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| {{Christianity}} | |||
| '''Christianity''' is a ] and ] faith that is centered on the life and teachings of ].<ref>Fowler, Jeaneane D. ''World Religions:An Introduction for Students''. Pp 56-57,59. Sussex Academic Press (1997). ISBN 1898723486.</ref> | |||
| Like Judaism and ], Christianity is an ].<ref>See also: ]</ref><ref>Fowler, Jeaneane D. ''World Religions:An Introduction for Students''. Pg 131. Sussex Academic Press (1997). ISBN 1898723486.</ref> Early Christianity was a Jewish ] sect, but there was great diversity in local variations.<ref>Esler, Phillip F. The Early Christian World. Pp 157-158. Routledge (2004). ISBN 0415333121.</ref> Confined to the ], ], ], and parts of ] for its first thousand years, it has spread throughout the entire world during its second millennia due to ] and ].<ref>McManners, John. ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity''. Pp 301-303. Oxford University Press (1990) IBSN 0198229283.</ref> It includes the ] (known to Christians as the ]) as well as the New Testament as its ]. | |||
| Jesus Christ is central to Christianity as the foundation of ], the ] of God, and the model of a pious life; not just as a teacher, but as the ] who suffered, ] for the salvation of all from sin.<ref>McGrath, Alister E. ''Christianity:An Introduction''. Pp 4-6. Blackwell Publishing (2006). ISBN 1405108991.</ref> Christians maintain that Jesus ] and most sects teach that Jesus will judge the living and the dead, granting everlasting life to the just. Christianity teaches that Jesus is the ] or ] ] in the Old Testament, and that the New Testament records the ] that was ] by Jesus. | |||
| The ] is often regarded as an essential doctrine of Christianity. It is a complex topic and there are varying interpretations. The Holy Trinity is ] that exists as three Persons – ], the ], and the ]. "Father, Son and Holy Spirit" represents both the ] and ] of God. God is infinite and unknowable to finite humanity, but God's presence may be perceived through the actions of Jesus and the Holy Spirit.<!--ref supports entire paragraph --><ref>Fowler, Jeaneane D. ''World Religions:An Introduction for Students''. Pg 58. Sussex Academic Press (1997). ISBN 1898723486.</ref> | |||
| The ] were first called "Christians" (] {{polytonic|''Χριστιανός''}}), meaning "'household' or 'partisans' of Christ", in ]. Ignatius of Antioch was the first Christian to use the label in self-reference. The earliest recorded use of the term ''Christianity'' (Greek {{polytonic|''Χριστιανισμός''}}) is also by ], around 100 AD.<!--ref supports entire paragraph --><ref>Elwell, Walter A. & Comfort, Philip Wesley. ''Tyndale Bible Dictionary''. Pp 266, 828. Tyndale House Publishers (2001). ISBN 0842370897.</ref> | |||
| Christianity is the largest ] with 2.1 billion adherents <ref>http://http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/christianity/</ref> | |||
| . While church attendance has been declining in many places, this may represent a drift away from traditional institutions rather than a decline in belief as such. The importance of Christianity is not only due to its large number of adherents, but also because of its integral nature in ] and its part in the shaping of human history.<!--ref supports entire paragraph --><ref>McGrath, Alister E. ''Christianity:An Introduction''. Pg xvi. Blackwell Publishing (2006). ISBN 1405108991.</ref> | |||
| == Beliefs == | |||
| In spite of important differences of interpretation and opinion, Christians in the Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Protestant and other traditions share a common faith. Although Christianity has always had a significant diversity of belief on controversial issues, most Christians share a common set of doctrines that they hold as essential to their faith.<ref name="Olsen">Olson, Roger E. ''The Mosaic of Christian Belief.'' InterVarsity Press (2002). ISBN 9780830826957.</ref> | |||
| === Jesus the Christ === | |||
| {{main|Christian views of Jesus}} | |||
| As indicated by the name "Christianity," the focus of a Christian's life is a firm belief in ] as the Son of God and the '']'' or '']''. The title "Messiah" comes from the ] word מָשִׁיחַ (''māšiáħ'') meaning ''anointed one''. The Greek translation {{polytonic|''Χριστός''}} (''Christos'') is the source of the English word ].<ref>McGrath, Alister E. ''Christianity:An Introduction''. Pp 4-6. Blackwell Publishing (2006). ISBN 1405108991.</ref>] (12th century)]] | |||
| Christians believe that, as the Messiah, Jesus was anointed as ruler and savior of humanity, and hold that Jesus' coming was the fulfillment of ] of the ]. The Christian concept of the Messiah differs significantly from ]. The core Christian belief is that, through ], ] humans can be reconciled to God and thereby are offered salvation and the promise of ].<ref>Metzger, Bruce M. and Michael Coogan, editors. ''Oxford Companion to the Bible''. Pp 513, 649. Oxford University Press (1993). ISBN 0195046455.</ref> | |||
| While there have been theological disputes over the nature of Jesus, Christians generally believe that Jesus is ] and "]" (or both fully divine and fully human). Jesus, ] in all respects, suffered the pains and temptations of a mortal man, yet he did not sin. As fully God, he defeated death and rose to life again. According to the ], "God raised him from the dead,"<ref>{{bibleverse||Acts|2:24|NIV}}, {{bibleverse||Romans|10:9|NIV}}, {{bibleverse|1|Cor|15:15|NIV}}, {{bibleverse||Acts|2:31-32}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Acts|3:15}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Acts|3:26}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Acts|4:10}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Acts|5:30}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Acts|10:40-41}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Acts|13:30}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Acts|13:34}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Acts|13:37}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Acts|17:30-31}}, {{bibleverse|1|Cor|6:14}}, {{bibleverse|2|Cor|4:14}}, {{bibleverse||Gal|1:1}}, {{bibleverse||Eph|1:20}}, {{bibleverse||Col|2:12}}, {{bibleverse|1|Thess|1:10}}, {{bibleverse||Heb|13:20}}, {{bibleverse|1|Pet|1:3}}, {{bibleverse-nb|1|Pet|1:21}}</ref> he ], to the "right hand of God,"<ref>{{bibleverse||Mark|16:19}}, {{bibleverse||Luke|22:69}}, {{bibleverse||Acts|2:33}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Acts|5:31}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Acts|7:55-56}}, {{bibleverse||Romans|8:34}}, {{bibleverse||Eph|1:20}}, {{bibleverse||Col|3:1}}, {{bibleverse||Hebrews|1:3}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Hebrews|1:13}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Hebrews|10:12}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Hebrews|12:2}}, {{bibleverse|1|Peter|3:22}}</ref> and he will ]<ref>{{bibleverse||Acts|1:9-11}}</ref> to fulfil the rest of ] such as the ], the ] and establishment of the physical ]. | |||
| According to the ]s of Matthew and Luke, Jesus was conceived by the ] and ] from ]. Little of Jesus' childhood is recorded in the ], however ] were popular in antiquity. In comparison, his adulthood, especially the week before his death, are well documented in the Gospels contained within the New Testament. The Biblical accounts of Jesus' ministry include: ], ], preaching, ]. | |||
| === Death and Resurrection of Jesus === | |||
| {{main|Death and Resurrection of Jesus}} | |||
| ] | |||
| Christians consider the resurrection of Jesus to be the cornerstone of their faith and the most important event in human history.<ref>]. ''Resurrection: The Capstone in the Arch of Christianity''. Thomas Nelson (2000) IBSN 0849916437 .</ref> Within the body of Christian beliefs, the death and resurrection of Jesus are two core events on which much of Christian doctrine and theology depend. According to The ], ], the central figure of Christianity, was ], died, buried within a tomb, and resurrected three days later.<ref>{{bibleref|John|19:30–31|NIV}}, {{bibleref|Mark|16:1|NIV}}, {{bibleref|Mark|16:6|NIV}}</ref> The New Testament mentions several ] on different occasions to his ] and disciples, including "more than five hundred brethren at once", <ref>{{bibleref2|1Corinthians|15:6|NIV|1 Cor. 15:6}}</ref> before Jesus' ]. These two events are essential doctrines of the Christian faith, and are commemorated by Christians during ] and ], particularly during the ] of ]. Arguments over death and resurrection claims occur at many religious ]s and ].<ref>Lorenzen, Thorwald. ''Resurrection, Discipleship, Justice: Affirming the Resurrection Jesus Christ Today.'' Pg. 13. Smyth & Helwys (2003) ISBN 1573123994 .</ref> | |||
| As ], an early Christian covert, contended, "If Christ was not raised, then all our preaching is useless, and your trust in God is useless".<ref>{{bibleref2|1Cor|15:14|NLT|1 Cor. 15:14}})</ref><ref>Ball, Bryan and William Johnsson, editors. ''The Essential Jesus''. Pacific Press (2002). ISBN 0816319294.</ref> The death and resurrection of Jesus are the most important events in ], as they form the point in scripture where Jesus gives his ultimate demonstration that he has power over life and death, thus he has the ability to give people ].<ref>{{bibleverse||John|3:16|NIV}}, {{bibleverse-nb||John|5:24|NIV}}, {{bibleverse-nb||John|6:39–40|NIV}}, {{bibleverse-nb||John|6:47|NIV}}, {{bibleverse-nb||John|10:10|NIV}}, {{bibleverse-nb||John|11:25–26|NIV}}, and {{bibleverse-nb||John|17:3|NIV}}.</ref> According to the ], "God raised him from the dead,"<ref>{{bibleverse||Acts|2:24|NRSV}}, {{bibleverse||Romans|10:9|NRSV}}, {{bibleverse|1|Cor|15:15|NRSV}}, {{bibleverse||Acts|2:31–32|NRSV}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Acts|3:15|NRSV}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Acts|3:26|NRSV}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Acts|4:10|NRSV}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Acts|5:30|NRSV}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Acts|10:40–41|NRSV}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Acts|13:30|NRSV}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Acts|13:34|NRSV}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Acts|13:37|NRSV}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Acts|17:30–31|NRSV}}, {{bibleverse|1|Cor|6:14|NRSV}}, {{bibleverse|2|Cor|4:14|NRSV}}, {{bibleverse||Gal|1:1|NRSV}}, {{bibleverse||Eph|1:20|NRSV}}, {{bibleverse||Col|2:12|NRSV}}, {{bibleverse|1|Thess|1:10|NRSV}}, {{bibleverse||Heb|13:20|NRSV}}, {{bibleverse|1|Pet|1:3|NRSV}}, {{bibleverse-nb|1|Pet|1:21|NRSV}}</ref> he ], to the "right hand of God,"<ref>{{bibleverse||Mark|16:19|NRSV}}, {{bibleverse||Luke|22:69|NRSV}}, {{bibleverse||Acts|2:33|NRSV}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Acts|5:31|NRSV}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Acts|7:55–56|NRSV}}, {{bibleverse||Romans|8:34|NRSV}}, {{bibleverse||Eph|1:20|NRSV}}, {{bibleverse||Col|3:1|NRSV}}, {{bibleverse||Hebrews|1:3|NRSV}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Hebrews|1:13|NRSV}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Hebrews|10:12|NRSV}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Hebrews|12:2|NRSV}}, {{bibleverse|1|Peter|3:22|NRSV}}</ref> and will ]<ref>{{bibleverse||Acts|1:9–11|NRSV}}</ref> to fulfill the rest of ] such as the ], the ] and establishment of the ], see also ] and ].<ref>The '''Parousia''' is the term used in the Bible, see for details, which includes the ] Lexicon definition: "In the N.T. especially of ''the advent'', i.e.,the future, visible, ''return'' from heaven of Jesus, the Messiah, to raise the dead, hold the last judgment, and set up formally and gloriously the kingdom of God." According to the ]: "of Christ, and nearly always of his Messianic Advent in glory to judge the world at the end of this age."</ref> | |||
| Most Christians accept the New Testament story as a ] account of some kind of resurrection, which is central to their ]. Some modern scholars use the belief of Jesus' followers in the resurrection as a point of departure for establishing the continuity of the historical Jesus and the proclamation of the early church.<ref>Fuller, Reginald H. ]. Pg 11. Scribners (1965). ISBN 068415532X .</ref> Some ] do not accept a literal bodily resurrection,<ref>A ] conclusion: "in the view of the Seminar, he did not rise bodily from the dead; the resurrection is based instead on ] of ], ], and ]."</ref><ref>Funk, Robert. ''The Acts of Jesus: What Did Jesus Really Do?''. Polebridge Press (1998). ISBN 0060629789.</ref> seeing the story as richly symbolic and spiritually nourishing ]. A group known as the ] argued against its singular importance, as they had ] as to how the passages should be interpreted, many believing Jesus was ] and so could not have died (see: ]). ] suggested that the crucifixion-resurrection story was the forceful spiritual symbol of, literally, God-as-] becoming God-as-].<ref>{{cite web | last =Jung | first =Carl | |||
| | authorlink =Carl Jung | coauthors = | title =The Answer to Job | work =The Portable Jung | publisher =Penguin |date=1971 | url =http://jmm.aaa.net.au/articles/4801.htm | format = | doi = | accessdate = 2007-12-31 }}</ref> | |||
| === Soteriology === | |||
| {{main|Soteriology|Salvation}} | |||
| ] is the branch of Christian ] ] that deals with salvation through Jesus Christ.<ref>title | |||
| url {{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | |||
| | title =Soteriology | work =The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition | publisher =Houghton Mifflin Company |date=2006 | url =http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Soteriology | format = | doi = | accessdate =2007-12-31 }}</ref> Christians believe ] is a gift by means of the ]. Christians believe that, through faith in Jesus, one can be saved from ] and eternal ]. The crucifixion of Jesus is explained as an ] ], which, in the words of the ], "takes away the sins of the world." One's reception of salvation is related to ].<ref>Metzger, Bruce M. and Michael Coogan, editors. ''Oxford Companion to the Bible''. Pg. 405 Oxford University Press (1993). ISBN 0-19-504645-5.</ref> | |||
| The operation and effects of grace are understood differently by different traditions. Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy teach the necessity of the ] to cooperate with grace.<ref>Catechism of the Catholic Church, </ref> ] places distinctive emphasis on grace by teaching that individuals are completely ], but the grace of God overcomes ].<ref>Westminster Confession, ; | |||
| ], . | |||
| </ref> ] takes a synergistic approach while ] doctrine teaches justification by grace alone through faith alone.<ref> </ref> | |||
| === The Trinity === | |||
| {{main|Trinity}} | |||
| ] | |||
| ==== Trinitarians ==== | |||
| The term ''trinitarian'' denotes those Christians who hold to a belief in the concept of ''Trinity''. ''Trinity'' refers to the teaching within some branches and ] of Christianity that the one God is comprised of three distinct aspects or 'persons'; these being referred to as 'the Father' (the heavenly existence of God), 'the Son' (Jesus Christ - God's earthly incarnation as related in the Bible, and now held to coexist with the Father), and 'the Holy Spirit' (sometimes referred to as 'the Holy Ghost'). Together, these three persons are sometimes calledthe ]<ref>J.N.D. Kelly, ''Early Christian Doctrines'' pp. 87-90</ref><ref>T. Desmond Alexander, ''New Dictionary of Biblical Theology'' pp. 514-515</ref><ref>Alister E. McGrath, ''Historical Theology'' p. 61.</ref>, although there is no single term in use in Scripture to denote the unified Godhead<ref>Metzger, Bruce M. and Michael Coogan, editors. ''Oxford Companion to the Bible''. Pg . 782 Oxford University Press (1993). ISBN 0-19-504645-5.</ref>. In the words of the ], an early statement of Christian belief, "the Father is God, the Son is God, and the Holy Spirit is God, and yet there are not three Gods but one God."<ref>J.N.D. Kelly, ''The Athanasian Creed'', NY: Harper and Row, 1964.</ref>. | |||
| According to this doctrine, God is not divided in the sense that each person has a third of the whole; rather, each person is considered to be fully God (see ]). The distinction lies in their relations, the Father being unbegotten (which is to say existing without having been created); the Son being eternal yet begotten of, or created by, the Father; and the Holy Spirit 'proceeding' - existing as a consequence of the relationship between Father and Son<ref>Vladimir Lossky; ]</ref>. Regardless of this apparent difference in their origins, the three 'persons' are each ] and ]. This is thought by Trinitarian Christians to be the revelation regarding God's nature which Jesus Christ came to deliver to the world, and is the foundation of their belief system. | |||
| The word ''trias'', from which ''trinity'' is derived, is first seen in the works of ]. He wrote of "the Trinity of God (the Father), His Word (the Son) and His Wisdom (Holy Spirit)"<ref>Theophilus of Antioch ''Apologia ad Autolycum'' II 15</ref>. The term may have been in use before this time. Afterwards it appears in ]<ref>McManners, John. ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity''. Pg 50. Oxford University Press (1990) IBSN 0198229283.</ref><ref>Tertullian ''De Pudicitia'' chapter 21</ref>. In the following century the word was in general use. It is found in many passages of ]<ref>McManners, John. ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity''. Pg 53. Oxford University Press (1990) IBSN 0198229283.</ref>. | |||
| ==== Non-Trinitarians ==== | |||
| {{main|Nontrinitarianism}} | |||
| ] includes all ] ] that reject the ], the ] that God is three distinct persons in one being. Various nontrinitarian views, such as ] and ], existed before the Trinity was formally defined as doctrine in 325 AD.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ccel.org/ccel/harnack/dogma1.ii.iii.iii.html |title=History of Dogma|accessdate=2007-06-15|last=von Harnack|first=Adolf |authorlink=Adolf von Harnack|date=1894-03-01 |quote= Jesus was either regarded as the man whom God hath chosen, in whom the Deity or the Spirit of God dwelt, and who, after being tested, was adopted by God and invested with dominion, (Adoptian Christology); or Jesus was regarded as a heavenly spiritual being (the highest after God) who took flesh, and again returned to heaven after the completion of his work on earth (pneumatic Christology)}}</ref> Nontrinitarianism later appeared again in the ] of the ] in the 11th through 13th centuries, in the ] of the 18th century, and in ] during the 19th century. The nontrinitarian view was rejected by many early Christian ]s such as ] and subsequently by the ]s.<ref>McManners, John. ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity''. Pg 35. Oxford University Press (1990) IBSN 0198229283.</ref> During the Reformation some nontrinitarians rejected these councils as spiritually tainted,<ref>MacCulloch, Diarmaid. ''The Reformation: A History''. Pp. 185-187. Viking Adult (2004) ISBN 0670032964</ref> though most Christians continued to accept the value of many of the councils. | |||
| ] and ] advanced the view that Christ was only divine and not human.<ref>R. Emmet McLaughlin ''Caspar Schwenckfeld, reluctant radical : his life to 1540'', New Haven : Yale University Press, 1986 ISBN 0-300-03367-2</ref><ref>Deppermann, Klaus. ''Melchior Hoffman: Social Unrest & Apocalyptic Vision in the Age of Reformation''. ISBN 0-567-08654-2</ref> ] denied that the traditional doctrine of the Trinity was necessary to defend the divinity of Christ. He claimed that Jesus was God Himself in the flesh.<ref>Servetus, Michael. ''Restoration of Christianity''. Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press, 2007.</ref> Modalists, such as ]s, regard God as a single person, with the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit considered modes or roles by which the unipersonal God expresses himself,<ref>William Arnold, </ref> in this way they parallel ancient ].<ref> J. N. D. Kelly, ''Early Christian Doctrines'', p. 119-123</ref><ref>Robert Letham, ''The Holy Trinity: In Scripture, History, Theology, and Worship'', p. 97-98.</ref> ] (commonly called ]) accept the divinity of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, but deny that they are the same being. Rather, they believe them to be separate beings united perfectly in will and purpose, thus making up one single ]. They believe that the Father, like the Son, has a glorified physical body.<ref>'']'' 130:22</ref> | |||
| === Scriptures === | |||
| {{main|Bible}} | |||
| Christianity regards the ], a collection of ] books in two parts (the ] and the ]), as authoritative. It is believed by Christians to have been written by human authors under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit, and therefore for many it is held to be the ] Word of God<ref>], </ref><ref>Second Helvetic Confession, </ref><ref>], </ref>. Protestant Christians believe that the Bible contains all ] necessary for salvation. This concept is known as ]<ref>Keith Mathison ''The Shape of Sola Scriptura'' (2001)</ref>. The ] that are considered canon in the Bible vary depending upon the denomination using or defining it. These variations are a reflection of the range of ] and ] that have convened on the subject. The Bible always includes books of the Jewish scriptures, the ], and includes additional books and reorganizes them into two parts: the books of the ] primarily sourced from the Tanakh (with some variations), and the 27 books of the ] containing books originally written primarily in ]<ref>http://www.pcusa.org/101/101-bible.htm</ref>. The Roman Catholic and Orthodox canons include other books from the ] Greek Jewish canon which Roman Catholics call ]<ref name="Canon">F.F. Bruce, ''The Canon of Scripture''; Catechism of the Catholic Church, </ref>. Protestants consider these books ]. Some versions of the Christian Bible have a separate Apocrypha section for the books not considered canonical by the publisher<ref>Metzger, Bruce M. and Michael Coogan, editors. ''Oxford Companion to the Bible''. Pg . 39 Oxford University Press (1993). ISBN 0-19-504645-5.</ref> . | |||
| Campaigning to be a ] of the Christian church<ref>Mormon.org, </ref>, denominations of the ] are distinct from other forms of Christianity in that they consider the ] holy scripture and comparable to the Bible<ref>The ], </ref>. ] considers the ] and the ] scriptural. Along with the Bible, these books are collectively called the '']'' of the church<ref>The ], </ref>. | |||
| ==== Interpretation ==== | |||
| Though Christians largely agree on the content of the Bible, there is significant divergence in its interpretation, or ]. In antiquity, two schools of exegesis developed in ] and ]. Alexandrine interpretation, exemplified by ], tended to read Scripture ], while Antiochene interpretation adhered to the literal sense, holding that other meanings (called ''theoria'') could only be accepted if based on the literal meaning.<ref>J.N.D. Kelly, ''Early Christian Doctrines'' pp. 69-78.</ref> | |||
| ===== Roman Catholic ===== | |||
| Roman Catholic theology distinguishes two senses of scripture: the literal and the spiritual.<ref> Catechism of the Catholic Church, </ref> | |||
| The ''literal'' sense of understanding scripture is the meaning conveyed by the words of Scripture and discovered by exegesis, following the rules of sound interpretation. It has three subdivisions: the allegorical, moral, and ] (meaning mystical or spiritual) senses. | |||
| * The ''allegorical'' sense includes ]. An example would be the ] being understood as a "type" (sign) of baptism.<ref>{{niv|1_Corinthians|10:2|1 Corinthians 10:2}}</ref> | |||
| * The ''moral'' sense understands the scripture to contain some ethical teaching. | |||
| * The ''anagogical'' interpretation includes ] and applies to eternity and the ]. | |||
| Roman Catholic theology adds other rules of interpretation which include: | |||
| * the injunction that all other senses of sacred scripture are based on the ''literal''<ref>Thomas Aquinas, ; cf. ''Catechism of the Catholic Church,'' </ref> | |||
| * that the historicity of the Gospels must be absolutely and constantly held<ref>] </ref> | |||
| * that scripture must be read within the "living Tradition of the whole Church"<ref> ''Catechism of the Catholic Church,'' </ref> and | |||
| * that "the task of interpretation has been entrusted to the bishops in communion with the successor of Peter, the ]"<ref>''Catechism of the Catholic Church,'' </ref> | |||
| ===== Protestant ===== | |||
| Many Protestants stress the literal sense or ],<ref>R.C. Sproul, ''Knowing Scripture'' pp. 45-61; ], </ref> even to the extent of rejecting other senses altogether. Other Protestant interpreters make use of typology.<ref>E.g., in his (§III.3) ] interprets the twin-sons of Judah, Phares and Zara, as an allegory of the Gentile and ]. For a contemporary treatment, see W. Edward Glenny, </ref> Protestants characteristically believe that ordinary believers may reach an adequate understanding of Scripture because Scripture itself is clear (or "perspicuous"), because of the help of the Holy Spirit, or both. Martin Luther believed that without God's help Scripture would be "enveloped in darkness."<ref name="Foutz"> </ref> He advocated "one definite and simple understanding of Scripture."<ref name="Foutz">Scott Foutz, </ref> And ] wrote, "all who…follow the Holy Spirit as their guide, find in the Scripture a clear light."<ref>John Calvin, </ref> The Second Helvetic (Latin for "Swiss")<ref>http://mb-soft.com/believe/txh/helvconf.htm Article about Helvetic confessions</ref> Confession, composed by the pastor of the Reformed church in Zurich (successor to Protestant reformer ]) was adopted as a declaration of doctrine by most European Reformed churches.<ref>Second Helvetic Confession, </ref> The ''Confession'' contains this statement about interpreting Scripture: | |||
| {{quotation|"We hold that interpretation of the Scripture to be orthodox and genuine which is gleaned from the Scriptures themselves (from the nature of the language in which they were written, likewise according to the circumstances in which they were set down, and expounded in the light of like and unlike passages and of many and clearer passages)." The writings of the Church Fathers, and decisions of Ecumenical Councils, though "not despise<nowiki></nowiki>," were not authoritative and could be rejected.|''Second Helvetic Confession (1566)}} | |||
| === Creeds === | |||
| {{main|Creeds}} | |||
| Creeds (from Latin ''credo'' meaning "I believe") are concise doctrinal statements or confessions, usually of religious beliefs. They began as baptismal formulas and were later expanded during the ] controversies of the ] and ] to become statements of faith. | |||
| {{wikisource|Apostles Creed}} | |||
| The ] (''Symbolum Apostolorum'') was developed between the second and ninth centuries. It is the most popular creed used in worship by Western Christians. Its central doctrines are those of the Trinity and God the Creator. Each of the doctrines found in this creed can be traced to statements current in the apostolic period. The creed was apparently used as a summary of Christian doctrine for baptismal candidates in the churches of Rome.<ref>Jaroslav Pelikan and Valerie Hotchkiss, editors. ''Creeds and Confessions of Faith in the Christian Tradition]''. Yale University Press 2003 ISBN 0300093896.</ref> | |||
| {{wikisource|Nicene Creed}} | |||
| The ], largely a response to ], was formulated at the Councils of ] and ] in 325 and 381 respectively,<ref> Catholics United for the Faith, ; ''Encyclopedia of Religion,'' "Arianism"</ref> and ratified as the universal creed of Christendom by the ] in 431.<ref name="ephesus">{{ws|"]" in the 1913 ''Catholic Encyclopedia''}}</ref> | |||
| The ], developed at the ] in 451,<ref> ], ; ] Institute, </ref> | |||
| though not accepted by the ] Churches,<ref>], </ref> taught Christ "to be acknowledged in two natures, inconfusedly, unchangeably, indivisibly, inseparably": one divine and one human, and that both natures are perfect but are nevertheless ].<ref>Pope Leo I, </ref> | |||
| The ], received in the western Church as having the same status as the Nicene and Chalcedonian, says: "We worship one God in Trinity, and Trinity in Unity; neither confounding the Persons not dividing the Substance."<ref>{{ws|"]" in the 1913 ''Catholic Encyclopedia''}}</ref> | |||
| Most Catholics, Protestants, and Orthodox accept the creeds.<ref name="UMC - Our Common Heritage as Christians">{{cite web|url = http://archives.umc.org/interior.asp?mid=1806| title = Our Common Heritage as Christians |publisher = The United Methodist Church |accessdate = 2007-12-31}}</ref> ] oppose the use of creeds.<ref>, Howard A. White</ref> | |||
| === Afterlife and Eschaton === | |||
| {{main|Christian eschatology}} | |||
| Most Christians believe that upon bodily death the ] experiences the ] and is either rewarded with eternal ] or condemned to an eternal ]. The elect are called "saints" (Latin ''sanctus'': "holy") and the process of being made holy is called sanctification. In Catholicism, those who die in a state of grace but with either unforgiven venial sins or incomplete ], undergo purification in ] to achieve the holiness necessary for entrance into heaven. At the ], the ''eschaton'' or ], all who have died will be ] for the ], whereupon Jesus will fully establish the ] in fulfillment of ].<ref name="res"> ], questions 69 through 99</ref><ref>{{cite web | last =Calvin | first =John | authorlink = | coauthors = | title =Institutes of the Christian Religion, Book Three, Ch. 25 | work = | publisher =www.reformed.org | date = | url =http://www.reformed.org/books/institutes/books/book3/bk3ch25.html | format = | doi = | accessdate =2008-01-01 }}</ref> | |||
| Some groups do not distinguish a particular judgment from the ] at the end of time, teaching instead that ] until this time.<ref name="spitz">Spitz, Lewis, ''The Protestant Reformation''. Concordia Publishing House (2003) ISBN 0570033209.</ref> These groups, and others that do not believe in the ] of saints, generally do not employ the word "saint" to describe those in heaven. ] hold that eventually all will experience salvation, thereby rejecting the concept of an eternal hell for those who are not saved. | |||
| == Worship == | |||
| ] believe that ] is the mediator of the ]. His famous ] is considered by many Christian scholars to be the ] of the proclamation of the ] by ] from ].]] | |||
| ] described 2nd century Christian ] in his '']'' (''c''. 150) to ] ], and his description remains relevant to the basic structure of Christian liturgical worship: | |||
| ], and ]]] | |||
| : "And on the day called Sunday, all who live in cities or in the country gather together to one place, and the memoirs of the apostles or the writings of the prophets are read, as long as time permits; then, when the reader has ceased, the president verbally instructs, and exhorts to the imitation of these good things. Then we all rise together and pray, and, as we before said, when our prayer is ended, bread and wine and water are brought, and the president in like manner offers prayers and thanksgivings, according to his ability, and the people assent, saying Amen; and there is a distribution to each, and a participation of that over which thanks have been given, and to those who are absent a portion is sent by the deacons. And they who are well to do, and willing, give what each thinks fit; and what is collected is deposited with the president, who succours the orphans and widows and those who, through sickness or any other cause, are in want, and those who are in bonds and the strangers sojourning among us, and in a word takes care of all who are in need."<ref>Justin Martyr, §LXVII</ref> | |||
| Thus, as Justin described, Christians assemble for communal worship on Sunday, the day of the resurrection, though other liturgical practices often occur outside this setting. Scripture readings are drawn from the Old and New Testaments, but especially the Gospels. Often these are arranged on an ], using a book called a ]. Instruction is given based on these readings, called a ], or homily. There are a variety of congregational ]s, including thanksgiving, confession, and intercession, which occur throughout the service and take a variety of forms including recited, responsive, silent, or sung. The ], or Our Father, is regularly prayed. The ] (called ], or the ]) is the part of liturgical worship that consists of a consecrated meal, usually bread and wine. Justin Martyr described the Eucharist: | |||
| {{cquote|"And this food is called among us Eukaristia , of which no one is allowed to partake but the man who believes that the things which we teach are true, and who has been washed with the washing that is for the remission of sins, and unto regeneration, and who is so living as Christ has enjoined. For not as common bread and common drink do we receive these; but in like manner as Jesus Christ our Saviour, having been made flesh by the Word of God, had both flesh and blood for our salvation, so likewise have we been taught that the food which is blessed by the prayer of His word, and from which our blood and flesh by transmutation are nourished, is the flesh and blood of that Jesus who was made flesh."<ref>Justin Martyr, §LXVII</ref>}} | |||
| Some ] view communion as indicating those who are already united in the church, restricting participation to their members not in a state of ] (]). Most other churches view communion as a means to unity, rather than an end, and invite all Christians or even anyone to participate (]). In some denominations, participation is decided by prior arrangement with a church leader. | |||
| Some groups depart from this traditional liturgical structure. A division is often made between "]" ]s, characterized by greater solemnity and ritual, and "]" services, but even within these two categories there is great diversity in forms of worship. ] meet on Saturday (the original ]), while others do not meet on a weekly basis. ] or ] congregations may spontaneously feel led by the Holy Spirit to action rather than follow a formal order of service, including spontaneous prayer. ] sit quietly until moved by the Holy Spirit to speak. Some ] services resemble concerts with ], dancing, and use of multimedia. For groups which do not recognize a priesthood distinct from ordinary believers the services are generally lead by a ], ], or ]. Still others may lack any formal leaders, either in principle or by local necessity. Some churches use only ] music, either on principle (e.g. many ] object to the use of instruments in worship) or by tradition (as in Orthodoxy). | |||
| Worship can be varied for special events like ]s or ]s in the service or significant ]. In the ] Christians and those yet to complete initiation would separate for the Eucharistic part of the worship. In many churches today, adults and children will separate for all or some of the service to receive age-appropriate teaching. Such children's worship is often called ] or ] (Sunday schools are often held before rather than during services). | |||
| === Sacraments === | |||
| {{main|Sacrament}} | |||
| ]]] | |||
| In ] belief and practice, a '''sacrament''' is a ], instituted by Christ, that mediates ], constituting a ]. The term is derived from the ] word ''sacramentum'', which was used to translate the Greek word for ''mystery''.<ref name="ODCC1435">{{cite book | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = F. L. Cross (Editor), E. A. Livingstone (Editor) | title =The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, 3rd edition | publisher =Oxford University Press |date=13 March 1997 | location =USA | pages =1435-6 | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = 0–19–211655–X}}</ref> Views concerning both what rites are sacramental, and what it means for an act to be a sacrament vary among Christian denominations and traditions.<ref name="ODCC1435" /> | |||
| The most conventional functional definition of a sacrament is that it is an outward sign, instituted by Christ, that conveys an inward, spiritual grace through Christ. The two most widely accepted sacraments are ] and the ], however, the majority of Christians recognize seven Sacraments or Divine Mysteries : ], ] (] in the ] tradition), and the ], ], ] (confession), ], and ].<ref name="ODCC1435" /> Taken together, these are the ] as recognised by churches in the ] tradition - notably ], ], ], ], ] and some ]s. Most other denominations and traditions typically affirm only Baptism and Eucharist as sacraments, while some Protestant groups, such as the Quakers, reject sacramental theology.<ref name="ODCC1435" /> Some ] who believe these rites do not communicate grace prefer to call them '']''. | |||
| === Liturgical calendar === | |||
| {{main|Liturgical year}} | |||
| Roman Catholics, Anglicans, Eastern Christians, and traditional Protestant communities frame worship around a ]. This includes ], such as ] which commemorate an event in the life of Jesus or the ]s, periods of ] such as ], and other pious events such as ] or lesser festivals commemorating saints. Christian groups that do not follow a liturgical tradition often retain certain celebrations, such as ], ] and ]. A few churches make no use of a liturgical calendar.<ref>Hickman, Hoyt L., et al. ''Handbook of the Christian Year''. Abingdon Press (1986). ISBN 0-687-16575-X</ref> | |||
| === Symbols === | |||
| {{main|Christian symbolism}} | |||
| ] symbol, created by combining the Greek letters ΙΧΘΥΣ into a wheel. ], Asia Minor.]] | |||
| The ], which is today one of the most widely recognised symbols in the world, was used as a Christian symbol from the earliest times.<ref>http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/ANF-04/anf04-34.htm</ref><ref>Minucius Felix speaks of the cross of Jesus in its familiar form, likening it to objects with a crossbeam or to a man with arms outstretched in prayer ( chapter XXIX).</ref> In his book ''De Corona'', written in the year 204, Tertullian tells how it was already a tradition for Christians to trace repeatedly on their foreheads the sign of the cross.<ref>"At every forward step and movement, at every going in and out, when we put on our clothes and shoes, when we bathe, when we sit at table, when we light the lamps, on couch, on seat, in all the ordinary actions of daily life, we trace upon the forehead the sign" ()</ref> Although the cross was known to the early Christians, the ], did not appear in use until the fifth century.<ref name="soc">Dilasser, Maurice. ''The Symbols of the Church'' (1999). Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, hardcover: ISBN 0-8146-2538-x</ref> | |||
| Among the symbols employed by the primitive Christians, that of the fish seems to have ranked first in importance. From monumental sources such as tombs it is known that the symbolic fish was familiar to Christians from the earliest times. The fish was depicted as a Christian symbol in the first decades of the second century.<ref name="cefish">{{cite web | last = Hassett | first =Maurice | authorlink = | coauthors = | title =Symbolism of the Fish | work =Catholic Encyclopedia | publisher =Robert Appleton Company |date=1912 | url =http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06083a.htm | format = | doi = | accessdate = 2007-11-26 }}</ref> Its popularity among Christians was due principally, it would seem, to the famous acrostic consisting of the initial letters of five Greek words forming the word for fish (Ichthys), which words briefly but clearly described the character of Christ and the claim to worship of believers: ''Iesous Christos Theou Yios Soter'', meaning, ''Jesus Christ, Son of God, Saviour''.<ref name="cefish" /> | |||
| Christians from the very beginning adorned their ] with paintings of Christ, of the saints, of scenes from the Bible and allegorical groups. The catacombs are the cradle of all Christian art. The first Christians had no prejudice against images, pictures, or statues. The idea that they must have feared the danger of idolatry among their new converts is disproved in the simplest way by the pictures even statues, that remain from the first centuries.<ref name="ceimage">{{cite web | last =Fortescue | first =Adrian | authorlink = | coauthors = | title =Veneration of Images | work =Catholic Encyclopedia | publisher =Robert Appleton Company |date=1912 | url =http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07664a.htm | format = | doi = | accessdate = 2007-11-26 }}</ref> Other major Christian symbols include the ], the ] (symbolic of the Holy Spirit), the sacrificial lamb (symbolic of Christ's sacrifice), the ] (symbolising the necessary connectedness of the Christian with Christ) and many others. These all derive from the writings found the New Testament.<ref name="soc" /> | |||
| == History and origins == | |||
| {{main|History of Christianity}} | |||
| ]dom of ], bishop of Antioch appointed by ].]] | |||
| ===Early Church and Christological Councils === | |||
| The Christian Church traces its history to ] and the ], and saw the early ]s of the Church as the successors of the Apostles in general. Central to the doctrines of the Roman Catholic, Orthodox and Anglican Churches is ], the belief that the ]s are the spiritual successors of the original twelve apostles, through the historically unbroken chain of consecration. | |||
| From the beginning, Christians were subject to various ]. This involved even death for Christians such as ]<ref>{{bibleverse||Acts|7:59}}</ref> and ].<ref>{{bibleverse-nb||Acts|12:2}}</ref> Larger-scale persecutions followed at the hands of the authorities of the ], beginning with the year 64, when, as reported by the ] historian ], the ] blamed them for that year's ]. According to Church tradition, it was under Nero's persecution that early Church leaders ] and ] were each martyred in ]. Further widespread ] of the Church occurred under nine subsequent Roman emperors including ], ] and ]. From the year 150, Christian teachers began to produce theological and "apologetic" works aimed at defending the faith. These authors are known as the ], and study of them is called Patristics. Notable early Fathers include ], ], ], ], ], ] and ]. | |||
| Christianity was legalized in the fourth century, when ] issued the ] in 313. Constantine was instrumental in the convocation of the ] in 325, which sought to address the ] heresy and formulated the ], which is still currently used by the ], ], ], and many ] churches.<ref name="UMC - Our Common Heritage as Christians">{{cite web|url = http://archives.umc.org/interior.asp?mid=1806| title = Our Common Heritage as Christians |publisher = The United Methodist Church |accessdate = 2007-12-31}}</ref> | |||
| On ] ], Emperor ] enacted a law establishing Catholic Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire and ordering others to be called heretics.<ref>"It is our desire that all the various nations which are subject to our clemency and moderation should continue to the profession of that religion which was delivered to the Romans by the divine Apostle Peter, as it has been preserved by faithful tradition and which is now professed by the Pontiff Damasus and by Peter, Bishop of Alexandria, a man of apostolic holiness. ... We authorize the followers of this law to assume the title Catholic Christians; but as for the others, since in our judgment they are foolish madmen, we decree that they shall be branded with the ignominious name of heretics, and shall not presume to give their conventicles the name of churches." | |||
| {{cite web |title=Theodosian Code XVI.i.2 |url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/theodcodeXVI.html |work=Medieval Sourcebook: Banning of Other Religions |first=Paul |last=Halsall |year=1997 |month=June |publisher=Fordham University |accessdate=2006-09-19}}</ref> This period of history was also marked by the inauguration of a series of Ecumenical (worldwide) Christological Councils which established and formally codified critical elements of the theology of the Church. In 382, the ] set the Canon of the Bible, listing the accepted books of the ] and the ]. Also, the ] in 431 declared that Jesus existed both as fully Man and fully God simultaneously, clarifying his status in the ]. The meaning of the Nicene Creed was also declared a permanent doctrine of the Church. | |||
| ===Medieval Period=== | |||
| In 452, ] met ], and dissuaded him from sacking Rome.<ref>Gonzalez, Justo L. 'The Story of Christianity: The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation'(c) 1984 HarperCollins Publishers, New York, NY, p 243.</ref> However, in 476, the last Roman Emperor, Romulus Augustus was deposed.<ref>Gonzalez, Justo L. 'The Story of Christianity: The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation'(c) 1984 HarperCollins Publishers, New York, NY, p 243.</ref> Following the fall of the Roman Empire in the west, the church entered into a long period of missionary activity and expansion among the former barbarian tribes. Catholicism spread among the ] (initially in competition with Arianism<ref>Gonzalez, Justo L. 'The Story of Christianity: The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation'(c) 1984 HarperCollins Publishers, New York, NY, p 238.</ref>), the ], the ]; the ] and other ]ns; the ], the ] and the ]. The rise of ] from 630 onwards, took the formerly Christian lands of the Levant, North Africa and much of Spain out of Christian control<ref>Gonzalez, Justo L. 'The Story of Christianity: The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation'(c) 1984 HarperCollins Publishers, New York, NY, pp 248-250.</ref>. In 480, ] set out his Monastic Rule, establishing a system of regulations for the foundation and running of ]<ref>Gonzalez, Justo L. 'The Story of Christianity: The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation'(c) 1984 HarperCollins Publishers, New York, NY, pp 238-242.</ref>. ] became a powerful force throughout Europe<ref>Gonzalez, Justo L. 'The Story of Christianity: The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation'(c) 1984 HarperCollins Publishers, New York, NY, p 238.</ref>, and gave rise to many early centers of learning, most famously in ], ] and ], contributing to the ] of the 9th century. | |||
| The ] brought about major changes within the church. ] dramatically reformed ecclesiastical structure and administration.<ref>Gonzalez, Justo L. 'The Story of Christianity: The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation'(c) 1984 HarperCollins Publishers, New York, NY, p 244-247</ref> In the early 8th century, ] became a divisive issue, when it was sponsored by the ] emperors.<ref>Gonzalez, Justo L. 'The Story of Christianity: The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation'(c) 1984 HarperCollins Publishers, New York, NY, p 260</ref> The popes challenged imperial power and preserved the use of images outside the empire. The Second Ecumenical Council of Nicaea (787) finally pronounced in favour of icons.<ref>Gonzalez, Justo L. 'The Story of Christianity: The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation'(c) 1984 HarperCollins Publishers, New York, NY, p 260.</ref> In the early 10th century, western monasticism was further rejuvenated through the leadership of the great Benedictine monastery of ].<ref>Gonzalez, Justo L. 'The Story of Christianity: The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation'(c) 1984 HarperCollins Publishers, New York, NY, pp 278-281.</ref> | |||
| ====High Middle Ages==== | |||
| In the west, from the 11th century onward, older cathedral schools developed into ] (see ], ], and ].) Originally teaching only ], these steadily added subjects including ], ] and ], becoming the direct ancestors of modern western institutions of learning.<ref>Gonzalez, Justo L. 'The Story of Christianity: The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation'(c) 1984 HarperCollins Publishers, New York, NY, pp 305, 312, 314-15.</ref> | |||
| Accompanying the rise of the "new towns" throughout Western Europe, ]s were founded, bringing the ] out of the monastery and into the new urban setting. The two principal mendicant movements were the ]<ref>Gonzalez, Justo L. 'The Story of Christianity: The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation'(c) 1984 HarperCollins Publishers, New York, NY, pp 303-307, 310-11, 384-386.</ref> and the ]<ref>Gonzalez, Justo L. 'The Story of Christianity: The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation'(c) 1984 HarperCollins Publishers, New York, NY, pp 305, 310-11, 316-317.</ref> founded by ] and ] respectively. Both orders made significant contributions to the development of the great universities of Europe. Another new order were the ], whose large isolated monasteries spearheaded the settlement of former wilderness areas. In this period church building and ecclesiastical architecture reached new heights, culminating in the orders of ] and ] and the building of the great European cathedrals.<ref>Gonzalez, Justo L. 'The Story of Christianity: The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation'(c) 1984 HarperCollins Publishers, New York, NY, pp 321-323, 365-66.</ref> | |||
| ] at the ], where he preached the ].]] | |||
| From 1095 under the pontificate of ], the ] were launched.<ref>Gonzalez, Justo L. 'The Story of Christianity: The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation'(c) 1984 HarperCollins Publishers, New York, NY, pp 292-300.</ref> These were a series of military campaigns in the ] and elsewhere, initiated in response to pleas from the Byzantine Emperor ] for aid against ]ish expansion. The crusades ultimately failed to stifle ]ic aggression and even contributed to Christian enmity with the sacking and occupation of ] during the ].<ref>Riley-Smith, Jonathan. ''The Oxford History of the Crusades'' New York:Oxford University Press, 1999.</ref> | |||
| Beginning around 1184, following the crusades brought about by the ] heresy,<ref>Gonzalez, Justo L. 'The Story of Christianity: The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation'(c) 1984 HarperCollins Publishers, New York, NY, pp 300, 304-305.</ref> various institutions broadly referred to as the ], were established aimed at suppressing ] and securing religious and doctrinal unity within Christianity through ], and prosecution, of alleged heretics.<ref>Gonzalez, Justo L. 'The Story of Christianity: The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation'(c) 1984 HarperCollins Publishers, New York, NY, pp 310, 383, 385, 391.</ref> | |||
| ====East-West Schism==== | |||
| {{Main|East-West Schism}} | |||
| Over a period stretching from the seventh to the fourteenth centuries, the church underwent a gradual ] that divided it into a Western (Latin) branch, generally known as the Roman Catholic Church, and an Eastern (Greek) branch, which has become known as the ]. These two churches disagree on a number of administrative, liturgical, and doctrinal issues, most notably ].<ref></ref> | |||
| The ] (1274) and the ] (1439) attempted to reunite the churches, but in both cases the Orthodox refused to ratify the decisions and the two principal churches remain in schism to the present day. | |||
| === Reformation and Counter-Reformation === | |||
| {{Main|Protestant Reformation}} | |||
| {{See Also|Catholic Reformation}} | |||
| The 15th-century ] brought about a renewed interest in ancient and classical learning, and a re-examination of accepted beliefs. The discovery of the Americas by ] in 1492 brought about a new wave of missionary activity as the church sought to spread the faith throughout the colonies. Another major schism, the ], resulted in the splintering of the ] into several ].<ref name="Simon-120-121">{{cite book |first=Edith |last=Simon |title=Great Ages of Man: The Reformation |pages=Pg. 7 |publisher=Time-Life Books |year=1966 |isbn=0662278208}}</ref> On ] ] ] posted his ], which protested key points of Roman Catholic ] as well as the sale of ]. Others like ] and ] critiqued Roman Catholic teaching and worship even more. These challenges developed into the movement called the ], which repudiated issues included the ], ], the ], the ], and various other doctrines and practices.<ref name="Simon">{{cite book |first=Edith |last=Simon |title=Great Ages of Man: The Reformation |pages=Pp. 39, 55-61 |publisher=Time-Life Books |year=1966 |isbn=0662278208}}</ref> The ] accelerated in 1534,<ref>Schama states that Henry's reforms were "a reformation but not the Protestant Reformation."</ref> when the ] passed the ] making the ] ] of the ]. Beginning in 1536, the monasteries throughout England, ], and ] were ]. ] then ]d ] in 1538, beginning what would become a decisive schism between ] and ].<ref name="Schama">Schama, Simon. ''A History of Britain''. Pp. 306-10. Hyperion (2000). ISBN 0-7868-6675-6.</ref> | |||
| The ], or Catholic Reformation, is the name given to the response of the Roman Catholic Church to the challenge of Protestantism. The ] clarified and reasserted Roman Catholic doctrine. During the following centuries, competition between Roman Catholicism and Protestantism became deeply entangled with political struggles among European states.<ref name="Simon3">{{cite book |first=Edith |last=Simon |title=Great Ages of Man: The Reformation |pages=Pp. 109-120 |publisher=Time-Life Books |year=1966 |isbn=0662278208}}</ref> Meanwhile, partly from missionary zeal, but under the impetus of ] by the European powers, Christianity spread to the Americas, Oceania, ], and ]. | |||
| === Christianity in the Modern Era === | |||
| In the Modern Era, Christianity was confronted with various forms of ] and with certain modern ] such as ], ], and ]. This included the ] of the French Revolution, the Spanish Civil War, and general hostility of Marxist movements, especially ]. | |||
| With an estimated number of adherents that ranges between 1.5 billion<ref name="Adherents.com Christians"></ref> and 2.1 billion,<ref name="Adherents.com Christians"/> split into around 34,000 separate ], Christianity is the ].<ref name="Adherents - Religion Sizes">{{cite web|url = http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html| title = Major Religions Ranked by Size|publisher = Adherents|accessdate = 2007-12-31}}</ref> The Christian share of the world's population has stood at around 33 per cent for the last hundred years. This masks a major shift in the demographics of Christianity; large increases in the developing world have been accompanied by substantial declines in the developed world, mainly in Europe and North America.<ref>Werner Ustorf, "A missiological postscript", in Hugh McLeod, Werner Ustorf (editors), ''The Decline of Christendom in Western Europe, 1750-2000'', Cambridge University Press (2003), 219-220.</ref> On current projections, by 2050 only about one-fifth of the world's Christians will be non-Hispanic whites.<ref>Philip Jenkins, ''The Next Christendom: The Coming of Global Christianity'', Oxford University Press US (2002), page 3.</ref> It is still the predominant religion in ], the ], the ], and ].<ref> table of religions, by region; retrieved November 2007</ref> However it is declining in some areas including ] (] and ]), ],<ref></ref> ], ], the ] and ] portions of the ], and the ],<ref>David Barrett, Tom Kurian et al, eds., ''World Christian Encyclopedia'' 2nd edition (Oxford University Press, 2001), pages 139 (Britain), 281 (France), 299 (Germany).</ref><ref></ref><ref></ref> and in ] it remains a minority religion. | |||
| == Christian Groups == | |||
| {{main|Christian denomination}} | |||
| ]]] | |||
| There is a diversity of ]s and practices among groups calling themselves Christian. These groups are sometimes classified under ]s, though for theological reasons many groups reject this classification system.<ref>S. E. Ahlstrom characterized ] in America as "a virtual ecclesiology" that "first of all repudiates the insistences of the Roman Catholic church, the churches of the 'magisterial' Reformation, and of most sects that they alone are the true Church." Ahlstrom p. 381. For specific citations, on the Roman Catholic Church see the ''Catechism of the Catholic Church'' §816; other examples: Donald Nash, ; Wendell Winkler, ; and David E. Pratt, | |||
| </ref> Christianity may be broadly represented as being ] into four main groupings:<ref name="North Virgina College - Four Sects">{{cite web|url = http://www.nvcc.edu/home/lshulman/Rel232/resource/Xiandivision.htm| title = Divisions of Christianity|publisher = North Virginia College|accessdate = 2007-12-31}}</ref><ref name="Religious Tolerance - Four Sects">{{cite web|url = http://www.religioustolerance.org/ldswho.htm| title = The LDS Restorationist movement, | |||
| including Mormon denominations|publisher = Religious Tolerance|accessdate = 2007-12-31}}</ref> | |||
| * ]: The ], or "Catholic Church," includes the 23 ] in communion with the ]. It is the largest single body, with more than one billion baptized members.<ref name="Adherents">Adherents.com, </ref> | |||
| * ]: Those churches in communion with Patriarchal Sees of the East, such as the ] and others.<ref name="ODCC1199">{{cite book | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = F. L. Cross (Editor), E. A. Livingstone (Editor) | title =The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, 3rd edition | publisher =Oxford University Press |date=13 March 1997 | location =USA | pages =1199 | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = 0–19–211655–X}}</ref> | |||
| * ]: In the 16th century, ], ], and ] inaugurated what has come to be called the Protestant Reformation. Luther's primary theological heirs are known as ], known as Evangelicals in Germany and elsewhere. Zwingli and Calvin's heirs are far broader denominationally, and are broadly referred to as the ].<ref>McManners, John. ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity''. Pp 251-59. Oxford University Press (1990) IBSN 0198229283.</ref> Most Protestant traditions branch out from the Reformed tradition in some way. In addition to the Lutheran and Reformed branches of the Reformation, there is the ] tradition, which was largely ostracized by the other Protestant parties at the time, but has achieved a measure of affirmation in more recent history. | |||
| * ]: various unrelated Churches, such as the ], ], ], and ], that believe they are restoring the "original version" of Christianity. They feel that the other three divisions of Christianity have introduced grave defects into Christianity, which is known as the ].<ref name="Religious Tolerance - Restorationism">{{cite web|url = http://www.religioustolerance.org/chrrest.htm| title = The Restorationist Movements|publisher = Religious Tolerance|accessdate = 2007-12-31}}</ref><ref name="Got Questions Ministries - Restorationism">{{cite web|url = http://www.gotquestions.org/restorationism.html| title = What is Restorationism?|publisher = Got Questions Ministries|accessdate = 2007-12-31}}</ref> | |||
| The oldest Protestant and Reformed groups separated from the Roman Catholic Church in the 16th century ], followed in many cases by further divisions.<ref>McManners, John. ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity''. Pg 251. Oxford University Press (1990) IBSN 0198229283.</ref> For example, the ] grew out of Anglican minister ]'s ] and ] in the ].<ref name="Methodist Central Hall Westminster - Methodism">{{cite web|url = http://www.methodist-central-hall.org.uk/history/WhatisMethodism.htm| title = About The Methodist Church|publisher = Methodist Central Hall Westminster|accessdate = 2007-12-31}}</ref><ref name="Public Service Projects - Holiness Movement">{{cite web|url = http://mb-soft.com/believe/text/holiness.htm| title = American Holiness Movement|publisher = Finding Your Way, Inc.|accessdate = 2007-12-31}}</ref> Several ] and non-denominational Churches, which emphasize the cleansing power of the ], in turn grew out of the ].<ref name="FYW - Pentecostalism">{{cite web|url = http://www.findingyourwayinc.org/christianity.htm| title = Christianity: Pentecostal Churches|publisher = Finding Your Way, Inc.|accessdate = 2007-12-31}}</ref><ref name="Public Service Projects - Holiness Movement">{{cite web|url = http://mb-soft.com/believe/text/holiness.htm| title = American Holiness Movement|publisher = Finding Your Way, Inc.|accessdate = 2007-12-31}}</ref> Because Methodists, Pentecostals, and other ] stress "accepting Jesus as your personal Lord and Savior,"<ref name="CUMC Accepting Christ">{{cite web|url = http://www.cambridgechristumc.com/statementofbelief.htm| title = Statement of Belief|publisher = Cambridge Christ United Methodist Church|accessdate = 2007-12-31}}</ref> which comes from ]'s emphasis of the ],<ref name="UMC GBGM-The New Birth">{{cite web|url = http://new.gbgm-umc.org/umhistory/wesley/sermons/45/| title = The New Birth by John Wesley (Sermon 45)|publisher = The United Methodist Church GBGM|accessdate = 2007-12-31}}</ref> they often refer to themselves as being ].<ref name="UMC GBGM-Grace">{{cite web|url = http://gbgm-umc.org/umw/wesley/walk.stm| title = God's Preparing, Accepting, and Sustaining Grace|publisher = The United Methodist Church GBGM|accessdate = 2007-12-31}}</ref><ref name="Warren Wilson College - Total Experience of the Spirit">{{cite web|url = http://www.warren-wilson.edu/~religion/newifo/religions/christianity/index/pentecostal/essay.shtml| title = Total Experience of the Spirtit|publisher = Warren Wilson College|accessdate = 2007-12-31}}</ref> | |||
| Estimates of the total number of Protestants are very uncertain, partly because of the difficulty in determining which denominations should be placed in these categories, but it seems to be unquestionable that Orthodox Christianity is the second largest major group of Christians after Roman Catholicism in number of followers.<ref name="Adherents" /> | |||
| Some Christians solely identify themselves simply as ''Christian,'' or ''] Christian''; they typically distance themselves from the ] and/or ] of Protestant and Catholic communities<ref>Confessionalism is a term employed by historians to describe "the creation of fixed identities and systems of beliefs for separate churches which had previously been more fluid in their ], and which had not begun by seeking separate identities for themselves — they had wanted to be truly Catholic and reformed." ], ''Reformation'' p. xxiv</ref> by calling themselves "]" – often founded by individual pastors, they have little affiliation with historic denominations. | |||
| Many members of the ], a group of Anglican and Episcopal Churches that are descended from the ], claim to be both Protestant and Catholic.<ref>Sykes, Stephen, John Booty, and Jonathan Knight. ''The Study of Anglicanism''. Pg. 219. Augsburg Fortress Publishers (1998). ISBN 080063151X.</ref> Various small communities, such as the ] and ], are similar in name to the Roman Catholic Church, but are not in ] with the ]. The ] church is in communion with the ].<ref>See ]</ref> | |||
| ] are historically connected to early-19th century Camp Meetings in the Midwest and Upstate New York. American ] and ], which arose from Evangelical Protestantism, produced certain groups such as the Jehovah's Witness movement, and, as a reaction specifically to ], Seventh Day Adventists. These groups usually describe themselves as ''restoring'' the Church that they believe was lost at some point and not as "reforming" a ] continuously existing from the time of Jesus.<ref>McManners, John. ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity''. Pp 391-92. Oxford University Press (1990) IBSN 0198229283.</ref> Restorationists include ] with 2.6 million members, ] with 800,000 members,<ref> ''Statistical Report: Annual Council of the General Conference Committee Silver Spring, Marlyand, October 6—11, 2006''</ref> and ] with 6.6 million members,<ref>JW-Media.org </ref> and ], the largest denomination of the ] with over 12 million members. Though Restorationists have some superficial similarities, their doctrine and practices vary significantly. | |||
| ] | |||
| === Mainstream Christianity === | |||
| ] Christianity is a widely used term, used to refer to collectively to the common views of major denominations of Christianity (such as ], ], ], ]) as against the particular tenets of other sects or ]. The context is dependent on the particular issues addressed, but usually contrasts the ] majority view against ] minority views. In the most common sense, "mainstream" refers to ], or rather the traditions which continue to claim adherence to the ].<ref> | |||
| {{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | title =Nicene Creed | work =Encyclopædia Britannica Online | publisher =Encyclopædia Britannica |date=2007 | url =http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9055702 | format = | doi = | accessdate =2007-12-31}}</ref> | |||
| === Ecumenism === | |||
| {{main|Ecumenism}} | |||
| ] | |||
| Most churches have long expressed ideals of being reconciled with each other, and in the 20th century Christian ] advanced in two ways.<ref>McManners, John. ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity''. Pp 581-584. Oxford University Press (1990) IBSN 0198229283.</ref> One way was greater cooperation between groups, such as the ] of Protestants in 1910, the Justice, Peace and Creation Commission of the ] founded in 1948 by Protestant and Orthodox churches, and similar national councils like the ] which includes Roman Catholics.<ref>McManners, John. ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity''. Pg 584. Oxford University Press (1990) IBSN 0198229283.</ref> | |||
| The other way was institutional union with new ]. ], ], and ] churches united in 1925 to form the ],<ref>McManners, John. ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity''. Pp 413-14. Oxford University Press (1990) IBSN 0198229283.</ref> and in 1977 to form the ]. The ] was formed in 1947 by the union of ], ], ], ], and ] churches.<ref>McManners, John. ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity''. Pg. 498. Oxford University Press (1990) IBSN 0198229283.</ref> | |||
| Steps towards reconciliation on a global level were taken in 1965 by the Roman Catholic and Orthodox churches mutually revoking the excommunications that marked their ] in 1054;<ref>McManners, John. ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity''. Pg 373. Oxford University Press (1990) IBSN 0198229283.</ref> the ] (ARCIC) working towards full communion between those churches since 1970;<ref>McManners, John. ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity''. Pg 583. Oxford University Press (1990) IBSN 0198229283.</ref> and the ] and ] churches signing The ] in 1999 to address conflicts at the root of the ]. In 2006 the ] adopted the declaration.<ref></ref> | |||
| == References == | |||
| {{reflist|3}} | |||
| ==Further reading== | |||
| <small>Chronological order of publication (oldest first)</small> | |||
| *{{cite book |author=Gunton, Colin E. |title=The Cambridge companion to Christian doctrine |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |year=1997 |pages= |isbn=0-521-47695-X |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=2008-01-03}} | |||
| *{{cite book |author=Gill, Robin |title=The Cambridge companion to Christian ethics |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |year=2001 |pages= |isbn=0521779189 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=2008-01-03}} | |||
| *{{cite book |author=McManners, John |title=The Oxford history of Christianity |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |year=2002 |pages= |isbn=0192803360 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=2008-01-03}} | |||
| *{{cite book |author=Padgett, Alan G.; Sally Bruyneel |title=Introducing Christianity |publisher=Orbis Books |location=Maryknoll, N.Y |year= 2003 |pages= |isbn= 1570753954 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=2008-01-03}} | |||
| *{{cite book |author=Price, Matthew Arlen; Michael, Father Collins |title=The Story of Christianity |publisher=DK Publishing Inc |location=New York |year= 2003|pages= |isbn=0789496100 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=2008-01-03}} | |||
| *{{cite book |author=Miller, Michael Vincent; Ratzinger, Joseph; Pope Benedict XVI |title=Introduction To Christianity (Communio Books) |publisher=Ignatius Press |location=San Francisco |year= 2004 |pages= |isbn=1586170295 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=2008-01-03}} | |||
| *{{cite book |author=Wagner, Richard |title=Christianity for Dummies |publisher=For Dummies |location= |year= 2004|pages= |isbn=0764544829 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=2008-01-03}} | |||
| *{{cite book |author= Webb, Jeffrey B. |title=The Complete Idiot's Guide to Christianity |publisher=Alpha Books |location=Indianapolis, Ind |year= 2004|pages= |isbn= 159257176X |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=2008-01-03}} | |||
| *{{cite book |author=Woodhead, Linda |title=Christianity: a very short introduction |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |year=2004 |pages= |isbn=0192803220 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=2008-01-03}} | |||
| *{{cite book |author=MacMullen, Ramsay |title=Voting About God in Early Church Councils|publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven, CT |year=2006 |pages= |isbn=0300115962 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=2008-01-03}} | |||
| *{{cite book |author=Tucker, Karen; Wainwright, Geoffrey|title=The Oxford history of Christian worship |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |year=2006 |pages= |isbn=0-19-513886-4 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=2008-01-03}} | |||
| == External links == | |||
| {{sisterlinks}} | |||
| *{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/christianity/index.shtml |title=BBC - Religion & Ethics - Christianity |accessdate=2008-01-03 |accessmonthday= |accessdaymonth= |accessyear= |author= |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher=British Broadcasting Corporation |pages= |language=English |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote= }} A number of introductory articles on Christianity. | |||
| *{{cite web |url=http://www.cbc.ca/montreal/features/religion/christianity.html |title=CBC Montreal - Religion - Christianity |accessdate= 2008-01-03 |accessmonthday= |accessdaymonth= |accessyear= |author= |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Corporation |pages= |language=English |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote= }} An overview of Christianity. | |||
| {{Anglican Portal}} | |||
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