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| {{otheruses4|the art form|the magazine|Poetry (magazine)}} | |||
| ] "Quatrain on Heavenly Mountain" by ] (])]] | |||
| '''Poetry''' (from the ] "{{Polytonic|ποίησις}}", ''poiesis'', a "making" or "creating") is a form of ] in which ] is used for its ] and evocative qualities in addition to, or in lieu of, its ostensible ]. Poetry may be written independently, as discrete poems, or may occur in conjunction with other arts, as in ], ]s or ]. | |||
| Poetry, and discussions of it, have a long ]. Early attempts to define poetry, such as ]'s '']'', focused on the uses of ] in ], ], ] and ].<ref>Heath, Malcolm (ed). Aristotle's ''Poetics''. London, England: Penguin Books, (1997), ISBN 0140446362.</ref> Later attempts concentrated on features such as repetition and ], and emphasised the aesthetics which distinguish poetry from ].<ref>''See, for example,'' Immanauel Kant (J.H. Bernhard, Trans). ''Critique of Judgment''. Dover (2005).</ref> From the mid-20th century, poetry has sometimes been more loosely defined as a fundamental creative act using ].<ref>Dylan Thomas. ''Quite Early One Morning''. New York, New York: New Direction Books, reset edition (1968), ISBN 0811202089.</ref> | |||
| Poetry often uses particular forms and conventions to expand the literal meaning of the words, or to evoke emotional or sensual responses. Devices such as ], ], ] and ] are sometimes used to achieve ]al or ] effects. Poetry's use of ], ], ] and other ] elements of ] often leaves a poem open to multiple interpretations. Similarly, ] and ] create a resonance between otherwise disparate images—a layering of ]s, forming connections previously not perceived. Kindred forms of resonance may exist, between individual ]s, in their patterns of rhyme or rhythm. | |||
| Some forms of poetry are specific to particular ]s and ]s, responding to the characteristics of the language in which the poet writes. While readers accustomed to identifying poetry with ], ], ] and ] may think of it as being written in ] lines and regular ], there are traditions, such as those of ] and '']'', that use other approaches to achieve rhythm and ]. In today's ] world, poets often borrow styles, techniques and forms from diverse cultures and languages. | |||
| ==History== | |||
| {{Main|History of poetry|Literary theory}} | |||
| ] tablet of the ] in ], circa ].]] | |||
| Poetry as an art form may predate ].<ref>Many scholars, particularly those researching the Homeric tradition and the oral epics of the Balkans, suggest that early writing shows clear traces of older oral poetic traditions, including the use of repeated phrases as building blocks in larger poetic units. A rhythmic and repetitious form would make a long story easier to remember and retell, before writing was available as an aide-memoire.</ref> Many ancient works, from the '']'' (1700–1200 BC) to the '']'' (]–]), appear to have been composed in poetic form to aid memorization and oral transmission, in prehistoric and ancient societies.<ref>For one recent summary discussion, see Frederick Ahl and Hannah M. Roisman. ''The Odyssey Re-Formed''. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, (1996), at 1–26, ISBN 0801483352. Others suggest that poetry did not necessarily predate writing. See, for example, Jack Goody. ''The Interface Between the Written and the Oral''. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, (1987), at 98, ISBN 0521337941.</ref> Poetry appears among the earliest records of most literate cultures, with poetic fragments found on early ]s, ]s and ]. | |||
| The oldest surviving poem is the '']'', from the 3rd millennium BC in ] (in ], now ]), which was written in ] on clay tablets and, later, ].<ref>N.K. Sanders (Trans.). ''The Epic of Gilgamesh''. London, England: Penguin Books, revised edition (1972), at 7–8.</ref> Other ancient ] includes the ] epics, '']'' and '']'', and the ], '']'' and '']''. | |||
| The efforts of ancient thinkers to determine what makes poetry distinctive as a form, and what distinguishes good poetry from bad, resulted in "]" — the study of the aesthetics of poetry. Some ancient societies, such as the Chinese through the '']'', one of the ] of ], developed canons of poetic works that had ritual as well as aesthetic importance. More recently, thinkers have struggled to find a definition that could encompass formal differences as great as those between Chaucer's '']'' and ]'s '']'', as well as differences in context spanning ] ], ] poetry, and ].<ref>''See, e.g.,'' ]. '']'', Sugar Hill, (1982).</ref> | |||
| ], drawn by himself.]] | |||
| ] can be critical to poetics and to the development of poetic ]s and ]s. Poetry that records historic events in ], such as '']'' or Ferdowsi's '']'',<ref>Abolqasem Ferdowsi (Dick Davis, Trans.). ''Shahnameh: The Persian Book of Kings''. New York, New York: Viking, (2006), ISBN 0-670-03485-1.</ref> will necessarily be lengthy and ], while poetry used for ] purposes (]s, ]s, ]s and ]s) is likely to have an inspirational tone, whereas ] and tragedy are meant to evoke deep emotional responses. Other contexts include ]s, formal or diplomatic speech,<ref> For example, in the Arabic world, much diplomacy was carried out through poetic form in the 16th century. ''See'' Natalie Zemon Davis. ''Trickster's Travels''. Hill & Wang, (2006), ISBN 0809094355.</ref> ] ] and ],<ref> Examples of political invective include ] and the classical ] of ] and ].</ref> light-hearted ] and ], and even ] texts.<ref>In ], medical and scholarly works were often written in metrical form. A millennium and a half later, many of ]'s medical texts were written in verse.</ref> | |||
| The Polish historian of aesthetics, ], in a paper on "The Concept of Poetry," traces the evolution of what is in fact ''two ]s of poetry''. Tatarkiewicz points out that the term is applied to two distinct things that, as the poet ] observes, "at a certain point find union. Poetry is an art based on ''language.'' But poetry also has a more general meaning that is difficult to define because it is less determinate: poetry expresses a certain ''].''" ."<ref name="Concept13">], "The Concept of Poetry," ''Dialectics and Humanism'', vol. II, no. 2 (spring 1975), p. 13.</ref> | |||
| ===Western traditions=== | |||
| ].]] | |||
| Classical thinkers employed classification as a way to define and assess the quality of poetry. Notably, the existing fragments of ]'s '']'' describe ] — the epic, the comic, and the tragic — and develop rules to distinguish the highest-quality poetry in each genre, based on the underlying purposes of the genre.<ref>Heath (ed), ''Aristotle's Poetics'', 1997.</ref> Later ]s identified three major genres: ], ] and ], treating ] and ] as ]s of dramatic poetry. | |||
| Aristotle's work was influential throughout the Middle East during the ],<ref>] wrote a commentary on the Aristotle's ''Poetics'', replacing the original examples with passages from Arabic poets. ''See, for example,'' W. F. Bogges. 'Hermannus Alemannus' Latin Anthology of Arabic Poetry,' ''Journal of the American Oriental Society,'' 1968, Volume 88, 657–70, and Charles Burnett, 'Learned Knowledge of Arabic Poetry, ], and Didactic Verse from Petrus Alfonsi to Petrarch', in ''Poetry and Philosophy in the Middle Ages: A Festschrift for Peter Dronke''. Brill Academic Publishers, (2001), ISBN 90-04-11964-7.</ref> as well as in Europe during the ].<ref>''See, for example,'' Paul F Grendler. ''The Universities of the Italian Renaissance''. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press, (2004), ISBN 0-8018-8055-6 (for example, page 239) for the prominence of Aristotle and the ''Poetics'' on the Renaissance curriculum.</ref> Later poets and aestheticians often distinguished poetry from, and defined it in opposition to, ], which was generally understood as writing with a proclivity to logical explication and a linear narrative structure.<ref>Immanuel Kant (J.H. Bernard, Trans.). ''Critique of Judgment'' at 131, for example, argues that the nature of poetry as a self-consciously abstract and beautiful form raises it to the highest level among the verbal arts, with tone or music following it, and only after that the more logical and narrative prose.</ref> | |||
| ].]] | |||
| This does not imply that poetry is illogical or lacks narration, but rather that poetry is an attempt to render the beautiful or sublime without the burden of engaging the logical or narrative thought process. English ] poet ] termed this escape from logic, "]."<ref>Christensen, A., Crisafulli-Jones, L., Galigani, G. and Johnson, A. (Eds). ''The Challenge of Keats''. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Rodopi, (2000).</ref> This "romantic" approach views ] as a key element of successful poetry because form is abstract and distinct from the underlying notional logic. This approach remained influential into the twentieth century. | |||
| During this period, there was also substantially more interaction among the various poetic traditions, in part due to the spread of European ] and the attendant rise in global trade. In addition to a boom in ], during the Romantic period numerous ancient works were rediscovered. | |||
| ===Twentieth-century disputes=== | |||
| ].]] | |||
| Some 20th century ]s, relying less on the opposition of prose and poetry, focused on the poet as simply one who creates using language, and poetry as what the poet creates. The underlying concept of the poet as creator is not uncommon, and some ] essentially do not distinguish between the creation of a poem with words, and creative acts in other media such as carpentry.<ref>See, for example, ]'s discussion of the poet as creator in ''Quite Early One Morning''. New York, New York: New Directions Press, (1967).</ref> Yet other modernists challenge the very attempt to define poetry as misguided, as when ] concludes his paradoxical poem, "]," with the lines: "A poem should not mean / but be."<ref>The title of "]" ]s to ]'s commentary of the same title. The poem sets out a range of dicta for what poetry ought to be, before concluding with its classic lines.</ref> | |||
| Disputes over the definition of poetry, and over poetry's distinction from other genres of literature, have been inextricably intertwined with the debate over the role of poetic form. The rejection of traditional forms and structures for poetry that began in the first half of the twentieth century coincided with a questioning of the purpose and meaning of traditional definitions of poetry and of distinctions between poetry and prose, particularly given examples of poetic prose and ]. Numerous modernist poets have written in non-traditional forms or in what traditionally would have been considered prose, although their writing was generally infused with poetic diction and often with rhythm and tone established by non-metrical means.<ref>''See, for example,'' Walton Liz and Christopher MacGowen (Eds.). ''Collected Poems of ]''. New York, New York: New Directions Publications, (1988), or the works of ].</ref> While there was a substantial ] reaction within the modernist schools to the breakdown of structure, this reaction focused as much on the development of new formal structures and syntheses as on the revival of older forms and structures.<ref>See, for example, ]'s "], in T. S. Eliot. ''The Waste Land and Other Poems''. London, England: Faber & Faber, (1940)."</ref> | |||
| More recently, ] has fully embraced MacLeish's concept and come to regard boundaries between prose and poetry, and also among genres of poetry, as having meaning only as cultural artifacts. Postmodernism goes beyond modernism's emphasis on the creative role of the poet, to emphasize the role of the ] of a text, and to highlight the complex cultural web within which a poem is read.<ref>''See,'' ] essay "]" in ''Image-Music-Text''. New York, New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, (1978).</ref> Today, throughout the world, poetry often incorporates poetic form and diction from other cultures and from the past, further confounding attempts at definition and classification that were once sensible within a tradition such as the ]. | |||
| ==Basic elements== | |||
| ===Prosody=== | |||
| {{Main|Meter (poetry)}} | |||
| ] is the study of the ], ], and ] of a poem. Rhythm and meter, although closely related, should be distinguished.<ref>], ''The Sounds of Poetry'' at 52.</ref> Meter is the definitive pattern established for a verse (such as iambic pentameter), while rhythm is the actual sound that results from a line of poetry. Thus, the meter of a line may be described as being "iambic", but a full description of the rhythm would require noting where the language causes one to pause or accelerate and how the meter interacts with other elements of the language. Prosody also may be used more specifically to refer to the ] of poetic lines to show meter. | |||
| ====Rhythm==== | |||
| {{main|Timing (linguistics)|tone (linguistics)|pitch accent}} | |||
| :''See also ], ], ], ]'' | |||
| The methods for creating poetic rhythm vary across languages and between poetic traditions. Languages are often described as having ] set primarily by ], ], or ], depending on how rhythm is established, though a language can be influenced by multiple approaches.<ref>''See, for example,'' Julia Schülter. ''Rhythmic Grammar'', Berlin, Germany: Walter de Gruyter, (2005).</ref> ] is a mora-timed language. Syllable-timed languages include ], ], ] and ]. ], ] and, generally, ] are stress-timed languages. Varying ] also affects how rhythm is perceived. Languages also can rely on either ], such as in Vedic or ancient Greek, or ]. ]s include Chinese, Vietnamese, Lithuanian, and most ].<ref>''See'' Yip. ''Tone''. (2002), which includes a number of maps showing the distribution of tonal languages.</ref> | |||
| Metrical rhythm generally involves precise arrangements of stresses or syllables into repeated patterns called ] within a line. In Modern English verse the pattern of stresses primarily differentiate feet, so rhythm based on meter in Modern English is most often founded on the pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables (alone or ]). In the ], on the other hand, while the metrical units are similar, ] rather than stresses define the meter. ] poetry used a metrical pattern involving varied numbers of syllables but a fixed number of strong stresses in each line.<ref>Howell D. Chickering. '']: a Dual-language Edition''. Garden City, New York: Anchor (1977), ISBN 0385062133.</ref> | |||
| ].]] | |||
| The chief device of ancient ] ], including many of the ], was '']'', a rhetorical structure in which successive lines reflected each other in grammatical structure, sound structure, notional content, or all three. Parallelism lent itself to ]al or ] performance, which could also be reinforced by ]. Thus, Biblical poetry relies much less on metrical feet to create rhythm, but instead creates rhythm based on much larger sound units of lines, phrases and sentences. Some classical poetry forms, such as ] of the ], had rigid grammars (to the point that they could be expressed as a ]) which ensured a rhythm.<ref>See, for exmample, John Lazarus and W. H. Drew (Trans.). ''Thirukkural''. Asian Educational Services (2001), ISBN 81-206-0400-8. (Original in Tamil with English translation).</ref> In ], tones as well as stresses create rhythm. ] identifies ]: the level tone, rising tone, falling tone, and ]. Note that other classifications may have as many as eight tones for Chinese and six for Vietnamese. | |||
| The formal patterns of meter used developed in Modern English verse to create rhythm no longer dominate contemporary English poetry. In the case of ], rhythm is often organized based on looser units of cadence than a regular meter. ], ], and ] are three notable poets who reject the idea that regular accentual meter is critical to English poetry.<ref>''See, for example,'' Marianne Moore. ''Idiosyncrasy and Technique''. Berkeley, California: University of California, (1958), or, for examples, William Carlos Williams. ''The Broken Span''. Norfolk, Connecticut: New Directions, (1941).</ref> Jeffers experimented with ] as an alternative to accentual rhythm.<ref>Robinson Jeffers. ''Selected Poems''. New York, New York: Vintage, (1965).</ref> | |||
| ====Meter==== | |||
| {{Main|Scansion|Systems of scansion}} | |||
| ].]] | |||
| In the Western poetic tradition, ]s are customarily grouped according to a characteristic ] and the number of feet per line. Thus, "]" is a meter comprising five feet per line, in which the predominant kind of foot is the "]." This metric system originated in ancient ], and was used by poets such as ] and ], and by the great ]s of ]. Similarly, "]," comprises six feet per line, of which the dominant kind of foot is the "]." Dactylic hexameter was the traditional meter of Greek ], the earliest extant examples of which are the works of ] and ]. | |||
| Meter is often scanned based on the arrangement of "]" into lines.<ref> Paul Fussell. ''Poetic Meter and Poetic Form''. McGraw Hill, (1965, rev. 1979), ISBN 0-07-553606-4.</ref> In English, each foot usually includes one syllable with a stress and one or two without a stress. In other languages, it may be a combination of the number of syllables and the length of the vowel that determines how the foot is parsed, where one syllable with a long vowel may be treated as the equivalent of two syllables with short vowels. For example, in ancient Greek poetry, meter is based solely on syllable duration rather than stress. In some languages, such as English, stressed syllables are typically pronounced with greater volume, greater length, and higher pitch, and are the basis for poetic meter. In ancient Greek, these attributes were independent of each other; long vowels and syllables including a vowel plus more than one consonant actually had longer duration, approximately double that of a short vowel, while pitch and stress (dictated by the accent) were not associated with duration and played no role in the meter. Thus, a dactylic hexameter line could be envisioned as a musical phrase with six measures, each of which contained either a half note followed by two quarter notes (i.e. a long syllable followed by two short syllables), or two half notes (i.e. two long syllables); thus, the substitution of two short syllables for one long syllable resulted in a measure of the same length. Such substitution in a stress language, such as English, would not result in the same rhythmic regularity. | |||
| In ], the unit on which lines are built is a half-line containing two stresses rather than a foot.<ref>]. '']''. Faber and Faber, (1971), ISBN 0-571-09135-0.</ref> Scanning meter can often show the basic or fundamental pattern underlying a verse, but does not show the varying degrees of ], as well as the differing ]es and ]s of syllables.<ref>]. ''The Sounds of Poetry''. New York, New York: Farrar Straus and Giroux, (1998), 11–24, ISBN 0374526176.</ref> | |||
| As an example of how a line of meter is defined, in English-language ], each line has five metrical feet, and each foot is an iamb, or an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable. When a particular line is scanned, there may be variations upon the basic pattern of the meter; for example, the first foot of English iambic pentameters is quite often ], meaning that the stress falls on the first syllable.<ref>], ''The Sounds of Poetry''.</ref> The generally accepted names for some of the most commonly used kinds of feet include: | |||
| ]'s illustrations to ]'s '']'', which is written predominantly in ]: "In the midst of the word he was trying to say / In the midst of his laughter and glee / He had softly and suddenly vanished away / For the snark was a boojum, you see."]] | |||
| * ] — two stressed syllables together | |||
| * ] — unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable | |||
| * ] — one stressed syllable followed by an unstressed syllable | |||
| * ] — one stressed syllable followed by two unstressed syllables | |||
| * ] — two unstressed syllables followed by one stressed syllable | |||
| * ] - two unstressed syllables together (rare, usually used to end dactylic hexameter) | |||
| The number of metrical feet in a line are described in Greek terminology as follows: | |||
| * ] — two feet | |||
| * ] — three feet | |||
| * ] — four feet | |||
| * ] — five feet | |||
| * ] — six feet | |||
| * ] — seven feet | |||
| * ] — eight feet | |||
| There are a wide range of names for other types of feet, right up to a ] of four syllable metric foot with a stressed syllable followed by two unstressed syllables and closing with a stressed syllable. The choriamb is derived from some ancient ] and ]. Languages which utilize ] or ] rather than or in addition to syllabic accents in determining meter, such as ] or ], often have concepts similar to the iamb and dactyl to describe common combinations of long and short sounds. | |||
| Each of these types of feet has a certain "feel," whether alone or in combination with other feet. The iamb, for example, is the most natural form of rhythm in the English language, and generally produces a subtle but stable verse.<ref>John Thompson, ''The Founding of English Meter''.</ref> The dactyl, on the other hand, almost gallops along. And, as readers of '']'' or ] realize, the anapest is perfect for a light-hearted, comic feel.<ref>''See, for example,'' "Yertle the Turtle" in Dr. Seuss. ''Yertle the Turtle and Other Stories''. New York: Random House, (1958), lines from "Yurtle the Turtle" are scanned in the discussion of ].</ref> | |||
| There is debate over how useful a multiplicity of different "feet" is in describing meter. For example, ] has argued that while dactyls are important in classical verse, English dactylic verse uses dactyls very irregularly and can be better described based on patterns of iambs and anapests, feet which he considers natural to the language.<ref>Robert Pinsky, ''The Sounds of Poetry'' at 66.</ref> Actual rhythm is significantly more complex than the basic scanned meter described above, and many scholars have sought to develop systems that would scan such complexity. ] noted that overlaid on top of the regular pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in a line of verse was a separate pattern of accents resulting from the natural pitch of the spoken words, and suggested that the term "scud" be used to distinguish an unaccented stress from an accented stress.<ref>Vladimir Nabokov. ''Notes on Prosody''. New York, New York: The Bollingen Foundation, (1964), ISBN 0691017603.</ref> | |||
| ====Metrical patterns==== | |||
| {{Main|Meter (poetry)}} | |||
| Different traditions and genres of poetry tend to use different meters, ranging from the Shakespearian ] and the Homerian ] to the ] used in many nursery rhymes. However, a number of variations to the established meter are common, both to provide emphasis or attention to a given foot or line and to avoid boring repetition. For example, the stress in a foot may be inverted, a ] (or pause) may be added (sometimes in place of a foot or stress), or the final foot in a line may be given a ] to soften it or be replaced by a ] to emphasize it and create a hard stop. Some patterns (such as iambic pentameter) tend to be fairly regular, while other patterns, such as dactylic hexameter, tend to be highly irregular. Regularity can vary between language. In addition, different patterns often develop distinctively in different languages, so that, for example, ] in Russian will generally reflect a regularity in the use of accents to reinforce the meter, which does not occur or occurs to a much lesser extent in English.<ref>Nabokov. ''Notes on Prosody''.</ref> | |||
| ].]] | |||
| Some common metrical patterns, with notable examples of poets and poems who use them, include: | |||
| * Iambic pentameter (], '']''<ref>Two versions of ''Paradise Lost'' are freely available on-line from Project Gutenberg, and . </ref>) | |||
| * Dactylic hexameter (Homer, ''];''<ref>The original text, as translated by Samuel Butler, is available at Wikisource.</ref> ], '']'') | |||
| * ] (], "]") | |||
| * ] (], '']'')<ref>The full text is available online both in Russian and as translated into English by Charles Johnston. Please see the pages on '']'' and on '']'' and the references on those pages for discussion of the problems of translation and of the differences between Russian and English iambic tetrameter.</ref> | |||
| * ] (], "]")<ref>The full text of "The Raven" is available at Wikisource.</ref> | |||
| * ] (], "]";<ref>The full text of "The Hunting of the Snark" is available at Wikisource.</ref> ], '']'')<ref>The full text of ''Don Juan'' is available on-line.</ref> | |||
| * ], also known as iambic hexameter (], '']'')<ref>See as well as an English translation, {{gutenberg|no=1977|name=Phaedra}}</ref> | |||
| ===Rhyme, alliteration, assonance=== | |||
| ]'' is written in alliterative verse and in paragraph form, not separated into lines or stanzas.]] | |||
| {{Main|Rhyme|Alliterative verse|Assonance}} | |||
| ], ], ] and ] are ways of creating repetitive patterns of sound. They may be used as an independent structural element in a poem, to reinforce rhythmic patterns, or as an ornamental element.<ref>Rhyme, alliteration, assonance or consonance can also carry a meaning separate from the repetitive sound patterns created. For example, ] used heavy alliteration to mock Old English verse and to paint a character as archaic, and ] used interlocking alliteration and consonance of "th", "f" and "s" sounds to force a lisp on a character he wanted to paint as effeminate. See, for example, the opening speech in ''] available online at ''.</ref> | |||
| Rhyme consists of identical ("hard-rhyme") or similar ("soft-rhyme") sounds placed at the ends of lines or at predictable locations within lines ("]").<ref>For a good discussion of hard and soft rhyme see Robert Pinsky's introduction to Dante Alighieri, Robert Pinsky (Trans.). ''The Inferno of Dante: A New Verse Translation''. New York, New York: Farar Straus & Giroux, (1994), ISBN 0374176744; the Pinsky translation includes many demonstrations of the use of soft rhyme.</ref> Languages vary in the richness of their rhyming structures; Italian, for example, has a rich rhyming structure permitting maintenance of a limited set of rhymes throughout a lengthy poem. The richness results from word endings that follow regular forms. English, with its irregular word endings adopted from other languages, is less rich in rhyme.<ref>Dante (1994).</ref> The degree of richness of a language's rhyming structures plays a substantial role in determining what poetic forms are commonly used in that language. | |||
| Alliteration and assonance played a key role in structuring early Germanic, Norse and Old English forms of poetry. The alliterative patterns of early Germanic poetry interweave meter and alliteration as a key part of their structure, so that the metrical pattern determines when the listener expects instances of alliteration to occur. This can be compared to an ornamental use of alliteration in most Modern European poetry, where alliterative patterns are not formal or carried through full stanzas.<ref>''See'' the introduction to ]. '']''. New York, New York: Signet Books, (1984), ISBN 0451628233.</ref> Alliteration is particularly useful in languages with less rich rhyming structures. Assonance, where the use of similar vowel sounds within a word rather than similar sounds at the beginning or end of a word, was widely used in ]ic poetry, but goes back to the Homeric epic. Because verbs carry much of the pitch in the English language, assonance can loosely evoke the tonal elements of Chinese poetry and so is useful in translating Chinese poetry. Consonance occurs where a consonant sound is repeated throughout a sentence without putting the sound only at the front of a word. Consonance provokes a more subtle effect than alliteration and so is less useful as a structural element. | |||
| ====Rhyming schemes==== | |||
| {{main|Rhyme scheme}} | |||
| In many languages, including modern European languages and Arabic, poets use rhyme in set patterns as a structural element for specific poet forms, such as ]s, ]s and ]s. However, the use of structural rhyme is not universal even within the European tradition. Much modern poetry avoids traditional ]s. Classical Greek and Latin poetry did not use rhyme. Rhyme entered European poetry in the ], in part under the influence of the ] in ] (modern Spain).<ref>Maria Rosa Menocal. ''The Arabic Role in Medieval Literary History''. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania, (2003), ISBN 0812213246. Irish poetry also employed rhyme relatively early, and may have influenced the development of rhyme in other European languages.</ref> Arabic language poets used rhyme extensively from the first development of literary Arabic in the ], as in their long, rhyming ]s. Some rhyming schemes have become associated with a specific language, culture or period, while other rhyming schemes have achieved use across languages, cultures or time periods. Some forms of poetry carry a consistent and well-defined rhyming scheme, such as the ] or the ], while other poetic forms have variable rhyme schemes. | |||
| ] and ] gaze upon the highest Heaven; from ]'s illustrations to the ''], Paradiso'', Canto 31]] Most rhyme schemes are described using letters that correspond to sets of rhymes, so if the first, second and fourth lines of a quatrain rhyme with each other and the third line does not rhyme, the quatrain is said to have an "a-a-b-a" rhyme scheme. This rhyme scheme is the one used, for example, in the rubaiyat form.<ref>Indeed, in translating the ], ] sought to retain the scheme in English. The original text is available from the Gutenberg Porject on-line for free.</ref> Similarly, an "a-b-b-a" quatrain (what is known as "]") is used in such forms as the ].<ref>{{gutenberg author|id=Petrarch|name=Petrarch}}</ref> Some types of more complicated rhyming schemes have developed names of their own, separate from the "a-b-c" convention, such as the ] and ]. The types and use of differing rhyming schemes is discussed further in the ]. | |||
| ; Ottava rima | |||
| :The ] is a poem with a stanza of eight lines with an alternating a-b rhyming scheme for the first six lines followed by a closing couplet first used by ]. This rhyming scheme was developed for heroic epics but has also been used for mock-heroic poetry. | |||
| ;Dante and terza rima | |||
| ]'s '']''<ref>].</ref> is written in ], where each stanza has three lines, with the first and third rhyming, and the second line rhyming with the first and third lines of the next stanza (thus, a-b-a / b-c-b / c-d-c, et cetera.) in a ]. The terza rima provides a flowing, progressive sense to the poem, and used skillfully it can evoke a sense of motion, both forward and backward. Terza rima is appropriately used in lengthy poems in languages with rich rhyming schemes (such as Italian, with its many common word endings).<ref>See Robert Pinsky's discussion of the difficulties of replicating terza rima in English in Robert Pinsky (trans). ''The Inferno of Dante: A New Verse Translation''. (1994).</ref> | |||
| ===Poetic form=== | |||
| Poetic form is more flexible in modernist and post-modernist poetry, and continues to be less structured than in previous literary eras. Many modern poets eschew recognisable structures or forms, and write in 'free verse'. But poetry remains distinguished from prose by its form and some regard for basic formal structures of poetry will be found in even the best free verse, howevermuch it may appear to have been ignored. Similarly, in the best poetry written in the classical style there will be departures from strict form for emphasis or effect. Among the major structural elements often used in poetry are the line, the ] or ], and larger combinations of stanzas or lines such as ]. The broader visual presentation of words and ] can also be utilized. These basic units of poetic form are often combined into larger structures, called ''poetic forms'' or poetic modes (see following section), such as in the ] or ]. | |||
| ====Lines and stanzas==== | |||
| Poetry is often separated into lines on a page. These lines may be based on the number of metrical feet, or may emphasize a rhyming pattern at the ends of lines. Lines may serve other functions, particularly where the poem is not written in a formal metrical pattern. Lines can separate, compare or contrast thoughts expressed in different units, or can highlight a change in tone. See the article on ]s for information about the division between lines. | |||
| Lines of poems are often organized into ]s, which are denominated by the number of lines included. Thus a collection of two lines is a ] (or ]), three lines a ] (or ]), four lines a ], five lines a ] (or ]), six lines a ], and eight lines an ]. These lines may or may not relate to each other by rhyme or rhythm. For example, a couplet may be two lines with identical meters which rhyme or two lines held together by a common meter alone. Stanzas often have related couplets or triplets within them. | |||
| ]'s poem, "''Noch, ulitsa, fonar, apteka''" ("Night, street, lamp, drugstore"), on a wall in ].]] | |||
| Other poems may be organized into ]s, in which regular rhymes with established rhythms are not used, but the poetic tone is instead established by a collection of rhythms, alliterations, and rhymes established in paragraph form. Many medieval poems were written in verse paragraphs, even where regular rhymes and rhythms were used. | |||
| In many forms of poetry, stanzas are interlocking, so that the rhyming scheme or other structural elements of one stanza determine those of succeeding stanzas. Examples of such interlocking stanzas include, for example, the ] and the ], where a refrain (or, in the case of the villanelle, refrains) is established in the first stanza which then repeats in subsequent stanzas. Related to the use of interlocking stanzas is their use to separate thematic parts of a poem. For example, the ], ] and ] of the ] form are often separated into one or more stanzas. In such cases, or where structures are meant to be highly formal, a stanza will usually form a complete thought, consisting of full sentences and cohesive thoughts. | |||
| In some cases, particularly lengthier formal poetry such as some forms of epic poetry, stanzas themselves are constructed according to strict rules and then combined. In ]ic poetry, the ] stanza had eight lines, each having three "lifts" produced with alliteration or assonance. In addition to two or three alliterations, the odd numbered lines had partial rhyme of consonants with dissimilar vowels, not necessarily at the beginning of the word; the even lines contained internal rhyme in set syllables (not necessarily at the end of the word). Each half-line had exactly six syllables, and each line ended in a trochee. The arrangement of dróttkvætts followed far less rigid rules than the construction of the individual dróttkvætts. | |||
| - ]]] | |||
| ====Visual presentation==== | |||
| {{main|Visual poetry}} | |||
| Even before the advent of printing, the visual appearance of poetry often added meaning or depth. ] poems conveyed meanings in the initial letters of lines or in letters at other specific places in a poem. In ], ] and ], the visual presentation of finely ] poems has played an important part in the overall effect of many poems. | |||
| With the advent of ], poets gained greater control over the mass-produced visual presentations of their work. Visual elements have become an important part of the poet's toolbox, and many poets have sought to use visual presentation for a wide range of purposes. Some ] poetry takes this to an extreme, with the placement of individual lines or groups of lines on the page forming an integral part of the poem's composition, whether to complement the poem's ] through visual ]s of various lengths, or to create ]s so as to accentuate ], ] or ], or simply to create an aesthetically pleasing form.<ref>For examples of different uses of visual space in modern poetry, see ] works or C.J. Moore's poetic translation of the Fables of LaFontaine, which usees color and page placement to complement the illustrations of Marc Chagall. Marc Chagall (illust) and C.J. Moore (trans.). ''Fables of La Fontaine''. The New Press, (1977), ISBN 1565844041.</ref> In its most extreme form, this can lead to ] or ] writing.<ref>A good pre-modernist example of concrete poetry is the poem about the mouse's tale in the shape of a long tail in Lewis Carroll's ], available in Wikisource. | |||
| </ref> | |||
| ===Poetic diction=== | |||
| ]'s ''] and Other Poems'' (1862), by ]. ''Goblin Market'' used complex poetic diction in nursery rhyme form: "We must not look at goblin men, / We must not buy their fruits: / Who knows upon what soil they fed / Their hungry thirsty roots?"]] | |||
| {{Main|Poetic diction}} | |||
| ] treats of the manner in which language is used, and refers not only to the sound but also to the underlying meaning and its interaction with sound and ]. Many languages and poetic forms have very specific poetic dictions, to the point where distinct ]s and ]s are used specifically for poetry. | |||
| Poetic diction can include ]s such as ] and ], as well as tones of voice, such as ].<ref>See, for example, ] by ] for a well-known example of symbolism and metaphor used in poetry. The ] that is killed by the mariner is a traditional symbol of good luck, and its death takes on metaphorical implications.</ref> ] wrote in the '']'' that "the greatest thing by far is to be a master of metaphor."<ref>See {{Gutenberg|name=The Poetics of Aristotle|1974}} at 22.</ref> Since the rise of ], some poets have opted for a poetic diction that deemphasizes ]al devices, attempting instead the direct presentation of things and experiences and the exploration of ]. On the other hand, ] have pushed ]al devices to their limits, making frequent use of ]. | |||
| ] stories are central to the poetic diction of many cultures, and were prominent in the west during classical times, the ] and the ].<ref>'']'', repeatedly rendered in both verse and prose since first being recorded about 500 B.C., are perhaps the richest single source of allegorical poetry through the ages. Other notables examples include the '']'', a 13th-century French poem, ]'s '']'' in the 14th century, and ]'s ''Fables'' (influenced by Aesop's) in the 17th century (available in French on wikisource)..</ref> Rather than being fully allegorical, however, a poem may contain ] or ]s that deepen the meaning or effect of its words without constructing a full ]. | |||
| Another strong element of ] can be the use of vivid ] for effect. The juxtaposition of unexpected or impossible images is, for example, a particularly strong element in ] poetry and ]. Vivid images are often, as well, endowed with ]. | |||
| Many poetic dictions use repetitive phrases for effect, either a short phrase (such as Homer's "rosy-fingered dawn" or "the wine-dark sea") or a longer ]. Such repetition can add a somber tone to a poem, as in many ]s, or can be laced with ] as the context of the words changes. For example, in Antony's famous ] of Caesar in ]'s '']'', Antony's repetition of the words, "For Brutus is an honorable man," moves from a sincere tone to one that exudes irony.<ref>See Act III, Scene II in Shakespeare's ''The Tragedy of Julius Caesar'', available at Wikisource.</ref> | |||
| ==Poetic forms== | |||
| Specific poetic forms have been developed by many cultures. In more developed, closed or "received" poetic forms, the rhyming scheme, meter and other elements of a poem are based on sets of rules, ranging from the relatively loose rules that govern the construction of an ] to the highly formalized structure of the ] or ]. Described below are some common forms of poetry widely used across a number of languages. Additional forms of poetry may be found in the discussions of poetry of particular ] and in the ]. | |||
| ;Sonnets | |||
| ].]] | |||
| {{main|Sonnet}} | |||
| Among the most common form of poetry through the ages is the ], which, by the thirteenth century, was a poem of fourteen lines following a set rhyme scheme and logical structure. The conventions associated with the sonnet have changed during its history, and so there are several different sonnet forms. Traditionally, English poets use iambic pentameter when writing sonnets, with the ] and ] sonnets being especially notable. In the ], the ] and ] are the most widely used ]s, although the ] has been used in Italy since the 14th century. Sonnets are particularly associated with love poetry, and often use a poetic diction heavily based on vivid imagery, but the twists and turns associated with the move from octave to sestet and to final couplet make them a useful and dynamic form for many subjects. ] are among the most famous in English poetry, with 20 being included in the ].<ref>] (Ed). '']''. Oxford University Press, (1900). Note that the relative prominence of a poet or a set of works is often measured by reference to the ] or the Norton Anthology of Poetry, with many people counting poems or pages allocated to a given poet or subject.</ref> | |||
| ;Jintishi | |||
| ].]] | |||
| {{main|Shi (poetry)#Jintishi|Jintishi}} | |||
| The ] (近體詩) is a Chinese poetic form based on a series of set tonal patterns using the four tones of the classical ] in each couplet: the level, rising, falling and entering tones. The basic form of the ] has eight lines in four couplets, with parallelism between the lines in the second and third couplets. The couplets with parallel lines contain contrasting content but an identical grammatical relationship between words. Jintishi often have a rich poetic diction, full of ], and can have a wide range of subject, including history and politics. One of the masters of the form was ], who wrote during the ] (8th century). There are several variations on the basic form of the ]. | |||
| ;Sestina | |||
| {{main|Sestina}} | |||
| The sestina has six stanzas, each comprising six unrhymed lines, in which the words at the end of the first stanza’s lines reappear in a rolling pattern in the other stanzas. The poem then ends with a three-line stanza in which the words again appear, two on each line. | |||
| ;Villanelle | |||
| ]]] | |||
| {{main|Villanelle}} | |||
| The ] is a nineteen-line poem made up of five triplets with a closing quatrain; the poem is characterized by having two refrains, initially used in the first and third lines of the first stanza, and then alternately used at the close of each subsequent stanza until the final quatrain, which is concluded by the two refrains. The remaining lines of the poem have an a-b alternating rhyme. The villanelle has been used regularly in the English language since the late nineteenth century by such poets as ],<ref>''E.g.,'' "]" in Dylan Thomas. ''In Country Sleep and Other Poems''. New York, New York: New Directions Publications, (1952).</ref> ],<ref>"Villanelle", in W.H. Auden. ''Collected Poems''. New York, New York: Random House, (1945).</ref> and ].<ref>"One Art", in Elizabeth Bishop. ''Geography III''. New York, New York, Farar, Straus & Giroux, (1976).</ref> It is a form that has gained increased use at a time when the use of received forms of poetry has generally been declining. | |||
| ;Pantoum | |||
| {{Main|Pantoum}} | |||
| The pantoum is a rare form of poetry similar to a villanelle. It is composed of a series of quatrains; the second and fourth lines of each stanza are repeated as the first and third lines of the next. | |||
| ;Tanka | |||
| ].]] | |||
| {{main|Waka (poetry)#tanka|Tanka}} | |||
| The ] is a form of ], generally not possessing rhyme, with five lines structured in a 5-7-5 7-7 patterns. The 5-7-5 phrase (the "upper phrase") and the 7-7 phrase (the "lower phrase") generally show a shift in tone and subject matter. Tanka were written as early as the ] by such poets as ], at a time when Japan was emerging from a period where much of its poetry followed Chinese form. Tanka was originally the shorter form of Japanese formal poetry, and was used more heavily to explore personal rather than public themes. It thus had a more informal poetic diction. By the 13th century, Tanka had become the dominant form of Japanese poetry, and it is still widely written today. | |||
| ;Haiku | |||
| {{main|Haiku}} | |||
| Haiku is a popular form of traditional Japanese poetry. As it has evolved in recent centuries, haiku is a 17-'']'' verse comprising three metrical units of 5, 7, and 5 ''onji''. The ''onji'' is a linguistic idea identical in concept with that of ]. ''Onji'' are not syllables. | |||
| ;Ruba'i | |||
| ]]] | |||
| {{main|Ruba'i}} | |||
| Four lines of verse practised by Arabian and Persian poets. ] is famous for his Rubaiyat. The most famous translation of the ] from Persi into English was done by ]. An example is given below:</br> | |||
| They say the Lion and the Lizard keep </br> | |||
| The Courts where Jamshyd gloried and drank deep: </br> | |||
| And Bahram, that great Hunter--the Wild Ass </br> | |||
| Stamps o'er his Head, and he lies fast asleep. </br> | |||
| ;Sijo | |||
| {{main|Sijo}} | |||
| A short musical lyric practised by Korean poets. They are usually written in three lines. The lines average 14-16 syllables, for a total of 44-46. There is a pause in the middle of each line and so, in English, ] are sometimes printed in six lines instead of three. An example is given below : </br> | |||
| You ask how many friends I have? Water and stone, bamboo and pine. </br> | |||
| The moon rising over the eastern hill is a joyful comrade. </br> | |||
| Besides these five companions, what other pleasure should I ask? </br> | |||
| ;Ode | |||
| ].]] | |||
| {{Main|Ode}} | |||
| ]s were first developed by poets writing in ancient Greek, such as ],<ref> as translated by Ernest Myers are freely available on-line from Gutenberg.</ref> and Latin, such as ]. Forms of odes appear in many of the cultures that were influenced by the Greeks and Latins.<ref>In particular, the translations of Horace's odes by ] were influential in establishing the form in English, though Dryden utilizes rhyme in his translations where Horace did not.</ref> The ode generally has three parts: a ], an ], and an ]. The antistrophes of the ode possess similar metrical structures and, depending on the tradition, similar rhyme structures. In contrast, the epode is written with a different scheme and structure. Odes have a formal poetic diction, and generally deal with a serious subject. The strophe and antistrophe look at the subject from different, often conflicting, perspectives, with the epode moving to a higher level to either view or resolve the underlying issues. Odes are often intended to be recited or sung by two choruses (or individuals), with the first reciting the strophe, the second the antistrophe, and both together the epode. Over time, differing forms for odes have developed with considerable variations in form and structure, but generally showing the original influence of the Pindaric or Horatian ode. One non-Western form which resembles the ode is the ] in ]. | |||
| ;Ghazal | |||
| ]]] | |||
| <!-- Unsourced image removed: ].]] --> | |||
| {{Main|Ghazal}} | |||
| The ghazal (Persian/Urdu/Arabic: غزل) is a form of poetry common in ], ], ] and ]. In classic form, the ghazal has from five to fifteen rhyming couplets that share a ] at the end of the second line (which need be of only a few syllables). Each line has an identical meter, and there is a set pattern of rhymes in the first couplet and among the refrains. Each couplet forms a complete thought and stands alone, and the overall ghazal often reflects on a theme of unattainable love or divinity. The last couplet generally includes the signature of the author. | |||
| As with other forms with a long history in many languages, many variations have been developed, including forms with a quasi-musical poetic diction in ]. Ghazals have a classical affinity with ], and a number of major Sufi religious works are written in ghazal form. The relatively steady meter and the use of the refrain produce an incantatory effect, which complements Sufi mystical themes well. Among the masters of the form is ], a ]n poet who lived in ]. | |||
| ; Other forms | |||
| {{Main|Acrostic|Cinquain|Concrete poetry|Free verse}} | |||
| Other forms of poetry include acrostic poetry, in which letter patterns create multiple messages (such as where the first lettres of lines, read downward, form a separate phrase or word), and concrete poetry, which uses word arrangement, typeface, color or other visual effects to complement or dramatize the meaning of the words used; cinquains, which have five lines with two, four, six, eight, and two syllables, respectively, and free verse, which is based on the irregular rhythmic cadence or the recurrence, with variations, of phrases, images, and syntactical patterns rather than the conventional use of meter. | |||
| ==Poetic genres== | |||
| In addition to specific forms of poems, poetry is often thought of in terms of different ]s and subgenres. A poetic genre is generally a tradition or classification of poetry based on the subject matter, style, or other broader literary characteristics.<ref>For a general discussion of genre theory on the internet, see Daniel Chandler's ''Introduction to Genre Theory''.</ref> Some commentators view genres as natural forms of literature.<ref>''See, for example,'' ]. '']''. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, (1957).</ref> Others view the study of genres as the study of how different works relate and refer to other works.<ref>Jacques Derrida, Beverly Bie Brahic (Trans.). ''Geneses, Genealogies, Genres, And Genius: The Secrets of the Archive''. New York, New York: Columbia University Press(2006), ISBN 0231139780.</ref> | |||
| ] are one commonly identified genre, often defined as lengthy poems concerning events of a heroic or important nature to the culture of the time.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hatto|first=A. T.|title=Traditions of Heroic and Epic Poetry|edition=Vol. I: The Traditions|publisher=Maney Publishing}}</ref> Lyric poetry, which tends to be shorter, melodic, and contemplative, is another 'commonly identified genre. Some commentators may organize bodies of poetry into further subgenres, and individual poems may be seen as a part of many different genres.<ref>Shakespeare parodied such analysis in ''Hamlet'', describing the genres as consisting of "tragedy, comedy, history, pastoral, pastoral-comical, historical-pastoral, tragical-historical, tragical-comical-historical-pastoral..."</ref> In many cases, poetic genres show common features as a result of a common tradition, even across cultures. ] lyric poetry influenced the genre's development from India to Europe.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} | |||
| Described below are some common genres, but the classification of genres, the description of their characteristics, and even the reasons for undertaking a classification into genres can take many forms. | |||
| ;Narrative poetry | |||
| ].]]{{Main|Narrative poetry}} | |||
| ] is a genre of poetry that tells a ]. Broadly it subsumes ], but the term "narrative poetry" is often reserved for smaller works, generally with more direct appeal than the epic to ]. | |||
| Narrative poetry may be the oldest genre of poetry. Many scholars of ] have concluded that his '']'' and '']'' were composed from ]s of shorter ]s that related individual episodes and were more suitable for an evening's entertainment. Much narrative poetry — such as ] and ] ]s, and ] and ] heroic poems — is ] with roots in a preliterate ]. It has been speculated that some features that distinguish poetry from prose, such as ], ] and ]s, once served as ] aids for ]s who recited traditional tales. | |||
| Notable ]s have included ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] and ]. | |||
| ;Epic poetry | |||
| ].]]{{Main|Epic poetry}} | |||
| Epic poetry is a genre of poetry, and a major form of ] literature. It recounts, in a continuous narrative, the life and works of a ] or ] person or group of persons. Examples of epic poems include ]'s '']'' and '']'', ]'s ], the '']'' and ]' '']'', '']'', the '']'', ]'s '']'', ]'s '']'', and the '']''. While the composition of ], and of long poems generally, became less common in the west after the early 20th century, a number of notable epics have continued to be written. For example, ] won the Nobel prize to a great extent on the basis of his epic, ].<ref> See Press Release from the Nobel Committee, , accessed January 20, 2008.</ref> | |||
| ;Dramatic poetry | |||
| ].]]{{Main|Verse drama and dramatic verse|Theatre of ancient Greece|Sanskrit drama|Chinese Opera|Noh}} | |||
| ] is ] written in ] to be spoken or sung, and appears in varying and sometimes related forms in many cultures. Verse drama may have developed out of earlier oral epics, such as the Sanskrit and Greek epics.<ref>A. Berriedale Keith, ''Sanskrit Drama, Motilal Banarsidass Publ (1998).</ref> ] in verse dates to the sixth century B.C., and may have been one of the influences on the development of Sanskrit drama,<ref>A. Berriedale Keith at 57-58.</ref>, just as Indian drama in turn appears to have influenced the development of the ''bainwen'' verse dramas in China, the forerunning of the ]. <ref>William Dolby, ''Early Chinese Plays and Theatre'', in Colin Mackerras, ''Chinese Theatre" , University of Hawaii Press (1983) at 17.</ref>East Asian verse dramas also notably include the ] form in Japan. | |||
| ;Satirical poetry | |||
| Poetry can be a powerful vehicle for ]. The punch of an ] delivered in ] can be many times more powerful and memorable than that of the same insult, spoken or written in ]. The ] and ] had a strong tradition of satirical poetry, often written for ] purposes. A notable example is the Roman ]'s ]s, whose insults stung the entire spectrum of ]. | |||
| ].]] | |||
| ].]] | |||
| The same is true of the English satirical tradition. Embroiled in the feverish politics of the time and stung by an attack on him by his former friend, ] (a Whig), ] (a Tory), the first ], produced in 1682 '']'', one of the greatest pieces of sustained invective in the English language, subtitled "A Satire on the True Blue Protestant Poet, T.S." In this, the late, notably mediocre poet, ], was imagined to be contemplating who should succeed him as ruler "of all the realms of Nonsense absolute" to "reign and wage immortal war on wit." | |||
| Another exemplar of English satirical poetry was ], who famously chided ]s in his '']'' (1709). | |||
| ] and ] were writers of ], and their satirical style was accordingly epic; but there is no prescribed form for satirical poetry. | |||
| The greatest satirical poets outside England include ]'s ] and ]'s ], commonly known as Bocage. | |||
| ;Lyric poetry | |||
| ].]]{{Main|Lyric poetry}} | |||
| ] is a genre that, unlike ] and ], does not attempt to tell a story but instead is of a more ] nature. Rather than depicting ] and actions, it portrays the poet's own ]s, ], and ]s. While the genre's name, derived from "]," implies that it is intended to be ], much lyric poetry is meant purely for ]. | |||
| Though lyric poetry has long celebrated love, many ] poets also wrote lyric poems about war and peace, nature and nostalgia, grief and loss. Notable among these are the 15th century French lyric poets, ] and ]. ] and ] themes were addressed by such ] lyric poets as ] and ]. The tradition of lyric poetry based on spiritual experience was continued by later poets such as ], ] and ]. | |||
| Although the most popular form for western lyric poetry to take may be the 14-line ], as practiced by ] and ], lyric poetry shows a bewildering variety of forms, including increasingly, in the 20th century, ]d ones. This the most common type of poetry, as it deals intricately with the author's own emotions and views. Due to this fact, lyric poems of the ] are often accused of ], and may be scorned by other, less self-centered, poets. | |||
| ;Verse fable | |||
| ].]] | |||
| {{Main|Fable}} | |||
| The ] is an ancient and near-ubiquitous ], often (though not invariably) set in ] form. It is a brief, succinct story that features ] animals, plants, inanimate objects, or forces of nature that illustrate a moral lesson (a "]"). Verse ]s have used a variety of ] and ] patterns; ], for example, in his '']'', used 13-] lines in rhyming ]s. | |||
| Notable verse ]s have included ] (mid-]), ] (ca. ]), ] (] BCE–] CE), ] (]), ] (1465?–after 1529), ] (1621–95), ] (1735–1801), ] (1769–1844) and ] (1842–1914). All of ]'s ]s and successors have owed a fundamental debt to that semi-legendary ]. | |||
| ;Prose poetry | |||
| ], by ].]]{{Main|Prose poetry}} | |||
| ] is a hybrid genre that demonstrates attributes of both prose and poetry. It may be indistinguishable from the ] (] the "]," "]"). Most critics argue that it qualifies as poetry because of its conciseness, use of ], and special attention to language. | |||
| While some examples of earlier prose strike modern readers as poetic, prose poetry is commonly regarded as having originated in 19th-century ], where its practitioners included ], ], ] and ]. | |||
| The genre has subsequently found notable exemplars: | |||
| *'']'': ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] | |||
| *'']'': ] | |||
| *'']'': ], ], ], ] | |||
| *'']'': ], ] | |||
| *'']'': ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] | |||
| *'']'': ], ] | |||
| *'']'': ], ] | |||
| *'']'': ] | |||
| Since the late 1980s especially, prose poetry has gained increasing popularity, with entire journals devoted solely to that genre. | |||
| ==See also== | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * The years-in-poetry project, accessible through "]" or "]." | |||
| ==Notes== | |||
| {{reflist|2}} | |||
| ==References== | |||
| {{portal}} | |||
| {{Spoken Misplaced Pages|Poetry.ogg|2005-04-20}} | |||
| {{wiktionary|poetry}} | |||
| '''Anthologies''' | |||
| {{main|List of poetry anthologies}} | |||
| *Margaret Ferguson, Mary Jo Salter & Jon Stallworthy (Eds). ''The Norton Anthology of Poetry''. New York, New York: W.W. Norton & Co. (4th ed, 1996), ISBN 0393968200 . | |||
| *] (Ed). '']''. New York, New York and London, England: ], (1972), ISBN 0-19-812136-9. | |||
| *] (Ed). '']. New York, New York: Meridian Press, (1957). | |||
| *] (Ed). '']''. New York, New York and London, England: ], (1973) | |||
| *] (Ed). ''] in Prose and Poetry'' Annuals. Norfolk, Connecticut and New York, New York: New Directions Publications (1936–1991). | |||
| *] (Ed). '']''. Oxford University Press, (1900). | |||
| *] (Ed). '']''. Oxford University Press, (1936) | |||
| '''Scansion and Form''' | |||
| *Alfred Corn. ''The Poem's Heartbeat: A Manual of Prosody''. London, England: Storyline Press (1997), ISBN 1885266405. | |||
| *]. ''Poetic Meter and Poetic Form''. New York, New York: Random House (1965). | |||
| *]. ''Rhyme's Reason'' (3rd ed). New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press (2001). | |||
| *James McAuley. ''Versification, A Short Introduction''. Michigan State University Press (1983), ISBN B0007DTS8K | |||
| *]. ''The Sounds of Poetry'' (1998). | |||
| '''Critical and historical works''' | |||
| *]. ''The Well Wrought Urn: Studies in the Structure of Poetry''. New York, New York: Harcourt Brace & Company, (1947). | |||
| *William K. Wimsatt, Jr. & ]. ''Literary Criticism: A Short History''. New York, New York: Vintage Books, (1957). | |||
| *]. ''The Sacred Wood: Essays on Poetry and Criticism''. London, England: Methuen Publishing, Ltd., (1920). | |||
| *George Gascoigne. ''Certayne Notes of Instruction Concerning the Making of English Verse or Ryme''. | |||
| *]. ''ABC of Reading''. London, England: Faber, (1951). | |||
| *]. "The Concept of Poetry," translated by ], ''Dialectics and Humanism: the Polish Philosophical Quarterly'', vol. II, no. 2 (spring 1975), pp. 13–24. | |||
| *John Thompson. ''The Founding of English Meter''. New York, New York: Columbia University Press (1961). | |||
| '''Linguistics and language''' | |||
| *Zhiming Bao. ''The structure of tone''. New York, New York: Oxford University Press (1999) ISBN 0-19-511880-4. | |||
| *Morio Kono. "Perception and Psychology of Rhythm" in ''Accent, Intonation, Rhythm and Pause''. (1997). | |||
| *Moria Yip. ''Tone''. Cambridge textbooks in linguistics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (2002) ISBN 0-521-77314-8 (hbk), ISBN 0-521-77445-4 (pbk). | |||
| '''Other Works''' | |||
| *Alex Preminger, Terry V.F. Brogan and Frank J. Warnke (Eds). ''The New Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics'' (3rd Ed.). Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-02123-6. | |||
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| {{Schools of poetry}} | |||
| {{Lists of poets}} | |||
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Revision as of 23:24, 19 February 2008
i love you more breanna