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{{dablink|History studies time in human terms. For current events, see ]. For what happened on this date in history, see ] (]). For the science of locating events in time, by methods not necessarily related to human records, see ]. For other uses, see ].}}
'''History''' is fucking rubbish.

]''.]]

'''History''' is the study of the past, focused on human activity and leading up to the present day.<ref name="Whitney">Whitney, W. D. (1889). . New York: The Century Co. Page .</ref> All that is remembered of the past and preserved in some form is seen as the historical record.<ref name="wordnet">, "History".</ref> Some historians study ], comprising all that has been recorded of the human past and all that can be deduced from artifacts. Others focus on certain methods, such as ], ], ], ], ], and ], or areas, for example ], ], or ].

==Etymology==
{{main|History (etymology)}}
{{wiktionarypar|history}}
The word '''history''' is derived from the ] {{Polytonic|ἱστορία}}, ''historía'', meaning "a learning or knowing by inquiry, history, record, narrative." The ] form was '']'', "narrative, account." In ], the word "estoire" was coined by Brigitte Gasson.<ref name="Whitney" /> The word entered the ] in ] with the meaning of "relation of incidents, story". In ], the meaning was "story" in general. The restriction to the meaning "record of past events" in the sense of ] arises in the late ]. In German, French, and indeed, most languages of the world other than English, this distinction was never made, and the same word is used to mean both "history" and "story".

==Broad discipline==
Although the broad discipline of history has often been classified under either the ] or the ],<ref>Scott Gordon and James Gordon Irving, ''The History and Philosophy of Social Science''. Routledge 1991. Page 1. ISBN 0415056829</ref> and can be seen as a bridge between them, incorporating methodologies from both fields of study, Ritter places history in the humanities, and asserts that it is not a science.<ref>Ritter, H. (1986). Dictionary of concepts in history. Reference sources for the social sciences and humanities, no. 3. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press. Page 416.</ref> In the 20th century the study of history was revolutionized by French ] ], by considering the effects of such outside disciplines as ], ], and ] on global history. Traditionally, historians have attempted to answer historical questions through the study of written documents, although historical research is not limited merely to these sources. In general, the sources of historical knowledge can be separated into three categories: what is written, what is said, and what is physically preserved, and historians often consult all three.<ref>Michael C. Lemon (1995). The Discipline of History and the History of Thought. Routledge. Page 201. ISBN 0415123461</ref> Historians frequently emphasize the importance of written records, which would limit history to times after the ]. This emphasis has led to the term '']'',<ref>According , to refer to any period of human history preceding written records.</ref> referring to a time before written sources are available. Since writing emerged at different times throughout the world, the distinction between prehistory and history is often dependent on the area being studied.

There are a variety of ways in which the past can be divided, including chronologically, ], and topically. These three divisions are not mutually exclusive, and significant overlaps are often present, as in "The ] ] in an Age of Transition, 1930&ndash;1945." It is possible for historians to concern themselves with both the very specific and the very general, although the trend has been toward specialization. The area called ] resists this specialization, and searches for universal patterns or trends. Traditionally, history has been studied with some practical or ] aim, but now it is also studied simply out of intellectual curiosity.<ref name="graham-ch1">{{cite book |title=The Shape of the Past |author=Graham, Gordon |publisher=Oxford University |year=1997 |chapter=Chapter 1}}</ref>

==History and prehistory==
], ]]]
The development, transmission, and transformation of cultural practices and events are the ''subject of history''. In the 20th century, the division between history and prehistory became problematic. Criticism arose because of history's implicit exclusion of certain civilizations, such as those of ] and ]. Historians in the West have been criticized for focusing disproportionately on the ].<ref>] (2007) '''' Cambridge University Press ISBN 0521870690</ref><ref name="Sacred_bundle">{{cite book |last= |first=Daniel A. |coauthors= (eds.), James Clifford, Ian Hodder, Rena Lederman, Michael Silverstein|title=Unwrapping the Sacred Bundle: Reflections on the Disciplining of Anthropology|publisher=Duke University Press|year=2005|url=http://www.dukeupress.edu/cgibin/forwardsql/search.cgi?template0=nomatch.htm&template2=books/book_detail_page.htm&user_id=11016434335&Bmain.Btitle_option=1&Bmain.Btitle=Unwrapping+the+Sacred+Bundle}} . Reviewed by of ]; of the ]; of the ]; and of the ].</ref>

Additionally, prehistorians such as ] and historical archaeologists such as ] began using archaeology to explain important events in areas that were traditionally in the field of written history. Historians began looking beyond traditional political history narratives with new approaches such as economic, social and cultural history, all of which relied on various sources of evidence. In recent decades, strict barriers between history and prehistory may be decreasing.

There are differing views for the definition of when history begins. Some believe history began in the 34th century BC, with ] ]. Cuneiform was written on clay tablets, on which symbols were drawn with a blunt reed called a stylus. The impressions left by the stylus were wedge-shaped, thus giving rise to the name cuneiform ("wedge-shaped"). The ] script was adapted for the writing of the ], ], ], ], ], and ] ]s, and it inspired the ] and ] national alphabets. Even older pictographic scripts from the region are also known, including the pre-cuneiform ] and ]s (still undeciphered).

Sources that can give light on the past, such as ], ], and ], have become accepted by many mainstream historians. Nevertheless, archaeologists distinguish between history and ] based on the appearance of written documents within the region in question. This distinction remains critical for archaeologists because the availability of a written record generates very different interpretative problems and potentials.

==Historiography==
{{main|Historiography}}

Historiography has a number of related meanings. It can refer to the history of historical study, its ] and practices ('''the history of history'''). It can also refer to a specific body of historical writing (for example, "medieval historiography during the 1960s" means "medieval history written during the 1960s"). Historiography can also be taken to mean '''historical theory''' or the study of historical writing and memory. As a ] analysis of descriptions of the past, this third conception can relate to the first two in that the analysis usually focuses on the ]s, ]s, ], use of ], or method of presentation of other ]s.

==Scientific views==
{{main|Entropy and life}}
In 1910, American historian ] printed and distributed to university libraries and history professors the small volume ''A Letter to American Teachers of History'' proposing a "theory of history" based on the ] and the principle of ].<ref>Adams, Henry. (1986). History of the United States of America During the Administration of Thomas Jefferson (pg. 1299). Library of America.</ref><ref>Adams, Henry. (1910). A Letter to American Teachers of History.
, . Washington.</ref> This, essentially, is the use of the ] in history.

==Historical methods==
{{main|Historical method}}

{| class="toccolours" style="float:right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; width:222px; text-align:left; clear:right;"
|].]]''Historical method basics''
----
The following questions are used by historians in modern work.
# When was the source, written or unwritten, produced (])?
# Where was it produced (])?
# By whom was it produced (])?
# From what pre-existing material was it produced (])?
# In what original form was it produced (])?
# What is the evidential value of its contents (])?
The first four are known as ]; the fifth, ]; and, together, external criticism. The sixth and final inquiry about a source is called internal criticism.
|-
|}

The '''historical method''' comprises the techniques and guidelines by which ]s use ]s and other evidence to research and then to write ].

The "father of history" has generally been acclaimed as ] of ] (484 BC – ca.425 BC).<ref name="lamberg-karlovsky-p5">{{cite book |title=Ancient Civilizations: The Near East and Mesoamerica |author=Lamberg-Karlovsky, C. C. and Jeremy A. Sabloff |publisher=Benjamin-Cummings Publishing |year=1979 |pages=p. 5}}</ref> However, it is his contemporary ] (ca. 460 BC – ca. 400 BC) who is credited with having begun the scientific approach to history in his work the ]. Thucydides, unlike Herodotus and other religious historians, regarded history as being the product of the choices and actions of human beings, and looked at cause and effect, rather than as the result of divine intervention.<ref name="lamberg-karlovsky-p5"/> In his historical method, Thucydides emphasized chronology, a neutral point of view, and that the human world was the result of the actions of human beings. Greek historians also viewed history as ], with events regularly reoccurring.<ref name="lamberg-karlovsky-p6">{{cite book |title=Ancient Civilizations: The Near East and Mesoamerica |author=Lamberg-Karlovsky, C. C. and Jeremy A. Sabloff |publisher=Benjamin-Cummings Publishing |year=1979 |pages=p. 6}}</ref>

Outside of Europe, there were historical traditions and sophisticated use of historical method in ancient and medieval ]. The groundwork for professional historiography in ] was established by the ] court historian known as ] (145–90 BC), author of the '']'' (]). For the quality of his timeless written work, Sima Qian is posthumously known as the Father of ]. Chinese historians of subsequent dynastic periods in China used his ''Shiji'' as the official format for historical texts, as well as for biographical literature.

] was influential in ] and ] at the beginning of the Medieval period. Through the Medieval and ] periods, history was often studied through a ] or religious perspective. Around 1800, German philosopher and historian ] brought ] and a more ] approach in historical study.<ref name="graham-ch1"/>

In the preface to his book the ], historian and early sociologist ] warned of seven mistakes that he thought that historians regularly committed. In this criticism, he approached the past as strange and in need of interpretation. The originality of Ibn Khaldun was to claim that the cultural difference of another age must govern the evaluation of relevant historical material, to distinguish the principles according to which it might be possible to attempt the evaluation, and lastly, to feel the need for experience, in addition to rational principles, in order to assess a culture of the past.

Other historians of note who have advanced the historical methods of study include ], ], ], ] and ]. In the 20th century, historians focused less on epic nationalistic narratives, which often tended to glorify the nation or individuals, to more realistic chronologies. French historians introduced quantitative history, using broad data to track the lives of typical individuals, and were prominent in the establishment of ] (cf. ]). American historians, motivated by the civil rights era, focused on formerly overlooked ethnic, racial, and socio-economic groups. In recent years, ] have challenged the validity and need for the study of history on the basis that all history is based on the personal interpretation of sources. In his book ''In Defence of History'', ], a professor of modern history at ], defended the worth of history.

==See also==
{|align=left
|{{Portal|History}}
|}
{{clear}}
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-1-of-2}}
*]: A person studies and who writes history.
*]: term for information about the past that falls outside the domain of mainstream history (sometimes it is an equivalent of ]).

===Lists===
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]

===Methods and tools===
*]: A method historians use to establish facts beyond their limited lifespan.
*]: A methodological tool for the collection of all known information about individuals within a given period.
*]: Traditionally been used in a completely neutral sense to describe the work or ideas of a historian who has revised a previously accepted view of a particular topic.

===Other===
*]: log or record of changes made to a project, such as a website or software project.
*]: process of change and development, or evolution, by which human beings emerged as distinct species.
*]: changes in the nature, the social institutions, the social behavior, or the social relations of a society or community of people.
*]: The portrayal of history on film.
{{Col-2-of-2}}

===Particular studies and fields===
These are approaches to history; not listed are histories of other fields, such as ], ] and ].
*]: the study of changes in and social context of art.
*]: study of history on a large scale across long time frames and ]s through a multi-disciplinary approach.
*]: science of localizing historical events in time.
*]: the study of culture in the past.
*]: the study of economies in the past.
*]: study of the future: researches the medium to long-term future of societies and of the physical world.
*]: painters of historical motifs and particularly the great events.
*]: the study of ideas in the context of the cultures that produced them and their development over time.
*]: the study of maritime transport and all the connected subjects.
*]: the study of warfare and wars in history and what is sometimes considered to be a sub-branch of military history, ].
*]: study of ancient texts.
*]: historical work from the perspective of common people.
*]: the study of politics in the past.
*]: study of the psychological motivations of historical events.
*]: study of the structure and development of science.
*]: the study of the process of social change throughout history.
*]: the study of history from a global perspective.
*]: the study of the development of the ], the ], ] and interactions thereof.
{{Col-end}}

===Related disciplines===
* ]: study of prehistoric and historic human cultures through the recovery, documentation and analysis of material remains and environmental data.
* ]: study of historical offices and important positions in state, international, political, religious and other organizations and societies.

==Notes and references==
{{Reflist|2}}

==Further reading==
* {{gutenberg author| id=Arnold+Joseph+Toynbee | name=Arnold J. Toynbee}}
* Asimov, Isaac; ''Asimov's Chronology of the World''; Harper Collins, 1991, ISBN 0062700367.
* Durant, Will & Ariel; ''The Lessons of History''; MJF Books, 1997, ISBN 1-56731-024-9.
* Durant, Will & Ariel; ''The Story of Civilization''; 11 vols., Simon & Schuster.
* Evans, Richard J.; ''In Defence of History''; W. W. Norton (2000), ISBN 0-393-31959-8
* Gonick, Larry; ''The Cartoon History of the Universe''; Doubleday, vol. 1 (1990) ISBN 0-385-26520-4, vol. II (1994) ISBN 0-385-42093-5, W. W. Norton, vol. III (2002) ISBN 0-393-05184-6.
* Wells, H. G.; ''An Outline of History''; Reprint Services Corporation (1920), ISBN 0-7812-0661-8.
* ''The World Almanac and Book of Facts'' (annual); World Almanac Education Group; 2005 ISBN 0886879450

== External links==
{{sisterlinks|History}}
<!--
Please ask in talk before adding more external links.
-->
;Further reading
*Williams, H. S. (1907). . (ed., This is Book 1 of 25 Volumes; )
* Wells, H. G. (1921). . (ed., This is Book 1 of multi-volume set.)
;General Information
* See also ]. Collections of public domain and copy-permitted historical texts presented cleanly (without advertising or excessive layout) for educational use.
* first history on the WWW, located at European University Institute
*

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Revision as of 00:47, 2 September 2007

History studies time in human terms. For current events, see Portal:Current events. For what happened on this date in history, see January 12 (UTC). For the science of locating events in time, by methods not necessarily related to human records, see chronology. For other uses, see History (disambiguation).
The title page to The Historians' History of the World.

History is the study of the past, focused on human activity and leading up to the present day. All that is remembered of the past and preserved in some form is seen as the historical record. Some historians study universal history, comprising all that has been recorded of the human past and all that can be deduced from artifacts. Others focus on certain methods, such as chronology, demography, historiography, genealogy, paleography, and cliometrics, or areas, for example History of Brazil (1889–1930), History of China, or History of Science.

Etymology

Main article: History (etymology)

The word history is derived from the Ancient Greek Template:Polytonic, historía, meaning "a learning or knowing by inquiry, history, record, narrative." The Latin form was historia, "narrative, account." In Old French, the word "estoire" was coined by Brigitte Gasson. The word entered the English language in 1390 with the meaning of "relation of incidents, story". In Middle English, the meaning was "story" in general. The restriction to the meaning "record of past events" in the sense of Herodotus arises in the late 15th century. In German, French, and indeed, most languages of the world other than English, this distinction was never made, and the same word is used to mean both "history" and "story".

Broad discipline

Although the broad discipline of history has often been classified under either the humanities or the social sciences, and can be seen as a bridge between them, incorporating methodologies from both fields of study, Ritter places history in the humanities, and asserts that it is not a science. In the 20th century the study of history was revolutionized by French historian Fernand Braudel, by considering the effects of such outside disciplines as economics, anthropology, and geography on global history. Traditionally, historians have attempted to answer historical questions through the study of written documents, although historical research is not limited merely to these sources. In general, the sources of historical knowledge can be separated into three categories: what is written, what is said, and what is physically preserved, and historians often consult all three. Historians frequently emphasize the importance of written records, which would limit history to times after the development of writing. This emphasis has led to the term prehistory, referring to a time before written sources are available. Since writing emerged at different times throughout the world, the distinction between prehistory and history is often dependent on the area being studied.

There are a variety of ways in which the past can be divided, including chronologically, culturally, and topically. These three divisions are not mutually exclusive, and significant overlaps are often present, as in "The Argentine Labor Movement in an Age of Transition, 1930–1945." It is possible for historians to concern themselves with both the very specific and the very general, although the trend has been toward specialization. The area called Big History resists this specialization, and searches for universal patterns or trends. Traditionally, history has been studied with some practical or theoretical aim, but now it is also studied simply out of intellectual curiosity.

History and prehistory

Stonehenge, United Kingdom

The development, transmission, and transformation of cultural practices and events are the subject of history. In the 20th century, the division between history and prehistory became problematic. Criticism arose because of history's implicit exclusion of certain civilizations, such as those of Sub-Saharan Africa and pre-Columbian America. Historians in the West have been criticized for focusing disproportionately on the Western world.

Additionally, prehistorians such as Vere Gordon Childe and historical archaeologists such as James Deetz began using archaeology to explain important events in areas that were traditionally in the field of written history. Historians began looking beyond traditional political history narratives with new approaches such as economic, social and cultural history, all of which relied on various sources of evidence. In recent decades, strict barriers between history and prehistory may be decreasing.

There are differing views for the definition of when history begins. Some believe history began in the 34th century BC, with cuneiform writing. Cuneiform was written on clay tablets, on which symbols were drawn with a blunt reed called a stylus. The impressions left by the stylus were wedge-shaped, thus giving rise to the name cuneiform ("wedge-shaped"). The Sumerian script was adapted for the writing of the Akkadian, Elamite, Hittite, Luwian, Hurrian, and Urartian languages, and it inspired the Old Persian and Ugaritic national alphabets. Even older pictographic scripts from the region are also known, including the pre-cuneiform Proto-Elamite and Indus scripts (still undeciphered).

Sources that can give light on the past, such as oral tradition, linguistics, and genetics, have become accepted by many mainstream historians. Nevertheless, archaeologists distinguish between history and prehistory based on the appearance of written documents within the region in question. This distinction remains critical for archaeologists because the availability of a written record generates very different interpretative problems and potentials.

Historiography

Main article: Historiography

Historiography has a number of related meanings. It can refer to the history of historical study, its methodology and practices (the history of history). It can also refer to a specific body of historical writing (for example, "medieval historiography during the 1960s" means "medieval history written during the 1960s"). Historiography can also be taken to mean historical theory or the study of historical writing and memory. As a meta-level analysis of descriptions of the past, this third conception can relate to the first two in that the analysis usually focuses on the narratives, interpretations, worldview, use of evidence, or method of presentation of other historians.

Scientific views

Main article: Entropy and life

In 1910, American historian Henry Adams printed and distributed to university libraries and history professors the small volume A Letter to American Teachers of History proposing a "theory of history" based on the second law of thermodynamics and the principle of entropy. This, essentially, is the use of the arrow of time in history.

Historical methods

Main article: Historical method
A depiction of the ancient Library of Alexandria.
Historical method basics

The following questions are used by historians in modern work.

  1. When was the source, written or unwritten, produced (date)?
  2. Where was it produced (localization)?
  3. By whom was it produced (authorship)?
  4. From what pre-existing material was it produced (analysis)?
  5. In what original form was it produced (integrity)?
  6. What is the evidential value of its contents (credibility)?

The first four are known as higher criticism; the fifth, lower criticism; and, together, external criticism. The sixth and final inquiry about a source is called internal criticism.

The historical method comprises the techniques and guidelines by which historians use primary sources and other evidence to research and then to write history.

The "father of history" has generally been acclaimed as Herodotus of Halicarnassus (484 BC – ca.425 BC). However, it is his contemporary Thucydides (ca. 460 BC – ca. 400 BC) who is credited with having begun the scientific approach to history in his work the History of the Peloponnesian War. Thucydides, unlike Herodotus and other religious historians, regarded history as being the product of the choices and actions of human beings, and looked at cause and effect, rather than as the result of divine intervention. In his historical method, Thucydides emphasized chronology, a neutral point of view, and that the human world was the result of the actions of human beings. Greek historians also viewed history as cyclical, with events regularly reoccurring.

Outside of Europe, there were historical traditions and sophisticated use of historical method in ancient and medieval China. The groundwork for professional historiography in East Asia was established by the Han Dynasty court historian known as Sima Qian (145–90 BC), author of the Shiji (Records of the Grand Historian). For the quality of his timeless written work, Sima Qian is posthumously known as the Father of Chinese Historiography. Chinese historians of subsequent dynastic periods in China used his Shiji as the official format for historical texts, as well as for biographical literature.

Saint Augustine was influential in Christian and Western thought at the beginning of the Medieval period. Through the Medieval and Renaissance periods, history was often studied through a sacred or religious perspective. Around 1800, German philosopher and historian Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel brought philosophy and a more secular approach in historical study.

In the preface to his book the Muqaddimah, historian and early sociologist Ibn Khaldun warned of seven mistakes that he thought that historians regularly committed. In this criticism, he approached the past as strange and in need of interpretation. The originality of Ibn Khaldun was to claim that the cultural difference of another age must govern the evaluation of relevant historical material, to distinguish the principles according to which it might be possible to attempt the evaluation, and lastly, to feel the need for experience, in addition to rational principles, in order to assess a culture of the past.

Other historians of note who have advanced the historical methods of study include Leopold von Ranke, Lewis Bernstein Namier, Geoffrey Rudolph Elton, G.M. Trevelyan and A.J.P. Taylor. In the 20th century, historians focused less on epic nationalistic narratives, which often tended to glorify the nation or individuals, to more realistic chronologies. French historians introduced quantitative history, using broad data to track the lives of typical individuals, and were prominent in the establishment of cultural history (cf. histoire des mentalités). American historians, motivated by the civil rights era, focused on formerly overlooked ethnic, racial, and socio-economic groups. In recent years, postmodernists have challenged the validity and need for the study of history on the basis that all history is based on the personal interpretation of sources. In his book In Defence of History, Richard J. Evans, a professor of modern history at Cambridge University, defended the worth of history.

See also

  • Historian: A person studies and who writes history.
  • Pseudohistory: term for information about the past that falls outside the domain of mainstream history (sometimes it is an equivalent of pseudoscience).

Lists

Methods and tools

  • Contemporaneous corroboration: A method historians use to establish facts beyond their limited lifespan.
  • Prosopography: A methodological tool for the collection of all known information about individuals within a given period.
  • Historical revisionism: Traditionally been used in a completely neutral sense to describe the work or ideas of a historian who has revised a previously accepted view of a particular topic.

Other

  • Changelog: log or record of changes made to a project, such as a website or software project.
  • Human evolution: process of change and development, or evolution, by which human beings emerged as distinct species.
  • Social change: changes in the nature, the social institutions, the social behavior, or the social relations of a society or community of people.
  • Historical drama film: The portrayal of history on film.

Particular studies and fields

These are approaches to history; not listed are histories of other fields, such as history of science, history of mathematics and history of philosophy.

Related disciplines

  • Archaeology: study of prehistoric and historic human cultures through the recovery, documentation and analysis of material remains and environmental data.
  • Archontology: study of historical offices and important positions in state, international, political, religious and other organizations and societies.

Notes and references

  1. ^ Whitney, W. D. (1889). The Century dictionary; an encyclopedic lexicon of the English language. New York: The Century Co. Page 2842.
  2. WordNet Search - 3.0, "History".
  3. Scott Gordon and James Gordon Irving, The History and Philosophy of Social Science. Routledge 1991. Page 1. ISBN 0415056829
  4. Ritter, H. (1986). Dictionary of concepts in history. Reference sources for the social sciences and humanities, no. 3. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press. Page 416.
  5. Michael C. Lemon (1995). The Discipline of History and the History of Thought. Routledge. Page 201. ISBN 0415123461
  6. According archaeological.org, to refer to any period of human history preceding written records.
  7. ^ Graham, Gordon (1997). "Chapter 1". The Shape of the Past. Oxford University.
  8. Jack Goody (2007) The Theft of History Cambridge University Press ISBN 0521870690
  9. Segal, Daniel A. (2005). Unwrapping the Sacred Bundle: Reflections on the Disciplining of Anthropology. Duke University Press. {{cite book}}: External link in |coauthors= and |last= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) Introduction available online. Reviewed by Daniel Reichman of Cornell University; Eric Alden Smith of the University of Washington; Herbert S. Lewis of the University of Wisconsin-Madison; and Hoon Song of the University of Minnesota.
  10. Adams, Henry. (1986). History of the United States of America During the Administration of Thomas Jefferson (pg. 1299). Library of America.
  11. Adams, Henry. (1910). A Letter to American Teachers of History. Google Books, Scanned PDF. Washington.
  12. ^ Lamberg-Karlovsky, C. C. and Jeremy A. Sabloff (1979). Ancient Civilizations: The Near East and Mesoamerica. Benjamin-Cummings Publishing. pp. p. 5. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  13. Lamberg-Karlovsky, C. C. and Jeremy A. Sabloff (1979). Ancient Civilizations: The Near East and Mesoamerica. Benjamin-Cummings Publishing. pp. p. 6. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)

Further reading

  • Works by Arnold J. Toynbee at Project Gutenberg
  • Asimov, Isaac; Asimov's Chronology of the World; Harper Collins, 1991, ISBN 0062700367.
  • Durant, Will & Ariel; The Lessons of History; MJF Books, 1997, ISBN 1-56731-024-9.
  • Durant, Will & Ariel; The Story of Civilization; 11 vols., Simon & Schuster.
  • Evans, Richard J.; In Defence of History; W. W. Norton (2000), ISBN 0-393-31959-8
  • Gonick, Larry; The Cartoon History of the Universe; Doubleday, vol. 1 (1990) ISBN 0-385-26520-4, vol. II (1994) ISBN 0-385-42093-5, W. W. Norton, vol. III (2002) ISBN 0-393-05184-6.
  • Wells, H. G.; An Outline of History; Reprint Services Corporation (1920), ISBN 0-7812-0661-8.
  • The World Almanac and Book of Facts (annual); World Almanac Education Group; 2005 ISBN 0886879450

External links

Further reading
General Information
Categories: