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| ==Etymology== | ==Etymology== | ||
| The ] term '']'' comes from the ] '']'', i.e. the ].<ref name=Hindu> </ref> The ] mentions the land of the ] as ''Sapta Sindhu'' (the land of the seven rivers in the northwestern ], one of them being the Indus). This corresponds to ''Hapta Həndu'' in the '']'' (''Vendidad or Videvdad: Fargard'' 1.18)—the sacred scripture of ] of ]. It is mentioned as one of the 16 lands where Iranians (arya) live. The term was used for those who lived in the Indian subcontinent on or beyond the "Sindhu".<ref> See ] for a discussion of the transition from "Sindhu" to "Hindu"</ref> | The ] term '']'' comes from the ] '']'', i.e. the ].<ref name=Hindu> </ref> The ] mentions the land of the ] as ''Sapta Sindhu'' (the land of the seven rivers in the northwestern ], one of them being the Indus). This corresponds to ''Hapta Həndu'' in the '']'' (''Vendidad or Videvdad: Fargard'' 1.18)—the sacred scripture of ] of ]. It is mentioned as one of the 16 lands where Iranians (arya) live. The term was used for those who lived in the Indian subcontinent on or beyond the "Sindhu".<ref> See ] for a discussion of the transition from "Sindhu" to "Hindu"</ref> Other alternative is the Indu or moon associated with ruling clans which gave the name to India and to Indus, river of the moon. | ||
| Wtf bitches! this web site sucks balls! this is bull shit! | |||
| ==History== | ==History== | ||
Revision as of 20:29, 17 May 2007
Hinduism (known as Hindū Dharma in some modern Indian languages) is a religion that originated on the Indian subcontinent. In contemporary usage Hinduism is also referred to as Sanātana Dharma (सनातन धर्म), a Sanskrit phrase meaning "eternal law".
With its origins in the Vedic civilization and in the Indus Valley Civilization it has no known founder, being itself a conglomerate of diverse beliefs and traditions. It is considered by some as the world's oldest extant religion, and has approximately a billion adherents, of whom about 905 million live in India and Nepal, placing it as the world's third largest religion after Christianity and Islam. Other countries with large Hindu populations include Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Malaysia, Fiji, Suriname, Guyana and Trinidad and Tobago.
Hinduism contains a vast body of scriptures. Divided as revealed and remembered and developed over millennia, these scriptures expound on a broad of range of theology, philosophy and mythology, providing spiritual insights and guidance on the practice of dharma (religious living). Among such texts, Hindus consider the Vedas and the Upanishads as being among the foremost in authority, importance and antiquity. Other major scriptures include the Tantras and the sectarian Agamas, the Purāṇas and the epic Mahābhārata and Rāmāyaṇa. The Bhagavad Gītā, a treatise excerpted from the Mahābhārata, is sometimes called a summary of the spiritual teachings of the Vedas.
Etymology
The Persian term Hindū comes from the Sanskrit Sindhu, i.e. the Indus River. The Rig Veda mentions the land of the Indo-Aryans as Sapta Sindhu (the land of the seven rivers in the northwestern Indian subcontinent, one of them being the Indus). This corresponds to Hapta Həndu in the Avesta (Vendidad or Videvdad: Fargard 1.18)—the sacred scripture of Zoroastrianism of Iran. It is mentioned as one of the 16 lands where Iranians (arya) live. The term was used for those who lived in the Indian subcontinent on or beyond the "Sindhu". Other alternative is the Indu or moon associated with ruling clans which gave the name to India and to Indus, river of the moon.
History
Main article: History of HinduismOrigins
The earliest evidence for certain (minor) elements of Hinduism may date back as far as the late neolithic and the early Harappan period (ca. 5500–2600 BCE). The beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era (ca. 1500-500 BCE) are called the "Vedic religion". The oldest surviving text of Hinduism is the Rigveda, which is dated to between 1700–1100 BCE based on linguistic and philological evidence.
The Vedic period
Main article: Historical Vedic religion
Modern Hinduism grew out of the Vedas. The earliest of these, the Rigveda, centers on worship of deities such as Indra, Varuna and Agni, and on the Soma ritual. The early Indo-Aryans performed fire-sacrifices, called yajña and chanted Vedic mantras. They did not build temples or icons. Buddhist and Jain texts claim that Animals were sacrificed in larger yajñas. The oldest Vedic traditions exhibit strong similarities to Zoroastrianism and with other Indo-European religions.
Epic and Puranic periods
The epic poems Ramayana and Mahabharata were composed roughly from 400 BCE to 200 CE but were transmitted orally for hundreds of years prior to this period. The Ramayana and Mahabharata contain secular and mythological stories of the rulers and wars of ancient India as well as on the avatars Rama and Krishna respectively. They are interspersed with treatises on various Hindu philosophical concepts and themes, including the nature of the atma, karma, dharma, moksha, and the organisation of society and government. The later Puranas recount tales about devas and devis, their interactions with humans and their battles against demons.
The age of Mahajanapadas
Main article: MahajanapadasDuring the Iron Age in India, several schools of thought arose and developed in Hindu philosophy including Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Purva-Mimamsa and Vedanta. Three key revolutions underpinned the nascence of a new epoch in Hindu thought. These were the spiritual upheaval initiated by the Upanishads, and the arrival of Mahavira (founder of Jainism) and the Buddha (founder of Buddhism). Charvaka, the leader of an atheistic materialist school, also came to the fore in North India in the sixth century BCE. The Upanishads, Mahavira and Buddha taught that to achieve moksha or nirvana, one did not have to accept the authority of the Vedas or the caste system; the Buddha went a step further and claimed that the existence of a Self/soul or God was unnecessary. In this intellectual ferment, many Hindus became Buddhists while others were influenced by Buddhist and Jain teachings. The arrival of new philosophies substantially changed the religion between the end of the Maurya and beginning of the Gupta periods..
Islam and Bhakti
From the last twelth century successive waves of armies from Muslim kingdoms invaded and to varying degrees, gained control over North India. During this period Buddhism declined rapidly, and many Hindus converted to Islam. Some Muslim rulers such as Aurangzeb destroyed Hindu temples and otherwise persecuted non-Muslims, while others, such as Akbar, were more tolerant.
Hinduism underwent profound changes due in large part to the influence of the prominent teachers Ramanuja, Madhva, and Chaitanya. Followers of the Bhakti movement moved away from the abstract concept of Brahman, which the philosopher Adi Shankara consolidated a few centuries before, to a focus on the more accessible avataras, especially Krishna and Rama. A new attitude toward God—emotional, passionate love—replaced the old approaches of sacrificial rite and meditation on the formless Brahman.
The 19th and 20th centuries
The 19th and 20th centuries saw an unprecedented interaction between Hindu and European thought (in the form of Abrahamic religions and Western Philosophy). This intercultural correspondence catalyzed developments in Indology, formations of new schools of Hindu thought, the global spread of Hinduism and changes within Hindu society. Meanwhile, traditional systems of Hinduism witnessed revivals and new developments that flourished independently.
Indology as an academic discipline of studying Indian culture from a European perspective was established in the 19th century, led by Max Müller and John Woodroffe. They brought much of the Vedic, Puranic and Tantric literature and philosophy to Europe and the United States. At the same time, societies such as the Brahmo Samaj and the Theosophical Society attempted to reconcile and fuse Abrahamic and Dharmic philosophies, endeavouring to institute societal reform.
This period also saw the emergence of more traditional movements in origin though still innovative, sometimes based on the personalities and teachings of individuals, as with Shri Ramakrishna and Ramana Maharshi. Prominent Hindu philosophers, including Sri Aurobindo and Swami Prabhupada (founder of ISKCON) translated, reformulated and presented Hinduism's foundational texts for contemporary audiences in new iterations, attracting followers and attention in India and abroad. Others such as Swami Vivekananda, Paramahansa Yogananda, B.K.S. Iyengar and Swami Rama have been instrumental in raising the profiles of traditional Yoga and Vedanta in the West.
In the Indian subcontinent, Hinduism is still practised by the majority of India's inhabitants although the number in the areas of modern Pakistan and Bangladesh have dwindled after the Partition of India. Hinduism is the official religion in Nepal, which is the world's only Hindu state. Indonesia has experienced a Hindu revival in recent years due to the efforts of Parisada Hindu Dharma.
See also: British Raj, Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj, ISKCON, and Ramakrishna MathScriptures and theology
Hinduism is based on "the accumulated treasury of spiritual laws discovered by different persons in different times." The scriptures were transmitted orally, in verse form to aid memorization, for many centuries before they were written down. Over many centuries, other sages refined the teachings and expanded the canon. The majority of the sacred texts are in the Sanskrit language. Sanskrit continues to be used in religious and literary settings. The scripture are collectively referred to as Shastras and are classified into two classes: Shruti and Smriti.
Shruti: Vedic literature
Main article: Śruti
Shruti (lit: that which has been heard) refers to the Vedas which form the earliest record of the Hindu scriptures. While they have not been dated with much certainty, the most conservative estimates date their origin to 1200 BCE or earlier.
Hindus revere the Vedas as eternal truths revealed to ancient sages (Ṛṣis) through meditation. Many of these sages were women, called Ṛṣikās. A number of modern Hindus do not associate the creation of the Vedas with a God or person. They are thought of as the laws of the spiritual world, which would still exist even if they were not revealed to the sages.
There are four Vedas (called Ṛg-, Sāma- Yajus- and Atharva-). The Rigveda is the first and most important Veda. Each Veda is divided into four parts: the primary one, the Veda proper, being the Saṃhitā, which contains sacred mantras in verse or prose. The other three parts form a three-tier ensemble of commentaries, usually in prose and are believed to be slightly later in age than the Saṃhitā. These are: the Brāhmaṇas, Āraṇyakas, and the Upanishads. The first two parts were subsequently called the Karmakāṇḍa (the ritualistic portion), while the last two form the Jñānakāṇḍa (the knowledge portion).
Whereas the Vedas focus on rituals, the Upanishads focus on spiritual insight and philosophy. They constitute a major portion of the Jnāna Kānda, and explore philosophical teachings. The Upanishads discuss Brahman and reincarnation. While the Vedas are not read by most lay Hindus, they are revered as the eternal knowledge whose sacred sounds help bring spiritual and material benefits. Theologically, they take precedence over the Smriti. and local custom (ācāra).
Smriti: non-Vedic literature
Main article: Smriti
Hindu texts other than the Shrutis are collectively called the Smritis (memory).
The most notable of the smritis are the Itihāsa (epics), which consist of the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyaṇa. Bhagavad Gītā is an integral part of the Mahabharata and one of the most popular sacred texts of Hinduism. It contains philosophical teachings from Krishna, an incarnation of Vishnu, told to the Pāṇḍava prince Arjuna on the eve of a great war. The Bhagavad Gītā is described as the essence of the Vedas.
Another set of venerable Smriti are the Purāṇas ("ancient histories"), which illustrate Hindu ideas through vivid narratives dealing with deities, and their interactions with humans. There are texts with a more sectarian nature such as Devī Mahātmya, the Yoga Sūtras, the Tantras as well as the Mahanirvāṇa Tantra, Tirumantiram, Shiva Sutras and the Hindu Āgamas. A more controversial text, the Manusmriti, is a prescriptive lawbook which epitomizes the societal codes of the caste system.
Most Hindu scriptures, especially the epics and Puranas, are not typically interpreted literally. More importance is attached to the ethics and metaphorical meanings derived from them. Hindu exegesis leans toward figurative interpretations of scriptures rather than literal ones.
"Many scriptures, many paths"
In contrast to the scriptural canons of some religions, the Hindu scriptural canon is not closed. Hindus believe that because the spiritual truths of the Vedas are eternal, they continue to be expressed in new ways. Some Hindus even venerate the scriptures of other religions. One much-quoted verse from the Rigveda that emphasizes the diversity of paths to the one goal is:
- ekam sad viprā bahudhā vadanty
- Truth is one, the wise call it in many different ways
- —Rig Veda 1.164.46
This openness means that there is little theological quarrel between Hindu denominations although these denominations may view God and their notions in a different form or sense.
Schools of philosophy
Main article: Hindu philosophyThe six Āstika or orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy, which accept the authority of the Vedas, are Nyāya, Vaisheshika, Sāṃkhya, Yoga, Pūrva Mīmāṃsā (also called Mīmāṃsā), and Uttara Mīmāṃsā (also called Vedānta). The Heterodox Nāstika schools, which do not rely on the authority of the Vedas, are Buddhism, Jainism and Lokāyata. Although scholars mainly study these philosophies, they influence the beliefs of average Hindus.
Practices
Hindu practices generally involve seeking awareness of God and sometimes also seeking blessings from Devas. Therefore, Hinduism has developed numerous practices meant to help one think of divinity in the midst of everyday life. According to Swami Vivekananda:
"The ideal of man is to see God in everything. But if you cannot see Him in everything, see Him in one thing, in that thing you like best, and then see Him in another. So on you go . . . Take your time and you will achieve your end."
Puja (worship)
Main article: PujaHindus can engage in formal worship (Sanskrit: pūjā, worship or veneration) either at home or at a temple. At home, Hindus often create a shrine with icons dedicated to the individual's chosen form(s) of God. Veneration may involve offering food, water, or flowers and may be expressed through the burning of incense, lighting of candles or oil-lamps, ringing a bell, waving a fan, or sounding a conch-shell. Other practices of Puja include meditation, chanting mantras, and reciting scriptures.
Devotional singing
Devotional singing is an important part of bhakti. Devotional singing occurs in temples, in ashrams, on the banks of holy rivers, at home and elsewhere. Hymns are in Sanskrit or in modern Indian languages such as Hindi, Marathi, Bengali or Tamil. Musical instruments accompanying devotional singing include the manjeera, tanpura, harmonium, and tabla. Another form of community worship is Satsang (fellowship), the practice of gathering for study or discussion of scriptures and religious topics as well as chanting mantras.
Yajna
Main article: YajnaVedic rites of fire-oblation (yajna) are now only occasional practices although they are highly revered in theory. In a Hindu wedding ceremony however, the presence of sacred fire as the divine witness, the yajña and chanting of Vedic mantras is still the norm. The same applies to death rituals.
Worship of God through icons
Main article: MurtiHindus may perform their worship through icons (murti), such as statues or paintings symbolic of God's power and glory. The icon serves as a tangible link between the worshipper and God. Another view is that the image is a manifestation of God, since God is immanent. The Padma Purana states that the mūrti is not to be thought of as mere stone or wood but as a manifest form of the Divinity. A few Hindu sects, such as the Arya Samaj, do not believe in worshiping God through icons.
Temples
Main article: MandirHindu temples are a place of worship for Hindus. They are usually dedicated to a primary deity along with associated subordinate deities. However, some temples are dedicated to multiple deities. Most major temples are constructed as per the āgama shāstras and many are pilgrimage sites.
Visiting temples is not obligatory for Hindus. Many Hindus go to temples only during religious festivals, though others do so more regularly. Temples are not used for funerals, or as social hubs but some are used for weddings. Many Hindus view the four Shankaracharyas (the abbots of the monasteries in Joshimath, Puri, Shringeri and Dwarka) as the Patriarchs of Hinduism.
Hindu iconography
Main article: Hindu iconography
Hinduism has a developed system of symbolism and iconography to represent the sacred in art, architecture, literature and worship. These symbols gain their meaning from the scriptures, mythology, or cultural traditions. The symbols Om (which represents the Parabrahman), Swastika (which symbolizes auspiciousness) have grown to represent Hinduism itself, while other markings such as tilaka identify a follower of the faith. Hinduism associates many symbols, which include the lotus, chakra and veena, with particular deities. These associations distinguish their physical representations in sculptures and pictures and are based on allegorical references in Hindu mythology. While most representations of deities are largely anthropomorphic there are exceptions. For instance the deity Shiva can be worshipped in the form of a pillar-like stone called a lingam.
The guru-disciple tradition
Main article: Guru-shishya traditionIn many Hindu sects, spiritual aspirants adopt a personal spiritual teacher, called a guru. Traditionally, during brahmacharya (see Ashramas) a Guru taught a disciple all things necessary to lead a dharmic life. The student is expected to follow the instructions of the guru and to have a spiritual life.
Japa and mantra
Main articles: Japa and MantraMantras are prayers that through their meaning, sound, and chanting style help a person focus their mind on holy thoughts or to express devotion to God. Mantras are meant to give courage in exigent times and invoke one's inner spiritual strength.
After the pranava or "fundamental" mantra of "Aum", one of the most revered mantras is the Gayatri Mantra. Hindus are initiated into this most sacred mantra at the time of their Upanayanam (thread ceremony). Many Hindus perform morning ablutions at the bank of a sacred river while chanting the Gayatri or Mahamrityunjaya mantras.
Japa (ritualistic chanting) is extolled as the greatest duty for the Kali Yuga (what Hindus believe to be the current age) in the epic Mahabharata. Many Hindu traditions adopt Japa as their primary spiritual practice. The Gaudiya Vaishnava tradition chanting the Hare Krishna mantra is one such example.
Pilgrimage
Pilgrimage is not mandatory in Hinduism though many devotees undertake them. There are many Hindu holy places in India. One of the most famous is the ancient city of Varanasi. Other holy places in India include Kedarnath and Badrinath in the Himalayas, the Jagannath temple at Puri, Rishikesh and Haridwar in the foothills of the Himalayas, Prayag, Rameshwaram in the South and Gaya in the east. The largest single gathering of pilgrims is during the annual Kumbh Mela fair held in one of four different cities on a rotating basis. Another important "set" of pilgrimages are the 51 "Shakti Peethas," where the Mother Goddess is worshipped, the two principal ones being Kalighat and Kamakhya. Vaishno Devi, the Shakti temple near Katra, Jammu and Kashmir is the second most visited religious shrine in India, after Tirupati Balaji Mandir.
Hindu festivals
Main article: Hindu festivalsHinduism has many festivals throughout the year. Their dates are usually prescribed by the Hindu calendar and typically celebrate events from Hindu mythology, often coinciding with seasonal changes and occasions of importance in an agrarian society. There are festivals which are primarily celebrated by specific sects or in certain regions of the Indian subcontinent.
Some widely observed Hindu festivals are,
- Dussera, or Durga Puja, celebrates events from Hindu mythology symbolizing the triumph of good over evil;
- Diwali, the festival of lights;
- Ganesh Chaturthi, the festival celebrating Ganesha;
- Maha Shivaratri, the festival dedicated to Shiva;
- Ram Navami, celebrates the birth of Rama, the seventh incarnation of Vishnu;
- Krishna Janmastami, celebrates the birth of Krishna, the eighth incarnation of Vishnu;
- Holi, a spring festival of colors and light;
- Sankranti, a harvest festival of India
Cremation
On death, cremation is considered obligatory for all except sanyasis, hijra, and children under five. Cremation is typically performed by wrapping the corpse in cloth and burning it on a pyre. Manikarnika Ghat, in Varanasi, is a famous site where bodies are cremated by the side of the river, in full view of the public. Those not cremated may be simply wrapped in cloth, weighted with stones and cast into a river.
Hinduism obliges the closest male relative (son, father, husband, etc.) of the deceased to immerse the cremated remains in the holy river Ganga (Ganges), preferably at the holy city of Haridwar, India. The cremated remains may also be entombed, in case the deceased was a well-known person.
Society
Denominations
Main article: Hindu denominations
Hinduism has no central doctrinal authority and many practising Hindus do not claim to belong to any particular denomination at all. However, academics categorize contemporary Hinduism into four major denominations: Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism and Smartism. The denominations differ primarily in the God worshipped as the Supreme One and in the traditions that accompany worship of that God.
Vaishnavas worship Viṣhṇu; Shaivites worship Shiva; Shaktas worship Shakti (power) personified through a female divinity or Mother Goddess, Devi; while Smartists believe in the essential sameness of all deities.
There are also many movements that are not easily placed in any of the above categories, such as Swami Dayananda Saraswati's Ārya Samāj, which rejects image worship and veneration of multiple deities. It focuses on the Vedas and the Vedic fire sacrifices (yajña). The Tantric traditions in Hinduism have various sects, as Banerji writes in "Tantra in Bengal":
Tantras are ... also divided as āstika or Vedic and nāstika or non-Vedic. In accordance with the predominance of the deity the āstika works are again divided as Śākta, Śaiva, Saura, Gāṇapatya and Vaiṣṇava.
As in every religion, some view their own denomination as superior to others. However, many Hindus consider other denominations to be legitimate alternatives to their own. Heresy is therefore generally not an issue for Hindus.
Ashramas: Stages of life
Main article: Vedic ashram systemTraditionally, the life of a male Hindu was divided into four Āshramas ("phases" or "stages"; unrelated meanings of āshrama include "monastery" or "refuge").
The first part of one's life, Brahmacharya, the stage as a student, is spent in celibate, controlled, sober and pure contemplation under the guidance of a Guru, building up the mind for spiritual knowledge.
Grihastha is the householder's stage, in which one marries and satisfies kāma and artha within one's married and professional life respectively (see the pursuits of life). Among the moral obligations of a Hindu householder are the duties to support one's parents, children, guests, priests (Brahmins), and monks (sanyāsis).
Vānaprastha, the retirement stage, is gradual detachment from the material world. This may involve giving over duties to one's children, spending more time in religous practices and embarking on holy pilgrimages.
Finally, in Sannyāsa, the stage of asceticism, one renounces all worldly attachments, often envisioned as seclusion, to find the Divine through detachment from worldly life and peacefully shed the body for the next life (or for liberation).
Monasticism
Main article: SannyasaIn their quest to attain the spiritual goal of life, some Hindus choose the path of monasticism (sanyāsa). Monastics commit themselves to a life of simplicity, celibacy, detachment from worldly pursuits, and the contemplation of God. A Hindu monk is called a sanyāsī, sādhu, or swāmi. A female renunciate is called a sanyāsini. Renunciates receive high respect in Hindu society because their outward renunciation of selfishness and worldliness serves as an inspiration to householders who strive for mental renunciation. Some monastics live in monasteries, while others wander from place to place, trusting in God alone to provide for their needs. It is considered a highly meritorious act for a householder to provide sādhus with food or other necessaries. Sādhus strive to treat all with respect and compassion, whether a person may be poor or rich, good or wicked, and to be indifferent to praise, blame, pleasure, and pain.
Varnas and the caste system
Main article: Varnashrama dharmaHindu society has traditionally been categorized into four classes, called Varnas (Sanskrit: "color, form, appearance");. It is argued that in ancient times, the Varṇas were merely labels based class adherence, not occupation as in the current hereditary caste system in India) —
- the Brahmins: teachers and priests;
- the Kshatriyas: warriors, nobles, and kings;
- the Vaishyas: farmers, merchants, and businessmen; and
- the Shudras: servants and labourers.
Hindus and scholars debate whether the caste system is an integral part of Hinduism sanctioned by the scriptures or an outdated social custom. Although the scriptures contain passages that clearly sanction the Varna system, they contain indications that the caste system is not an essential part of the religion, and both sides in the debate can find scriptural support for their views. The oldest scriptures, the Vedas, strongly sustain the division of society into four classes (varna) but place little emphasis on the caste system, mentioning it rarely and in a cursory manner. A verse from the Rig Veda indicates that a person's caste was not necessarily determined by that of his family:
"I am a bard, my father is a physician, my mother's job is to grind the corn." (Rig Veda 9.112.3)
In the Vedic Era, there was no prohibition against the Shudras (which later on became the low-castes) listening to the Vedas or participating in any religious rite, as was the case in the later times.
Mobility and flexibility within the varnas belie allegations of social discrimination in the caste system, as has been pointed out by several sociologists. Several prominent Hindu figures who were born as Shudras became Brahmins through various actions. For example Valmiki, author of the Ramayana, was originally a thief.
Many social reformers, including Mahatma Gandhi and B. R. Ambedkar, criticized caste discrimination. The religious teacher Sri Ramakrishna (1836-1886) taught that
"Lovers of God do not belong to any caste . . . . A brahmin without this love is no longer a brahmin. And a pariah with the love of God is no longer a pariah. Through bhakti (devotion to God) an untouchable becomes pure and elevated."
Ahimsa and vegetarianism
Main articles: Ahimsa, Sacred cow, and Vegetarianism and religionHindus advocate the practice of ahiṃsā (non-violence) and respect for all life because divinity is believed to permeate all beings, including plants and non-human animals. There is no sharp distinction between humans and other forms of life. The term ahiṃsā first appears in the Upanishads, and is the first of the five Yamas (eternal vows/restraints) in Raja Yoga.
In accordance with ahiṃsā, many Hindus embrace vegetarianism to respect higher forms of life. While vegetarianism is not a requirement of Hinduism, it is recommended for a satvic (purifying) lifestyle. Estimates of the number of lacto vegetarians in India (includes inhabitants of all religions) vary between 20% and 42%. The food habits usually vary with the community and region, with some castes having fewer vegetarians and coastal populations relying on seafood. Some Hindus avoid even onion and garlic, which are regarded as rajasic foods. Some avoid meat on specific holy days.
Observant Hindus who do eat meat almost always abstain from beef. The largely pastoral Vedic people and subsequent generations relied heavily on the cow for protein-rich milk and dairy products, tilling of fields and as a provider of fuel and fertilizer. Thus, it was identified as a caretaker and a maternal figure. Hindu society honors the cow as a symbol of unselfish giving. Cow-slaughter is legally banned in almost all states of India.
Conversion
Since the Hindu scriptures are essentially silent on the issue of religious conversion, the question of whether Hindus should evangelize is open to interpretation. Those who see Hinduism mainly as a philosophy, a set of beliefs, or a way of life generally believe that one can convert to Hinduism by incorporating Hindu beliefs into one's life and considering oneself a Hindu. Some view Hinduism as more of an ethnicity than a religion and believe being born a Hindu makes one a Hindu for life. These people tend to believe that there is an assumption that one is Hindu when they come from India. The Supreme Court of India has taken the former view, holding that the question of whether a person is a Hindu should be determined by the person's belief system, not by their ethnic or racial heritage.
There is no formal process for conversion to Hinduism, although in many traditions a ritual called dīkshā ("initiation") marks the beginning of spiritual life. Most Hindu sects do not actively recruit converts because they believe that the goals of spiritual life can be attained through any religion, as long as it is practiced sincerely. Nevertheless, Hindu "missionary" groups operate in various countries to provide spiritual guidance to persons of any religion. Examples include the Vedanta Society, Parisada Hindu Dharma, International Society for Krishna Consciousness, Arya Samaj and the Self-Realization Fellowship.
Notes
- such as Hindi, Bengali and other contemporary Indo-Aryan languages, as well as in several Dravidian tongues including Tamil and Kannada
- The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions. Ed. John Bowker. Oxford University Press, 2000; The term can be traced to late 19th century Hindu reform movements (J. Zavos, Defending Hindu Tradition: Sanatana Dharma as a Symbol of Orthodoxy in Colonial India, Religion (Academic Press), Volume 31, Number 2, April 2001, pp. 109-123; see also R. D. Baird, "Swami Bhaktivedanta and the Encounter with Religions," Modern Indian Responses to Religious Pluralism, edited by Harold Coward, State University of New York Press, 1987).
- Kenoyer, J. M. "Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization" pages 180-183. Oxford University Press 1998
- Osborne, E: "Accessing R.E. Founders & Leaders, Buddhism, Hinduism and Sikhism Teacher's Book Mainstream.", page 9. Folens Limited, 2005.
- Klostermaier, K:"A Survey of Hinduism", page 1. SUNY Press, 1994;
- e.g. in "Hinduism and the Clash of Civilizations" by David Frawley, Voice of India, 2001. ISBN 81-85990-72-7
- Religion: Hinduism - National Geographic
- Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents, Adherents.com (2005 figure)
- Swami Chidbhavananda. The Bhagavad Gita. pp. 67-74. The Gita Dhyanam is a traditional short poem sometimes found as a prefatory to editions of the Bhagavad Gita. Verse 4 refers to all the Upanishads as the cows, and the Gita as the milk drawn from them.
- "Meaning of Hindu"
- See Indo-European sound laws for a discussion of the transition from "Sindhu" to "Hindu"
- "Hindu History" The BBC names a bath and phallic symbols of the Harappan civilization as features of the "Prehistoric religion (3000-1000 BCE)".
- T. Oberlies (Die Religion des Rgveda, Vienna 1998. p. 158) based on 'cumulative evidence' sets wide range of 1700–1100.
- The Ṛgvedic deity Dyaus, regarded as the father of the other deities, is linguistically cognate with Zeus—the king of the gods in Greek mythology, Iovis (gen. of Jupiter) —the king of the gods in Roman mythology, and Tiu/Ziu in Germanic mythology, cf. English 'Tues-day'. Other Vedic deities also have cognates with those found in other Indo-European speaking peoples' mythologies; see Proto-Indo-European religion.
- Robin Rinehart, Contemporary Hinduism 28 (2004) ISBN 1-57607-905-8
- ^ A.L. Basham, Ed., A Cultural History of India (Oxford 1999) ISBN 0-19-563921-9
- Sir Charles Eliot, Hinduism and Buddhism, Vol. I (London 1954)
- Olivelle, Patrick, "The renouncer tradition", pp. 273-274; in "Blackwell companion to Hinduism", Ed. Flood,Gavin, Blackwell Publ., 2003. ISBN 0-631-21535-2
- Between the Empires. Ed. P. Olivelle, Oxford University Press 2006
- J.T.F. Jordens, “Medieval Hindu Devotionalism,” in A.L. Basham, Ed., A Cultural History of India (Oxford 1999) ISBN 0-19-563921-9
- Constitution of Nepal: Part I, Government of Nepal website. Accessed: April 9, 2007
- Country profile: Nepal , CIA Factbook.Accessed: April 9, 2007
- Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda Vol III. 118-120; Vol. I. 6-7.
- Sargeant, Winthrop, Introduction to The Bhagavad Gita at 3 (New York, 1984) ISBN 0-87395-831-4
- ^ Swami Nikhilananda, The Upanishads: A New Translation Vol. I, at 3 (5th Ed. 1990) ISBN 0-911206-15-9
- Swami Nikhilananda, The Upanishads: A New Translation Vol. I, at 7 (5th Ed. 1990) ISBN 0-911206-15-9
- Coulson, Michael, Sanskrit: An Introduction to the Classical Language (2d Ed. 1992) ISBN 0-8442-3825-2
- Hindunet.org
- Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda Vol III. 118.
- "Hindu Wisdom - Women in Hinduism". Retrieved 2006-01-02.
- Note: Nyaya-Vaisheshika believe that the Vedas were created by God, and are not eternal.
- Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda Vol. I. 6-7.
- Swami Harshananda, "A Bird's Eye View of the Vedas," in Holy Scriptures: A Symposium on the Great Scriptures of the World (2d Ed.) ISBN 81-7120-121-0
- Rigveda is not only the oldest among the vedas, but is one of the earliest Indo-European texts. See: Hindunet.org
- Hinduwebsite.com explaining the yajnas
- Swami Shivananda's mission
- What is Veda?, Vedah.com
- See Karel Werner, A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism 166 (Curzon Press 1994) ISBN 0-7007-0279-2
- Monier-Williams, Religious Life and Thought in India 25-41 (New Delhi 1974)
- ISCKON site
- "The Smritis" by Swami Sivananda
- Sarvopaniṣado gāvo, etc. (Gītā Māhātmya 6). Gītā Dhyānam, cited in Introduction to Bhagavad-gītā As It Is.
- See Swami Nikhilananda, The Upanishads: A New Translation Vol. I, at 8 (5th ed. 1990) ISBN 0-911206-15-9
- Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda II.374 (18th Printing 1995) ISBN 81-85301-75-1
- Brahmachari Siddheshwar Shai v. State of West Bengal (Supreme Court of India), available at
- See Monier Williams, Religious Thought and Life in India 64, 66 (New Delhi 1974)
- "Schools of Philosophy"
- Swami Vivekananda, Vedanta: Voice of Freedom, Ed. Swami Chetanananda (1990) ISBN 0-916356-63-9
- ^ Cite error: The named reference
MW Sanskrit dict.was invoked but never defined (see the help page). - MSN Encarta on Hinduism
- Aryabhatt.com
- Hindu Marriage Act, 1955
- Swami Bhaskarananda, Essentials of Hinduism 137 (Viveka Press 1994) ISBN 1-884852-02-5
- arcye viṣṇau śīlā-dhīr. . . narakī saḥ.
- Swami Bhaskarananda, Essentials of Hinduism 157 (Viveka Press 1994)
-
"More pilgrim rush to Vaishno Devi this year". October 08, 2006.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|date=(help); Cite has empty unknown parameter:|1=(help) - Karl Werner, A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism at 73 (Curzon Press 1994) ISBN 0-7007-0279-2
- Banerji, p. 2.
- Religions of the World India and Hinduism - Background of relativism
- S.S. Rama Rao Pappu, "Hindu Ethics", 165-68, in Contemporary Hinduism (2004) ISBN 1-57607-905-8
- ^ Bhaskarananda, Swami, "The Essentials of Hinduism", Viveka Press, 1994. ISBN 1-884852-02-5
- R.S. McGregor, The Oxford Hindi-English Dictionary (5th ed. 1999) ISBN 0-19-563846-8
- Alex Michaels, Hinduism: Past and Present 316 (Princeton 1998) ISBN 0-691-08953-1
- Alex Michaels, Hinduism: Past and Present 188-97 (Princeton 2004) ISBN 0-691-08953-1
- Caste System View of Scholars
- Later scriptures, however, such as the Bhagavad Gītā (4.13) state that the four varṇa divisions are created by God, and the Manusmṛiti categorizes the different castes.Manu Smriti Laws of Manu 1.87-1.91 However, at the same time, the Gītā says that one's varṇa is to be understood from one's personal qualities and one's work, not one's birth. This view is supported by records of sages who became Brahmins. For example, the sage Vishvāmitra was a king of the Kṣhatriya caste, and only later became recognized as a great Brahmin sage, indicating that his caste was not determined by birth. Similarly, Vālmiki, once a low-caste robber, became a sage. Veda Vyāsa, another sage, was the son of a fisherwoman (Sabhlok, Prem. "Glimpses of Vedic Metaphysics". Page 21).
- White Yajurveda 26.2
- James Silverberg (November 1969). "Social Mobility in the Caste System in India: An Interdisciplinary Symposium". The American Journal of Sociology. 75 (3): 443–444.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help)CS1 maint: date and year (link) - Social Structure & Mobility in Economic Development, By Neil J. Smelser, Seymour Martin Lipset, Published 2005
- Elenanor Zelliot, "Caste in Contemporary India," in Contemporary Hinduism, Robert Rinehart, Ed. (2004) ISBN 1-57607-905-8
- M, Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna, Translation by Swami Nikhilananda 155 (Ramakrishna-Vivekananda Center, 8th Printing 1992)
- Monier-Williams, Religious Thought and Life in India (New Delhi, 1974 edition)
- Surveys studying food habits of Indians include: "Diary and poultry sector growth in India", "Indian consumer patterns" and "Agri reform in India". Results indicate that even Indians who eat meat do so infrequently with less than 30% consuming non-vegetarian foods regularly, although the reasons may be economical.
- Deep Vegetarianism (1999) by: Michael Allen Fox.
- Yadav, Y. (August 14, 2006). "The food habits of a nation". The Hindu. Retrieved 2006-11-17.
{{cite news}}: Check date values in:|date=(help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - Krishnakumar, R. (August 30-September 12, 2003). "Beef without borders". Frontline. Narasimhan Ram. Retrieved 2006-10-07.
{{cite news}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ "Does Hinduism Accept Newcomers?". Retrieved 2006-11-14.
- Bharatiya Janata Party History The eternal religion's defining moment in time
- Brahmachari Siddheshwar Shai v. State of West Bengal (Supreme Court of India), available at
- See Swami Bhaskarananda, Essentials of Hinduism pp. 189-92 (Viveka Press 1994) ISBN 1-884852-02-5
References
- Banerji, S. C., Tantra in Bengal, Second Revised and Enlarged Edition. Manohar, 1992, Delhi. ISBN 81-85425-63-9
- Basham, A.L., (Ed.), "A Cultural History of India", Oxford University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-19-563921-9
- Bhaskarananda, Swami, "The Essentials of Hinduism", Viveka Press, 1994. ISBN 1-884852-02-5
- Bhaskarananda, Swami, "Meditation: Mind & Patanjali's Yoga", Viveka Press, 2001. ISBN 1-884852-03-3
- Bhaskarananda, Swami, "Ritualistic Worship and Its Utility"
- Bhattacharyya, N. N. History of the Tantric Religion, Manohar Publications, Second Revised Edition, 1999. ISBN 81-7304-025-7
- Bhatia V.P., "Secularisation of a Martyrdom", Organiser, 11-11998.
- Chidbhavananda, Swami. The Bhagavad Gita, Sri Ramakrishna Tapovanam, 1997.
- Coulson, Michael, "Sanskrit: An Introduction to the Classical Language", Hodder & Stoughton, 1992. ISBN 0-8442-3825-2
- Bowes, Pratima,"The Hindu Religious Tradition: A Philosophical Approach", Allied Pub., 1976. ISBN 0710086687
- Encarta, Hinduism
- Flood, Gavin (Ed.), "Blackwell companion to Hinduism", Blackwell Publishing, 2003. ISBN 0-631-21535-2
- Frawley, David, "Hinduism and the Clash of Civilizations", Voice of India, 2001. ISBN 81-85990-72-7
- Fox, Michael Allen, "Deep Vegetarianism", Temple University Press, 1999. ISBN 1-566397-05-7
- Fuller, C.J., "The Camphor Flame", Princeton University Press, 2004. ISBN 0-691-12048-X
- Harshananda, Swami, "A Bird's Eye View of the Vedas" in "Holy Scriptures: A Symposium on the Great Scriptures of the World" (2d Ed.). ISBN 81-7120-121-0
- Kriyananda, Swami, Awaken to Superconsciousness. Crystal Clarity Publishers, 2000. ISBN 978-1565891364
- Kriyananda, Swami, The Art and Science of Raja Yoga. Crystal Clarity Publishers, 2002. ISBN 978-8120818767
- Kriyananda, Swami, The Essence of the Bhagavad Gita: Explained by Paramhansa Yogananda, As Remembered by His Disciple, Swami Kriyananda. Crystal Clarity Publishers, 2006. ISBN 978-1565892194
- Klostermaier, K, "A Survey of Hinduism", SUNY Press, 1994.
- Mani, Vettam, "Puranic Encyclopedia", Motilal, Delhi, 1998. ISBN 81-208-0597-6
- McGregor, R.S., "The Oxford Hindi-English Dictionary", Oxford University Press, 5th ed., 1999. ISBN 0-19-563846-8
- Michaels, Alex, "Hinduism: Past and Present", Princeton University Press, 2004. ISBN 0-691-08953-1
- Monier-Williams, Monier, "Brahmanism and Hinduism", New York, 1891.
- Monier-Williams, Monier, "Religious thought and life in India", Oriental Books Reprint, 1974.
- Monier-Williams, Monier, "Monier-Williams Sanskrit Dictionary", Nataraj Books, 2006, ISBN 18-81338-58-4
- Nikhilananda, Swami, "The Upanishads: A New Translation", Vol. I (5th Ed) 1990. ISBN 0-911206-15-9
- Nikhilananda, Swami (trans.), "Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna", 1992. ISBN 0-911206-01-9
- Oberlies, T, "Die Religion des Rgveda", Vienna 1998.
- Osborne, E, "Accessing R.E. Founders & Leaders, Buddhism, Hinduism and Sikhism Teacher's Book Mainstream.", Folens Limited, 2005.
- Radhakrishnan, S. (trans.), "Bhagvada Gita", Harper Collins, 1995. ISBN 1-855384-57-4
- Renou, Louis, "The Nature of Hinduism", Walker, 1964.
- Rinehart, Robin (Ed.), "Contemporary Hinduism", 2004. ISBN 1-57607-905-8
- Sargeant, Winthrop, "Introduction to 'The Bhagavad Gita' ", New York, 1984. ISBN 0-87395-831-4
- Sinha, H.P., "Bharatiya darshan ki ruparekha" (Features of Indian Philosophy). Motilal Banarasidas Publ., 1993. ISBN 81-208-2144-0
- Sivananda, Swami, Jnana Yoga. Divine Life Society, 1982.
- Sivananda, Swami, Karma Yoga (Life and works of Swami Sivananda). Integral Yoga, 1987. ISBN 978-0949027047
- Supreme Court of India, "Brahmachari Siddheshwar Shai v. State of West Bengal".
- Vivekananda, Swami, "Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda". ISBN 81-85301-75-1
- Vivekananda, Swami, "Vedanta, Voice of Freedom:, Ed. Swami Chetanananda, 1990. ISBN 0-916356-63-9
- Vivekananda, Swami, "Jnana Yoga", Kessinger Publishing, 2005. ISBN 1-425482-88-0
- Werner, Karel, "A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism", Curzon Press, 1994. ISBN 0-7007-0279-2
Further reading
- Guenon, R., "Introduction to the Study of the Hindu Doctrines", 2001 (first french edition 1921), Sophia Perennis, ISBN 0-900-588-74-8
- Guenon, R., "Man and His Becoming According to the Vedanta", Sophia Perennis, ISBN 0-900-588-62-4
- Guenon, R., "Studies in Hinduism", Sophia Perennis
See also
Template:Hinduism portal Hinduism
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