptual framework

Cognitive field

Philosophers describe protoscience using the cognitive field concept. In every society, there are fields of knowledge (cognitive fields). The cognitive field consists of a community of individuals within a society with a domain of inquiry, a philosophical worldview, logical/mathematical tools, specific background knowledge from neighboring fields, a set of problems investigated, accumulated knowledge from the community, aims and methods. Cognitive fields are either belief fields or research fields. A cognitive research field invariably changes over time due to research; research fields include natural sciences, applied sciences, mathematics, technology, medicine, jurisprudence, social sciences and the humanities. A belief field (faith field) is "a cognitive field which either does not change at all or changes due to factors other than research (such as economic interest, political or religious pressure, or brute violence)." Belief fields include political ideology, religion, pseudodoctrines and pseudoscience.

Science field

A science field is a research field that satisfies 12 conditions: i) all components of the science field invariably change over time from research in the field, especially logical/mathematical tools and specific background/presuppositions from other fields, ii) the research community has special training, "hold strong information links", initiates or continues the "tradition of inquiry" iii) researchers have autonomy to pursue research and receive support from the host society, iv) the researchers worldview is the real world as contains "lawfully changing concrete" objects, an adequate view of the scientific method, a vision of organized science achieving truthfull descriptions and explanations, ethical principles for conducting research, and the free search for truthful, deep and systematic understanding, v) up-to-date logical/mathematical tools precisely determine and process information, vi) the domain of research are real objects/entities, vii) specific background knowledge is up-to-date, confirmed data, hypotheses and theories from relevant neighboring fields, viii) the set of problems investigated are from the domain of inquiry or within the research field, ix) the accumulated knowledge includes worldview-compatible, up-to-date testworthy/testable theories, hypotheses and data, and special knowledge previously accumlated in the research field, x) the aims are find and apply laws and theories in the domain of inquiry, systemize acquired knonwledge, generalized information into theories, and improve research methods, xi) appropriate scientific methods are "subject to test, correction and justification", xii) the research field is connected with a wider research field with similar capable researchers capable of "scientific inference, action and discussion", similar hosting society, a domain of inquiry containing the domain of inquiry of the narrower field, and shared worldview, logical/mathematical tools, background knowledge, accumulated knowledge, aims and methods.

Protoscience

Philosophers define an undeveloped science as an incomplete or approximate science field. Bunge defines a protoscience as a research field that approximately satisfies a similar set of the 12 science conditions. A protoscience that is evolving to ultimately satisfy all 12 conditions is an emerging or developing science. Bunge states, "The difference between protoscience and pseudoscience parallels that between error and deception." A protoscience may not survive or evolve to a science or pseudoscience. Kuhn was skeptical about any remedy that would reliably transform a protoscience to a science stating, "I claim no therapy to assist the transformation of a proto-science to a science, nor do I suppose anything of this sort is to be had."

Tuomela defines a protoscience as a research field that satisfies 9 of the 12 science conditions; a protoscience fails to satisfy the up-to-date conditions for logic/mathematical tools, specific background knowledge from neighboring fields, and accumulated knowledge (v, vii, ix), and there is reason to believe the protoscience will ultimately satisfy all 12 conditions. Protosciences and belief fields are both non-science fields, but only a protoscience can become a science field. Within a science field, there may be some persons with non-scientific "attitudes, thinking and actions"; a more precise approach is to identify scientific "attitudes, thinking and actions."

Developmental stages of science

Bunge states that protoscience may occur as the second stage of a 5-stage process in the development of science. The theory and empirical approach characterize each stage. Prescience has unchecked speculation theory and unchecked data. Protoscience has hypotheses without theory accompanied by observation and occasional measurement, but no experiment.. Deuteroscience has hypotheses formulated mathematically without theory accompanied by systematic measurement, and experiment on perceptible traits of perceptible objects. Tritoscience has mathematical models accompanied by systematic measurements and experiments on perceptible and imperceptible traits of perceptible and imperceptible objects. Tetartoscience has mathematical models and comprehensive theories accompanied by precise systematic measurements and experiments on perceptible and imperceptible traits of perceptible and imperceptible objects..

Origin of protoscience

Myths may play a role in the development of science. Popper states,

This becomes clear if we remember that most of our scientific theories originate in myths. The Copernican system, for example, was inspired by a Neo-Platonic worship of the light of the Sun who had to occupy the ‘centre’ because of his nobility. This indicates how myths may develop testable components. They may, in the course of discussion, become fruitful and important for science. In my Logic of Scientific Discovery I gave several examples of myths which have become most important for science, among them atomism and the corpuscular theory of light.

Some scholars use the term "primitive protoscience" to describe ancient myths that helped explain natural phenomena at a time prior to the development of the scientific method.

Protoscience may also arise from the philosophical inquiry that anticipates science. Philosophers anticipated the development of astronomy, atomic theory, evolution and linguistics. The Greek philosopher Anaximander (610-546 B.C.) viewed the earth as a non-moving free-floating cylinder in space. The atomist doctrine of Democritus (460-370 B.C.) to Epicurus (341–270 B.C.) was that objects were composed of non-visible small particles. Anaximander had anticipated that humans may have developed from more primitive organisms. Wittgenstein’s study of language preceded the linguistic studies of J. L. Austin and John Searle.

Protoscience examples

Physical science

Ancient astronomical protoscience was recorded as astronomical images and records inscribed on stones, bones and cave walls. Luigi Ferdinando Marsili (1658–1730) contributed to protoscience oceanography, describing the ocean currents of the Bosporus and physical oceanography, and Benjamin Franklin contributed by identifying the currents of the Gulf Stream. Philosophers consider physics before Galileo and Huygens, chemistry before Lavoisier, medicine before Virchow and Bernard, electricity before the mid-eigteenth century, and the study of heredity and phylogeny before the mid-nineteenth century as protosciences that eventually became established science. Prior to 1905, leading scientists, Ostwald and Mach, viewed atomic and molecular-kinetic theory as a protoscience, a theory indirectly supported by chemistry and statistical thermodynamics; however, Einstein's theory of Brownian motion, and Perrin's experimental verification led to widespread acceptance of atomic and molecular-kinetic theory as established science. The early stage of plate tectonics, beginning with Wegener's theory of continental drift, was a protoscience until experimental research confirmed the theory many years later. The initial widespread rejection of Wegener's theory is an example of the importance of not dismissing a protoscience.

Psychology

Critics state that psychology is a protoscience because some practices occur that prevent falsification of research hypotheses. Folk psychology and coaching psychology are protosciences.

Medicine

The use of scientifically invalid biomarkers to identify adverse outcomes is a protoscience practice in medicine. The process for reporting adverse medical events is a protoscience because it relies on uncorroborated data and unsystematic methods.

Technology

Hatleback describes cybersecurity as a protoscience that lacks transparency in experimentation, scientific laws, and sound experimental design in some cases; however cybersecurity has the potential to become a science.

Notes

1. ^ Tuomela 1987.
2. ^ Jones 1910.
3. Hobhouse 1915.
4. ^ Kuhn 1970.
5. ^ Bunge 1983.
6. ^ Bunge 2010.
7. ^ Popper 2002.
8. Johnson 2021.
9. ^ Costa 2014.
10. ^ Owens 2014.
11. Newburgh, Peidle & Rueckner 2006.
12. Oreskes & Le Grand 2001.
13. Heene & Ferguson 2017.
14. Sehon 1997.
15. Grant & Cavanagh 2007.
16. Grimes, Schulz & Raymond 2010.
17. Kaplan & Barach 2002.
18. Hatleback 2018.

References

• Bullivant, Stephen; Ruse, Michael (2021). The Cambridge history of atheism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-68899-4.
• Bunge, Mario (1983). Treatise on Basic Philosophy VOLUME 6 Epistemology & Methodology II:Understanding the world. Dordrecht: Reidel. ISBN 90-277-1634-X.
• Bunge, Mario (2010). Matter and Mind: a philosophical inquiry. Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Springer Verlag. ISBN 978-90-481-9225-0.
• Bunge, Mario (1984). "What is pseudoscience?" (PDF). The Skeptical Inquirer. Vol. 9. pp. 36–46.
• Costa, Claudio F. (2014). Lines of thought : rethinking philosophical assumptions. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4438-5349-1.
• Grant, Anthony M.; Cavanagh, Michael J. (2007). "Evidence-based coaching: Flourishing or languishing?". Australian Psychologist. 42 (4): 239–254. doi:10.1080/00050060701648175.
• Grimes, David A.; Schulz, Kenneth F.; Raymond, Elizabeth G. (2010). "Surrogate end points in women's health research: science, protoscience, and pseudoscience". Fertility and Sterility. 93 (6): 1731–1734. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2009.12.054.
• Hatleback, Eric N (2018). "The protoscience of cybersecurity". The Journal of Defense Modeling and Simulation: Applications, Methodology, Technology. 15 (1): 5–12. doi:10.1177/1548512917737635.
• Hobhouse, Leonard Trelawny (1915). Morals in Evolution: A Study in Comparative Ethics. New York: Chapman & Hall.
• Johnson, Carl Garth (2021). "The Nlhaykapmx Oral Tradition of the Three Bears: Interpretations Old And New". Canadian Journal of Native Education: Vol. 25 No. 1 (2001). doi:10.14288/cjne.v25i1.195901.
• Jones, Robert (1910). "Dualism in economics". The Clare Market Review. The students magazine of the London school of economics and political science. London: Students union.
• Kaplan, H.; Barach, P. (2002). "Incident reporting: science or protoscience? Ten years later". BMJ Quality & Safety. 11 (2): 144–145. doi:10.1136/qhc.11.2.144.
• Kuhn, Thomas Samuel (1970). "Reflections on my critics". In Lakatos, Imre; Musgrave, Alan (eds.). Criticism and the growth of knowledge;. Cambridge : University Press. ISBN 0521096235.
• Heene, Moritz; Ferguson, Christopher J. (2017). ""Psychological Science's Aversion to the Null, and Why Many of the Things You Think Are True, Aren't"". In Lilienfeld, Scott O.; Waldman, Irwin D. (eds.). Psychological science under scrutiny : recent challenges and proposed solutions. Chichester, West Sussex, UK: Wiley Blackwell. pp. 34–52. ISBN 9781118661079.
• Newburgh, Ronald; Peidle, Joseph; Rueckner, Wolfgang (2006). "Einstein, Perrin, and the reality of atoms: 1905 revisited". American Journal of Physics. 74 (6): 478–481. doi:10.1119/1.2188962.
• Oreskes, Naomi; Le Grand, Homer (2001). Plate tectonics : an insider's history of the modern theory of the Earth. Boulder, Colo.: Westview press. ISBN 0-8133-3981-2.
• Owens, Nicholas J. P. (2014). "Sustained UK marine observations. Where have we been? Where are we now? Where are we going?". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 372 (2025): 20130332. doi:10.1098/rsta.2013.0332.
• Tuomela, Raimo (1987). "Science, Protoscience, and Pseudoscience". In Pitt, Joseph C.; Pera, Marcello (eds.). Rational Changes in Science : Essays on Scientific Reasoning. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. pp. 83–102. ISBN 9789400937802.
• Popper, Karl R. (2002). Conjectures and refutations : the growth of scientific knowledge. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-28593-3.
• Sehon, Scott R. (1997). "Natural-Kind Terms and the Status of Folk Psychology". American Philosophical Quarterly. 34 (3): 333–344. ISSN 0003-0481.

See also

• History of science
• Hypothesis
• Pseudoscience
• Methodical culturalism
• Natural philosophy
• Obsolete scientific theories
• Pathological science

External links

• "Questions to help distinguish a pseudoscience from a protoscience". web.archive.org. 7 January 2012.

• History of science
• Scientific method