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{{otheruses3|phyla}}{{Biological classificationWhaleeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee
{{otheruses3|phyla}}{{Biological classification}}
In ] ], a 'phylum' ]: {{polytonic|Φῦλα}} '''phyla''') is a ] at the level below ] and above ]. "Phylum" is adopted from the Greek {{polytonic|φυλαί}} ''phylai'', the clan-based voting groups in Greek city-states. Phyla represent the largest generally accepted groupings of ] and other living things with certain ]ary ]s, although the phyla themselves may sometimes be grouped into ''superphyla'' (e.g. ] with eight phyla, including ]s and ]s; and ] with the ]s, ]s, ] and ]). Informally, phyla can be thought of as grouping animals based on general ];<ref>{{cite book
In ] ], a 'phylum' ]: {{polytonic|Φῦλα}} '''phyla''') is a ] at the level below ] and above ]. "Phylum" is adopted from the Greek {{polytonic|φυλαί}} ''phylai'', the clan-based voting groups in Greek city-states. Phyla represent the largest generally accepted groupings of ] and other living things with certain ]ary ]s, although the phyla themselves may sometimes be grouped into ''superphyla'' (e.g. ] with eight phyla, including ]s and ]s; and ] with the ]s, ]s, ] and ]). Informally, phyla can be thought of as grouping animals based on general ];<ref>{{cite book
| last = Valentine
| last = Valentine
Revision as of 23:55, 8 April 2008
For other uses, see phyla .{{Biological classificationWhaleeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee
In biological taxonomy , a 'phylum' plural : Template:Polytonic phyla ) is a taxonomic rank at the level below Kingdom and above Class . "Phylum" is adopted from the Greek Template:Polytonic phylai , the clan-based voting groups in Greek city-states. Phyla represent the largest generally accepted groupings of animals and other living things with certain evolutionary traits , although the phyla themselves may sometimes be grouped into superphyla (e.g. Ecdysozoa with eight phyla, including arthropods and roundworms ; and Deuterostomia with the echinoderms , chordates , hemichordates and arrow worms ). Informally, phyla can be thought of as grouping animals based on general body plan ; this is morphological grouping. Thus despite the seemingly different external appearances of organisms, they are classified into phyla based on their internal organizations. For example, though seemingly divergent, spiders and crabs both belong to Arthropoda , whereas earthworms and tapeworms , similar in shape, are from Annelida and Platyhelminthes , respectively. Although the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature allows the use of the term "Phylum" in reference to plants , the term "Division " is almost always used by botanists.
The best known animal phyla are the Mollusca , Porifera , Cnidaria , Platyhelminthes , Nematoda , Annelida , Arthropoda , Echinodermata , and Chordata , the phylum to which humans belong. Although there are approximately 35 phyla, these nine include the majority of the species. Many phyla are exclusively marine, and only one phylum is entirely absent from the world's oceans : the Onychophora or velvet worms. The most recently discovered phylum is Cycliophora found in 1993; only three phyla were discovered in the last century.
The Cambrian explosion was a great flowering of life forms that occurred between roughly 530 and 520 million years ago; during this time organisms similar to, but not strictly members of, modern phyla existed; whilst some appear to be represented in the Ediacaran biota , it remains a matter of debate whether all phyla existed prior to the explosion. Over time the roles among different phyla have varied. For instance, during the Cambrian, the dominant megafauna , or large animals, were arthropods, whereas now the megafauna is dominated by vertebrates (chordata). The arthropods are still by far the most dominant phylum.
List of animal phyla
Phylum
Meaning
Group
Distinguishing characteristics
Species described
Acanthocephala
Thorny head
Thorny-headed worms
Reversible spiny proboscis
about 750
Acoelomorpha
Without gut
Acoels
No mouth or alimentary canal
Annelida
Little ring
Segmented worms
Multiple circular segments
about 15,300 modern
Arthropoda
Jointed foot
Arthropods
Chitin exoskeleton
1,134,000+
Brachiopoda
Arm foot
Lamp shells
Lophophore and pedicle
between 300 and 500 extant
Bryozoa
Moss animals
Moss animals, sea mats
Lophophore, no pedicle, ciliated tentacles
about 5,000 living species
Chaetognatha
Longhair jaw
Arrow worms
Chitinous spines either side of head, fins
about 100 modern species
Chordata
Cord
Chordates
Hollow dorsal nervous chord
about 100,000+
Cnidaria
Stinging nettle
Coelenterates
Nematocysts (stinging cells)
about 11,000
Ctenophora
Comb bearer
Comb jellies
Eight "comb rows" of fused cilia
about 100 modern species
Cycliophora
Wheel carrying
Symbion
Circular mouth surrounded by small cilia
at least 3
Echinodermata
Spiny skin
Echinoderms
Five-fold radial symmetry , mesodermal calcified spines
about 7,000 living species and 13,000 extinct ones
Echiura
Spine tail
Spoon worms
Set of hooks at posterior end
about 140
Entoprocta
Inside anus
Goblet worm
Anus inside ring of cilia
about 150
Gastrotricha
Hair stomach
Meiofauna
Two terminal adhesive tubes
about 690
Gnathostomulida
Jaw orifice
Jaw worms
about 100
Hemichordata
Half cord
Acorn worms
Stomochord in collar
about 100 living species
Kinorhyncha
Motion snout
Mud dragons
Eleven segments, each with a dorsal plate
about 150
Loricifera
Corset bearer
Brush heads
Umbrella-like scales at each end
about 122
Mesozoa
Middle animals
Mesozoans
Somatoderm of ciliated cells surrounding reproductive cell(s)
Micrognathozoa
Tiny jaw animals
—
Accordion like extensible thorax
1
Mollusca
Thin shell
Mollusks / molluscs
Muscular foot and mantle round shell
112,000
Myxozoa
Slime animals
Polar capsules resembling nematocysts
13,000+
Nematoda
Thread like
Round worms
Round cross section, keratin cuticle
80 000 – 1 million
Nematomorpha
Thread form
Horsehair worms
about 320
Nemertea
A sea nymph
Ribbon worms
about 1200
Onychophora
Claw bearer
Velvet worms
Legs tipped by chitinous claws
about 200 modern
Orthonectida
Straight swim
about 20
Phoronida
Zeus' mistress
Horseshoe worms
U-shaped gut
20
Placozoa
Plate animals
1
Platyhelminthes
Flat worms
Flat worms
about 25,000
Porifera
Pore bearer
Sponges
Perforated interior wall
over 5,000 modern
Priapulida
Penis
Priapulid worms
Retractable proboscis surrounded by papillae
17
Rhombozoa
Lozenge animal
—
Single axial cell surrounded by ciliated cells
75
Rotifera
Wheel bearer
Rotifers
Anterior crown of cilia
about 2000
Sipuncula
Small tube
Peanut worms
Mouth surrounded by invertible tentacles
144–320
Tardigrada
Slow step
Water bears
Four segmented body and head
1,000+
Xenoturbellida
Strange flatworm
—
Ciliated deuterostome
2
TOTAL
2,000,000-
Groups formerly ranked as phyla
List of plant divisions
Division
Meaning
Common name
Distinguishing characteristics
Anthocerotophyta
Flower-horn plants
Hornworts
Horn-shaped sporophytes , no vascular system
Bryophyta
Moss plants
Mosses
Persistent unbranched sporophytes , no vascular system
Marchantiophyta
Marchantia plants
Liverworts
Ephemeral unbranched sporophytes , no vascular system
Lycopodiophyta
Wolf foot plants
Clubmosses & Spikemosses
Microphyll leaves , vascular system
Pteridophyta
Fern plants
Ferns & Horsetails
Prothallus gametophytes , vascular system
Pteridospermatophyta
Fern with seeds plant
Seed ferns
Only known from fossils, mostly Devonian , ranking in dispute
Pinophyta
Sap/pitch plants
Conifers
Cones containing seeds and wood composed of tracheids
Cycadophyta
Palm plants
Cycads
Seeds, crown of compound leaves
Ginkgophyta
Ginkgo plants
Ginkgo, Maidenhair
Seeds not protected by fruit (single species)
Gnetophyta
Gnetophytes
Seeds and woody vascular system with vessels
Anthophyta (or Magnoliophyta )
Flower plant
Flowering plants
Flowers and fruit, vascular system with vessels
List of fungi divisions
See also
References
Valentine, James W. (2004). On the Or35946549igin of Phyla . Chicago: University Of Chicago Press. p. 7. 0226845486. "Classifications of organisms in hierarchical systems were in use by the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. usually organisms were grouped according to their morphological similarities as perceived by those early workers, and those groups were then grouped according to their similarities, and so on, to form a hierarchy. "
Parker, Andrew (2003). In the blink of an eye: How vision kick-started the big bang of evolution . Sydney: Free Press. pp. 1–4. 074325733254530146. "The job of an evolutionary biologist is to make sense of the conflicting diversity of form – there is not always a relationship between internal and external parts. Early in the history of the subject,54651634Insert non-formatted text here it became obvious that internal organisations were generally more important to the higher classification of animals than are external shapes. The internal organisation puts general restrictions on how an animal can exchange gases, obtain nutr6465468787ients and reproduce. "
"…when a new animal species is discovered, no matter how unusual, it can normally be classified into a known group of creatures with the same body plan or phylum. Although there are 1.5 million plus known species in the world, they can all be classified into 35 or so phyla. These include the chordates (eg the vertebrates such as man), molluscs (snails) and arthropods (jointed limbed e.g. insects). However, S.pandora was so unusual that it could not be classified into any of the existing phyla, and a new one was suggested called Cycliophora " (URL accessed on July 5 , 2006 )
Valentine, J.W. (1999-03-01 ). "Fossils, molecules and embryos: new perspectives on the Cambrian explosion" . Development . 126 : 851–859. Retrieved 2007-05-17. {{cite journal }}
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Budd, G.E. (2000). "A critical reappraisal of the fossil record of the bilaterian phyla" . Biological Reviews . 75 (02): 253–295. doi :10.1017/S000632310000548X . Retrieved 2007-05-26. {{cite journal }}
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"The Cambrian Explosion … The organisms range from the prokaryotic cyanobacteria to eukaryotic green and red algae , to sponges , brachiopods , priapulids , annelids , and many different arthropod groups, as well as echinoderms and possibly one of the first chordates . " (URL accessed on July 5 , 2006 )
Feldkamp, S. (2002) Modern Biology . Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, USA. (pp. 725)
Species Register. "Flatworms — Phylum Platyhelminthes" . Marine Discovery Centres. Retrieved 2007-04-09. {{cite web }}
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"Kingdon Plantae Tree of Life"
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