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| '''Translator Multilanguage V8 - 2008''' | |||
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| '''Translation''' is the action of ] of the ] of a text, and subsequent production of an ] text, also called a '''translation''', that communicates the same ] in another language. The text to be translated is called the ], and the language it is to be translated into is called the ]; the final product is sometimes called the "target text." | |||
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| Translation must take into account constraints that include ], the rules of ] of the two languages, their writing ]s, and their ]s. A common ] is that there exists a simple ] correspondence between any two ]s, and that translation is a straightforward ] process. A word-for-word translation does not take into account context, grammar, conventions, and idioms. | |||
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| Translation is fraught with the potential for "]" of ]s and ]s from one language into the other, since both languages repose within the single brain of the translator. Such spilling-over easily produces ] such as "]" (]-]), "]" (]-]), "]" (]-]) and "]" (]-]). | |||
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| The art of translation is as old as written ]. Parts of the ]ian '']'', among the oldest known literary works, have been found in translations into several ]tic languages of the second millennium BCE. The ''Epic of Gilgamesh'' may have been read, in their own languages, by early authors of the '']'' and of the '']''.<ref>J.M. Cohen, "Translation," '']'', 1986, vol. 27, p. 12.</ref> | |||
| With the advent of computers, attempts have been made to ]ize or otherwise ] the translation of ] texts (]) or to use computers as an ''aid'' to translation (]). | |||
| ==The term== | |||
| ]]]], "translation" is a "carrying across" or "bringing across." The ] "''translatio''" derives from the ] ] ], "''translatum''," of "''transferre''" ("to transfer" — from "''trans''," "across" + "''ferre''," "to carry" or "to bring"). The modern ], ] and ] ] have generally formed their own ] terms for this concept after the Latin model — after "''transferre''" or after the kindred "''traducere''" ("to bring across" or "to lead across").<ref>], "The Translator's Endless Toil," p. 83.</ref> | |||
| Additionally, the ] term for "translation," "''metaphrasis''" ("a speaking across"), has supplied ] with "]" (a "]," or "word-for-word" translation)—as contrasted with "]" ("a saying in other words," from the Greek "''paraphrasis''").<ref>Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil," p. 83.</ref> "Metaphrase" equates, in one of the more recent terminologies, to "]," and "paraphrase"—to "]." | |||
| ==Misconceptions== | |||
| Newcomers to translation sometimes proceed as if translation were an ] — as if consistent, one-to-one ]s existed between the words and phrases of different languages, rendering translations fixed and identically reproducible, much as in ]. Such ]s may assume that all that is needed to translate a text is to "]" and "]" equivalents between the two languages, using a ] as the "]."<ref>Such an approach to translation appears in the story of ] pilot Lt. ]'s 1974 ], and of his English translation of his wish to deliver to Western authorities a ] ]. Though he understood the limitations of his translation, he confused the western intelligence authorities, who read it as a threat rather than an offer. ''MIG Pilot: The Final Escape of Lt. Belenko'', 1980, ISBN 978-0380538683.</ref> | |||
| On the contrary, such a fixed relationship would only exist were a new language ] and simultaneously matched to a pre-existing language's scopes of ], ], and ] ]s. <ref>]'s preface to '']'' (1755); Jonathon Green's ''Chasing the Sun'' (1996), ISBN 978-0224040105, about ]s' inconclusive investigations, disagreements, and expedient solutions undertaken for practicality.</ref> | |||
| If the new language were subsequently to take on a life apart from such cryptographic use, each word would spontaneously begin to assume new shades of meaning and cast off previous ]s, thereby vitiating any such artificial synchronization. Henceforth translation would require the disciplines described in this article. | |||
| Another common misconception is that ''anyone'' who can speak a ] will make a good translator. In the translation community, it is generally accepted that the best translations are produced by persons who are translating into their own ]s,<ref>Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil," p. 86.</ref> as it is rare for someone who has learned a second language to have total fluency in that language. A good translator understands the source language well, has specific experience in the subject matter of the text, and is a good writer in the target language. | |||
| It has been debated whether translation is ] or ]. Literary translators, such as ] in ''If This Be Treason'', argue that translation is an art—a teachable one. Other translators, mostly technical, commercial, and legal, regard their ''métier'' as a craft—again, a teachable one, subject to ], that benefits from ] study. | |||
| As with other human activities, the distinction between art and craft may be largely a matter of degree.<ref>At the dawn of European thought about ], such a distinction would have been thought ludicrous. The expression "art" derives from the ] "''ars''," which was a translation of the ] "''techne''." ''Techne'' in Greece—''ars'' in Rome and in the ], and even as late as the ]—meant skill. It was the skill to make an object, a house, a statue, a ship, but also the skill to command an army, measure a field, sway an audience. All these skills were called arts: the art of the architect, the geometrician, the rhetorician. A skill rests upon a knowledge of rules; there was no art without rules: the architect's art has its rules, which are different from those of the sculptor, the general, the geometrician, the rhetorician. Doing anything without rules, merely from inspiration or fantasy, was not, to the ancients or to the ]s, art: it was the antithesis of art. When, in earlier centuries, the Greeks had thought that ] sprang from inspiration by ], they had not reckoned it with the arts. ], ''A History of Six Ideas'', pp. 11-13.</ref> Even a document which appears simple, e.g. a product ], requires a certain level of linguistic skill that goes beyond mere technical terminology. Any material used for marketing purposes reflects on the company that produces the product and the brochure. The best translations are obtained through the combined application of good technical-terminology skills and good writing skills. | |||
| Translation has served as a writing school for many recognized writers. Translators, including the early modern European translators of the '']'', in the course of their work have shaped the very ]s into which they have translated. They have acted as bridges for conveying knowledge and ideas between ]s and ]s. Along with ]s, they have imported into their own languages, ]s of ] and of ] from the ]s. | |||
| ==Interpreting== | |||
| {{main|Interpreting}} | |||
| Interpreting, or "interpretation," is the intellectual activity that consists of facilitating ] or ] ], either simultaneously or consecutively, between two or among three or more speakers who are not speaking, or signing, the same language. | |||
| The words "interpreting" and "interpretation" both can be used to refer to this activity; the word "interpreting" is commonly used in the profession and in the translation-studies field to avoid confusion with other meanings of the word "]." | |||
| Not all languages employ, as ] does, two separate words to denote the activities of ''written'' and live-communication (''oral'' or ''sign-language'') translators.<ref>For example, in ], a "translation" is "''przekład''" or "''tłumaczenie''." Both "translator" and "interpreter" are "''tłumacz''." For a time in the 18th century, however, for "translator," some writers used a word, "''przekładowca''," that is no longer in use. Edward Balcerzan, ''Pisarze polscy o sztuce przekładu, 1440–1974: Antologia'' (Polish Writers on the Art of Translation, 1440–1974: an Anthology), 1977, ''passim''.</ref> | |||
| ==Fidelity vs. transparency== | |||
| ] (or "faithfulness") and ] are two qualities that, for millennia, have been regarded as ideals to be striven for in translation, particularly ] translation. These two ideals are often at odds. Thus a 17th-century French critic coined the phrase, "''les belles infidèles''," to suggest that translations, like women, could be ''either'' faithful ''or'' beautiful, but not both at the same time.<ref>The comparison was first used by the French philosopher and writer ] (1613-1692), who commented on the translations of the humanist Perrot Nicolas d’Ablancourt (1606-1664) and stated, "''Elles me rappellent une femme que j’ai beaucoup aimé à Tours, et qui était belle mais infidèle''." Quoted in Amparo Hurtado Albir, ''La notion de fidélité en traduction'', Paris, Didier Érudition, 1990, p. 231.</ref> | |||
| Fidelity pertains to the extent to which a translation accurately renders the meaning of the ], without adding to or subtracting from it, without intensifying or weakening any part of the meaning, and otherwise without distorting it. | |||
| ] pertains to the extent to which a translation appears to a native speaker of the target language to have originally been written in that language, and conforms to the language's grammatical, syntactic and idiomatic conventions. | |||
| A translation that meets the first criterion is said to be a "faithful translation"; a translation that meets the second criterion, an "] translation." The two qualities are ''not necessarily'' mutually exclusive. | |||
| The criteria used to judge the faithfulness of a translation vary according to the subject, the precision of the original contents, the type, function and use of the text, its literary qualities, its social or historical context, and so forth. | |||
| The criteria for judging the ] of a translation would appear more straightforward: an unidiomatic translation "sounds wrong," and in the extreme case of ]s generated by many ] systems, often results in patent nonsense with only a ]ous value (see "]"). | |||
| Nevertheless, in certain contexts a translator may consciously ''strive'' to produce a literal translation. ] translators and translators of ] or ] texts often adhere as closely as possible to the source text. In doing so, they often deliberately stretch the boundaries of the target language to produce an unidiomatic text. Similarly, a literary translator may wish to adopt words or expressions from the ] in order to provide "local color" in the translation. | |||
| In recent decades, prominent advocates of such "non-transparent" translation have included the French scholar ], who identified twelve deforming tendencies inherent in most prose translations,<ref>], ''L'épreuve de l'étranger'', 1984.</ref> and the American theorist Lawrence Venuti, who has called upon translators to apply "foreignizing" translation strategies instead of domesticating ones.<ref>Lawrence Venuti, "Call to Action," in ''The Translator's Invisibility'', 1994.</ref> | |||
| ]]] | |||
| Many non-transparent-translation theories draw on concepts from ], the most obvious influence on latter-day theories of "foreignization" being the German theologian and philosopher ]. In his seminal lecture "On the Different Methods of Translation" (1813) he distinguished between translation methods that move "the writer toward ," i.e., ], and those that move the "reader toward ," i.e., an extreme ] to the foreignness of the ]. Schleiermacher clearly favored the latter approach. His preference was motivated, however, not so much by a desire to embrace the foreign, as by a nationalist desire to oppose France's cultural domination and to promote ]. | |||
| For the most part, current Western practices in translation are dominated by the concepts of "fidelity" and "transparency." This has not always been the case. There have been periods, especially in pre-Classical Rome and in the 18th century, when many translators stepped beyond the bounds of translation proper into the realm of ''adaptation''. | |||
| Adapted translation retains currency in some non-Western traditions. Thus the ]n epic, the '']'', appears in many versions in the various ], and the stories are different in each. If one considers the words used for translating into the Indian languages, whether those be ] or ] languages, he is struck by the freedom that is granted to the translators. This may relate to a devotion to ] passages that strike a deep religious chord, or to a vocation to instruct ]s. Similar examples are to be found in ] literature, which adjusted the text to the customs and values of the audience. | |||
| ==Equivalence== | |||
| {{main|Dynamic and formal equivalence}} | |||
| The question of ] vs. ] has also been formulated in terms of, respectively, "''formal'' equivalence" and "''dynamic'' equivalence." The latter two expressions are associated with the translator ] and were originally coined to describe ways of translating the '']'', but the two approaches are applicable to any translation. | |||
| "Formal equivalence" equates to "]," and "dynamic equivalence"—to "]." | |||
| "Dynamic equivalence" (or "''functional'' equivalence") conveys the essential '']'' expressed in a source text — if necessary, at the expense of ]ity, original ] and ], the source text's active vs. passive ], etc. | |||
| By contrast, "formal equivalence" (sought via ]) attempts to render the text "]ly," or "word for word" (the latter expression being itself a word-for-word rendering of the ] "''verbum pro verbo''") — if necessary, at the expense of features natural to the ]. | |||
| There is, however, '''''no sharp boundary''''' between dynamic and formal equivalence. On the contrary, they represent a ''spectrum'' of translation approaches. Each is used at various times and in various contexts by the same translator, and at various points within the same text — sometimes simultaneously. Competent translation entails the judicious blending of dynamic and formal ].<ref>], "The Translator's Endless Toil," pp. 83-87.</ref> | |||
| ==Back-translation== | |||
| If one text is a translation of another, a '''back-translation''' is a translation of the translated text back into the language of the original text, made without reference to the original text. In the context of ], this is also called a "'''round-trip translation'''." | |||
| Comparison of a back-translation to the original text is sometimes used as a ] on the original translation, but it is certainly far from infallible and the reliability of this technique has been disputed.<ref> | |||
| {{cite journal | |||
| | url = http://www.atc.org.uk/winter2004.pdf | title = Back Translation: Same questions – different continent | journal = Communicate | |||
| | issue = Winter 2004 | pages = p. 5 | last = Crystal | first = Scott | publisher = Association of Translation Companies | |||
| | location = ] | format = ] | accessdate = 2007-11-20}}</ref> | |||
| ==Literary translation== | |||
| Translation of ] (]s, ], ], ], etc.) is considered a literary pursuit in its own right. Notable in ] ''specifically'' as translators are figures such as ], ] and ], and the ] present prizes for the year's best English-to-French and French-to-English literary translations. | |||
| Other writers, among many who have made a name for themselves as literary translators, include ], ], ], ], ] and ]. | |||
| ===History=== | |||
| The first important translation in the West was that of the '']'',<ref>J.M. Cohen, p. 12.</ref> a collection of ]ish Scriptures translated into ] in ] between the 3rd and 1st centuries BCE. The dispersed Jews had forgotten their ancestral language and needed Greek versions (translations) of their Scriptures. | |||
| Throughout the ], ] was the '']'' of the learned world. The 9th-century ], king of ] in ], was far ahead of his time in commissioning ] ] translations of ]'s '']'' and ]' '']''. Meanwhile the Christian Church frowned on even partial adaptations of the standard ] '']'', ]'s '']'' of ca. 384 CE.<ref>J.M Cohen, pp. 12-13.</ref> | |||
| The first large-scale efforts at translation were undertaken by the ]. Having conquered the Greek world, they made ] versions of its philosophical and scientific works. During the ], some translations of these Arabic versions were made into Latin, chiefly at ] in ].<ref name="Cohen13">J.M. Cohen, p. 13.</ref> Such Latin translations of Greek and original Arab works of scholarship and science would help advance the development of European ]. | |||
| The broad historic trends in Western translation practice may be illustrated on the example of translation into the ]. | |||
| The first fine translations into English were made by England's first great poet, the 14th-century ], who adapted from the ] of ] in his own '']'' and '']''; began a translation of the ] '']''; and completed a translation of ] from the ]. Chaucer founded an English ] tradition on '']s'' and translations from those earlier-established ]s.<ref name=Cohen13/> | |||
| The first great English translation was the '']'' (ca. 1382), which showed the weaknesses of an underdeveloped English ]. Only at the end of the 15th century would the great age of English prose translation begin with ]'s '']''—an adaptation of ]s so free that it can, in fact, hardly be called a true translation. The first great ] translations are, accordingly, the '']'' (1525), which would influence the '']'' (1611), and ]' version of ]'s ''Chronicles'' (1523–25).<ref name=Cohen13/> | |||
| Meanwhile, in ] ], a new period in the history of translation had opened in ] with the arrival, at the court of ], of the ] scholar ] shortly before the fall of ] to the Turks (1453). A Latin translation of ]'s works was undertaken by ]. This and ]' Latin edition of the '']'' led to a new attitude to translation. For the first time, readers demanded rigor of rendering, as philosophical and religious beliefs depended on the exact words of ], ] and ].<ref name=Cohen13/> | |||
| Non-scholarly literature, however, continued to rely on ''adaptation''. ]'s '']'', ]'s ] poets, and the ] translators adapted themes by ], ], ] and modern Latin writers, forming a new poetic style on those models. The English poets and translators sought to supply a new public, created by the rise of a ] and the development of ], with works such as the original authors ''would have written'', had they been writing in England in that day.<ref name=Cohen13/> | |||
| The ] period of translation saw considerable progress beyond mere ] toward an ideal of ] equivalence, but even to the end of this period—which actually reached to the middle of the 17th century—there was no concern for ] ].<ref name=Cohen14>J.M. Cohen, p. 14.</ref> | |||
| In the second half of the 17th century, the poet ] sought to make ] speak "in words such as he would probably have written if he were living and an Englishman." Dryden, however, discerned no need to emulate the Roman poet's subtlety and concision. Similarly, ] suffered from ]'s endeavor to reduce the Greek poet's "wild paradise" to order.<ref name=Cohen14/> | |||
| Throughout the ], the watchword of translators was ease of reading. Whatever they did not understand in a text, or thought might bore readers, they omitted. They cheerfully assumed that their own style of expression was the best, and that texts should be made to conform to it in translation. For scholarship they cared no more than had their predecessors, and they did not shrink from making translations from translations in third languages, or from languages that they hardly knew, or—as in the case of ]'s "translations" of ]—from texts that were actually of the "translator's" own composition.<ref name=Cohen14/> | |||
| The ] brought new standards of accuracy and style. In regard to accuracy, observes J.M. Cohen, the policy became "the text, the whole text, and nothing but the text," except for any ] passages and the addition of copious explanatory ]s. In regard to style, the ]' aim, achieved through far-reaching metaphrase (literality) or ''pseudo''-metaphrase, was to constantly remind readers that they were reading a ''foreign'' classic. An exception was the outstanding translation in this period, ]'s '']'' of ] (1859), which achieved its Oriental flavor largely by using Persian names and discreet Biblical echoes and actually drew little of its material from the Persian original.<ref name=Cohen14/> | |||
| In advance of the ], a new pattern was set in 1871 by ], who translated ] into simple, straightforward language. Jowett's example was not followed, however, until well into the new century, when accuracy rather than style became the principal criterion.<ref name=Cohen14/> | |||
| ===Poetry=== | |||
| ] presents special challenges to translators, given the importance of a text's ]al aspects, in addition to its content. In his influential 1959 paper "On Linguistic Aspects of Translation," the ]n-born ] and ] ] went so far as to declare that "poetry by definition untranslatable." | |||
| In 1974 the American poet ] wrote a poem, "]," which in part explores this idea. The question was also discussed in ]'s 1997 book, '']''. | |||
| ===Sung texts=== | |||
| Translation of a text that is sung in vocal music for the purpose of singing in another language — sometimes called "singing translation" — is closely linked to translation of poetry because most ], at least in the Western tradition, is set to ], especially verse in regular patterns with ]. (Since the late 19th century, musical setting of ] and ] has also been practiced in some ], though ] tends to remain conservative in its retention of ]ic forms with or without ]s.) A rudimentary example of translating poetry for singing is church ]s, such as the German ]s translated into English by ]. <ref>For another example of poetry translation, including translation of sung texts, see: http://vagalecs.narod.ru/</ref> | |||
| Translation of sung texts is generally much more restrictive than translation of poetry, because in the former there is little or no freedom to choose between a versified translation and a translation that dispenses with verse structure. One might modify or omit rhyme in a singing translation, but the assignment of syllables to specific notes in the original musical setting places great challenges on the translator. There is the option in prose sung texts, less so in verse, of adding or deleting a syllable here and there by subdividing or combining notes, respectively, but even with prose the process is almost like strict verse translation because of the need to stick as closely as possible to the original prosody of the sung melodic line. | |||
| Other considerations in writing a singing translation include repetition of words and phrases, the placement of rests and/or punctuation, the quality of vowels sung on high notes, and rhythmic features of the vocal line that may be more natural to the original language than to the target language. A sung translation may be considerably or completely different from the original, thus resulting in a ]. | |||
| Translations of sung texts — whether of the above type meant to be sung or of a more or less literal type meant to be read — are also used as aids to audiences, singers and conductors, when a work is being sung in a language not known to them. The most familiar types are translations presented as subtitles projected during ] performances, those inserted into concert programs, and those that accompany commercial audio CDs of vocal music. In addition, professional and amateur singers often sing works in languages they do not know (or do not know well), and translations are then used to enable them to understand the meaning of the words they are singing. | |||
| ==History of theory== | |||
| ]]] | |||
| Discussions of the theory and practice of translation reach back into ] and show remarkable ]. The distinction that had been drawn by the ] between "]" ("literal" translation) and "]" would be adopted by the English ] and ] ] (1631-1700), who represented translation as the judicious blending of these two modes of phrasing when selecting, in the target language, "counterparts," or ], for the expressions used in the source language: | |||
| "When appear... literally graceful, it were an injury to the author that they should be changed. But since... what is beautiful in one is often barbarous, nay sometimes nonsense, in another, it would be unreasonable to limit a translator to the narrow compass of his author's words: 'tis enough if he choose out some expression which does not vitiate the sense."<ref>], "The Translator's Endless Toil," p. 83.</ref> | |||
| Dryden cautioned, however, against the license of "imitation," i.e. of adapted translation: "When a painter copies from the life... he has no privilege to alter features and lineaments..." | |||
| ]]] | |||
| This general formulation of the central concept of translation — ] — is probably as adequate as any that has been proposed ever since ] and ], in first-century-BCE ], famously and literally cautioned against translating "word for word" ("''verbum pro verbo''").<ref>Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil," p. 84.</ref> | |||
| Despite occasional theoretical diversities, the actual ''practice'' of translators has hardly changed since ]. Except for some extreme ] in the early ] period and the ], and adapters in various periods (especially pre-Classical Rome, and the 18th century), translators have generally shown prudent flexibility in seeking ] — "literal" where possible, ] where necessary — for the original ] and other crucial "values" (e.g., style, ], concordance with ]al accompaniment or, in ]s, with speech ] movements) as determined from context. | |||
| In general, translators have sought to preserve the context itself by reproducing the original order of ]s, and hence ] — when necessary, reinterpreting the actual ] structure. The grammatical differences between "fixed-word-order" ]s<ref>Typically, ]s.</ref> (e.g., ], ], ]) and "free-word-order" languages<ref>Typically, ]s.</ref> (e.g., ], ], ], ]) have been no impediment in this regard. | |||
| When a target language has lacked ]s that are found in a source language, translators have borrowed them, thereby enriching the target language. Thanks in great measure to the exchange of "'']s''" (French for "]") between languages, and to their importation from Greek, Latin, ], ] and other languages, there are few ]s that are "]" among the modern European languages.<ref>Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil," p. 84.</ref> | |||
| ]]] | |||
| In general, the greater the contact and exchange that has existed between two languages, or between both and a third one, the greater is the ratio of ] to ] that may be used in translating between them. However, due to shifts in "]s" of words, a common ] is sometimes misleading as a guide to current meaning in one or the other language. The ] "actual," for example, should not be confused with the ] ] "''actuel''" (meaning "present," "current") or the ] "''aktualny''" ("present," "current").<ref>Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil," p. 85.</ref> | |||
| The translator's role as a ] for "carrying across" values between ]s has been discussed at least since ], Roman adapter of Greek comedies, in the second century BCE. The translator's role is, however, by no means a passive and mechanical one, and so has also been compared to that of an ]. The main ground seems to be the concept of parallel creation found in critics as early as ]. ] observed that "Translation is a type of drawing after life..." Comparison of the translator with a ] or ] goes back at least to ]'s remark about ] playing ] on a ], while Homer himself used a ].<ref>Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil," p. 85.</ref> | |||
| ]]] | |||
| If translation be an art, it is no easy one. In the 13th century, ] wrote that if a translation is to be true, the translator must know both ]s, as well as the ] that he is to translate; and finding that few translators did, he wanted to do away with translation and translators altogether.<ref>Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil," pp. 85-86.</ref> | |||
| ]]] | |||
| The first ]an to assume that one translates satisfactorily only toward his own language may have been ], translator of the '']'' into ]. According to L.G. Kelly, since ] in the 18th century, "it has been axiomatic" that one works only toward his own language.<ref>L.G. Kelly, cited in Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil," p. 86.</ref> | |||
| Compounding these demands upon the translator is the fact that not even the most complete ] or ] can ever be a fully adequate guide in translation. ], in his ''Essay on the Principles of Translation'' (1790), emphasized that assiduous ] is a more comprehensive guide to a language than are dictionaries. The same point, but also including ] to the ], had earlier been made in 1783 by ], member of ]'s Society for Elementary Books, who was called "the last Latin poet."<ref>Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil," p. 86.</ref> | |||
| ]]]]]] | |||
| The special role of the translator in society was well described in an essay, published posthumously in 1803, by ] — "Poland's ]", ], poet, encyclopedist, author of the first Polish novel, and translator from French and Greek: | |||
| {{cquote|ranslation... is in fact an art both estimable and very difficult, and therefore is not the labor and portion of common minds; should be by those who are themselves capable of being actors, when they see greater use in translating the works of others than in their own works, and hold higher than their own glory the service that they render to their country.<ref>Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil," p. 87.</ref>}} | |||
| ==Religious texts== | |||
| Translation of religious works has played an important role in history. Buddhist monks who translated the ]n ]s into ] often skewed their translations to better reflect ]'s very different ], emphasizing notions such as ]. | |||
| A famous mistranslation of the '']'' is the rendering of the ] word "''keren''," which has several meanings, as "horn" in a context where it actually means "beam of light." As a result, artists have for centuries depicted ] with horns growing out of his forehead. An example is ]'s famous sculpture. ] ]s used such depictions to spread hatred of the ], claiming that they were ]s with horns. | |||
| ], ] of translators]] | |||
| One of the first recorded instances of translation in the West was the rendering of the ] into ] in the third century B.C.E. The resulting translation is known as the '']'', a name that alludes to the "seventy" translators (seventy-two in some versions) who were commissioned to translate the '']'' in ]. Each translator worked in solitary confinement in a separate cell, and legend has it that all seventy versions were identical. The ''Septuagint'' became the ] for later translations into many languages, including ], ], ] and ]. | |||
| ], the ] of translation, is still considered one of the greatest translators in history for rendering the '']'' into ]. The ] used his translation (known as the ]) for centuries, but even this translation at first stirred much controversy. | |||
| The period preceding and contemporary with the ] saw the translation of the '']'' into local European languages, a development that greatly affected ]'s split into ] and ], due to disparities between Catholic and Protestant versions of crucial words and passages. | |||
| ]'s '']'' in ], ]'s in ], and the '']'' in ] had lasting effects on the religions, cultures and languages of those countries. | |||
| {{see also|Bible translations|Translation of the Qur'an}} | |||
| ==Machine translation== | |||
| ] (MT) is a procedure whereby a computer program analyzes a ] and produces a target text ''without further human intervention''. In reality, however, machine translation typically ''does'' involve human intervention, in the form of '''pre-editing''' and '''post-editing'''. An exception to that rule might be, e.g., the translation of technical specifications (strings of ] and adjectives), using a ] system. | |||
| To date, machine translation—a major goal of ]—has met with limited success. A ], ], example illustrates the hazards of uncritical reliance on ].<ref></ref> | |||
| Machine translation has been brought to a large public by tools available on the Internet, such as ]'s ], ], and ]. These tools produce a "gisting translation" — a rough translation that, with luck, "gives the gist" of the source text. | |||
| With proper ], with preparation of the source text for machine translation (pre-editing), and with re-working of the machine translation by a professional human translator (post-editing), commercial machine-translation tools can produce useful results, especially if the machine-translation system is integrated with a ] or ]. <ref>{{cite journal | |||
| | last = Vashee | |||
| | first = Kirti | |||
| | authorlink = | |||
| | coauthors = | |||
| | title = Statistical machine translation and translation memory: An integration made in heaven! | |||
| | journal = ClientSide News Magazine | |||
| | volume = 7 | |||
| | issue = 6 | |||
| | pages = 18–20 | |||
| | publisher = | |||
| | date = 2007 | |||
| | url = https://webmailcluster.perfora.net/xml/deref?link=http%3A%2F%2Frs6.net%2Ftn.jsp%3Ft%3D8mtygbcab.0.ksqvgbcab.ro78ttn6.33435%26ts%3DS0250%26p%3Dhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.clientsidenews.com%252Fdownloads%252FCSNV7I6.zip | |||
| | doi = | |||
| | id = | |||
| | accessdate = }}</ref> | |||
| In regard to texts (e.g., ]) with limited ranges of ] and simple ] ], machine translation can deliver results that do not require much human intervention to be useful. Also, the use of a ], combined with a machine-translation tool, will typically generate largely comprehensible translations. | |||
| Relying on machine translation exclusively ignores the fact that communication in ] is ]-embedded and that it takes a person to comprehend the context of the original text with a reasonable degree of probability. It is certainly true that even purely human-generated translations are prone to error. Therefore, to ensure that a machine-generated translation will be useful to a human being and that publishable-quality translation is achieved, such translations must be reviewed and edited by a human.<ref>J.M. Cohen observes (p.14): "Scientific translation is the aim of an age that would reduce all activities to ]s. It is impossible however to imagine a literary-translation machine less complex than the human brain itself, with all its knowledge, reading, and discrimination."</ref> | |||
| == Computer-assisted translation == | |||
| ] (CAT), also called computer-''aided'' translation, machine-aided human translation (MAHT) or interactive translation, is a form of translation wherein a human translator creates a target text with the assistance of a computer program. The '''machine''' supports a human '''translator'''. | |||
| Computer-assisted translation can include standard ] and grammar software. The term, however, normally refers to a range of specialized programs available to the translator, including ], ], ], and alignment programs. | |||
| With the Internet, translation software can be very helpful for non-native individuals to understand web pages published in different languages. Whole page translation tools can be limited since they only have a limited understanding of the original author's intent or context. As a result, translated pages tend to be more humorous and confusing rather than useful. | |||
| ] pronunciations.]] | |||
| Interactive translations with pop-up windows are becoming more popular. These tools show several possible translations of each word or phrase. Human operators merely need to select the correct translation as the mouse glides over the foreign text. Possible definitions can be grouped by pronunciation. | |||
| ==See also== | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| ==Notes== | |||
| {{reflist|2}} | |||
| ==References== | |||
| *Balcerzan, Edward, ed., ''Pisarze polscy o sztuce przekładu, 1440-1974: Antologia'' (Polish Writers on the Art of Translation, 1440-1974: an Anthology), Poznań, Wydawnictwo Poznańskie, 1977. | |||
| *Berman, Antoine (1984). ''"L'épreuve de l'étranger"''. Excerpted in English in: Venuti, Lawrence, editor (2002, 2nd edition 2004). ''The Translation Studies Reader''. | |||
| *Cohen, J.M., "Translation," '']'', 1986, vol. 27, pp. 12–15. | |||
| *Darwish, Ali (1999). "Towards a Theory of Constraints in Translation". (). | |||
| *], "The Translator's Endless Toil," '']'', vol. XXVIII, no. 2, 1983, pp. 83-87. Includes a discussion of ] ]s of the ], "translation." | |||
| * {{cite book | |||
| | title = The True Interpreter: a History of Translation Theory and Practice in the West | |||
| | author = Kelly, L.G. | |||
| | year = 1979 | |||
| | publisher = New York, St. Martin's Press | |||
| | id = ISBN 0-312-82057-7 | |||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite book | |||
| | title = Translation Contract: A Standards-Based Model Solution | |||
| | author = ] | |||
| | year = 2005 | |||
| | publisher = AuthorHouse | |||
| | id = ISBN 1-4184-1636-3 | |||
| }} | |||
| *Rose, Marilyn Gaddis, guest editor (1980). ''Translation: agent of communication''. (A special issue of ''Pacific Moana Quarterly'', 5:1) | |||
| *], ''"Über die verschiedenen Methoden des Übersetzens"'' (1813), reprinted as "On the Different Methods of Translating" in Lawrence Venuti, editor (2002, 2nd edition 2004), ''The Translation Studies Reader''. | |||
| * {{cite book | |||
| | title = Nimrod's Sin: Treason and Translation in a Multilingual World | |||
| | author = Simms, Norman, editor | |||
| | year = 1983 | |||
| | publisher = | |||
| | id = | |||
| }} | |||
| *], ''A History of Six Ideas: an Essay in Aesthetics'', translated from the Polish by ], The Hague, Martinus Nijhoff, 1980, ISBN 83-01-00824-5. | |||
| * {{cite book | |||
| | title = The Translator's Invisibility | |||
| | author = Venuti, Lawrence | |||
| | year = 1994 | |||
| | publisher = Routledge | |||
| | id = ISBN 0-415-11538-8 | |||
| }} | |||
| == External links == | |||
| ===Resources=== | |||
| <!-- Please include only links to sites that discuss translation. --> | |||
| * | |||
| *{{gutenberg|no=22353|name=Early Theories of Translation}} 1920 text by Flora Ross Amos from the series ''Columbia University studies in English and comparative literature.'' | |||
| ===Associations and Federations=== | |||
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| ===Publications=== | |||
| <!-- Please include only links to sites for literary, trade, and scholarly publications. No commercial links — they will be removed. --> | |||
| * , quarterly edited by Gabe Bokor | |||
| * , published three times annually by the Center for Translation Studies | |||
| * , news about translations | |||
| * , journal of translation at Boston University | |||
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