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:''This article is mainly about the spoken Korean language. See ] for details on the native Korean writing system.''
{{Infobox Language
|name=Korean
|nativename=<!--Hangul--><!--in S. Korea-->{{lang|ko|]}}, <!--in N. Korea and Yanbian-->{{lang|ko|]}}<br /><!--Romanization-->''Hangugeo, Chosŏnmal''
|caption= Hangugeo, Chosŏneo (''Korean'') written in ]
|image= ]
|familycolor=Isolate
|states=], ], ]
|speakers= 78 million<ref name=Ethnologue14>{{cite web |url=http://www.ethnologue.com/14/show_iso639.asp?code=kor |title= Korean |work=Ethnologue, 14th ed. |accessdate=2008-09-25}}</ref>
|rank=13
|family= Debated (see ])
|script=Exclusive use of Hangul (Both Koreas), ] (some professional scripts in S. Korea), or ] (lesser used in '']'')
|nation={{PRK}}<br>{{KOR}}<br>] ({{PRC}})
|agency=South Korea:<br>]<br>{{lang|ko|국립국어원}}
North Korea:<br>''Sahoe Kwahagwon Ŏhak Yŏnguso''<br>{{lang|ko|사회과학원 어학연구소}}
|iso1=ko|iso2=kor|iso3=kor
|map=]}}
{{KoreanText}}

'''Korean''' ({{lang|ko|]/]}}, see ]) is the official ] of ], both South and North. It is also one of the two official languages in the ] in ]. There are about 78 million Korean speakers. In the 15th century a national writing system was commissioned by ], the system being currently called ]. Prior to the development of Hangul, Koreans used ] (Chinese characters) to write for over a millennium.

The genealogical ] of the Korean language is debated by a small number of linguists. Most classify it as a ]<ref>Song, Jae Jung (2005) Routledge, p. 15<br>Lyle Campbell & Mauricio Mixco. 2007. ''A Glossary of Historical Linguistics''. University of Utah Press.</ref> while a few consider it to be in the ] language family.<ref>Stratification in the peopling of China: how far does the linguistic evidence match genetics and archaeology? In; Sanchez-Mazas, Blench, Ross, Lin & Pejros eds. Human migrations in continental East Asia and Taiwan: genetic, linguistic and archaeological evidence. 2008. Taylor & Francis</ref> Some believe it to be distantly related to ]. The Korean language is ] in its morphology and ] in its ].

==Names==
The Korean names for the language are based on the ] used in North and South Korea.

In South Korea, the language is most often called ''Hangungmal''
<!-- -->
<!-- ATTENTION! -->
<!-- To our very passionate users who tend to change "Hangungmal" to "Hangugmal" / "Hangukmal", the correct one is indeed ]", yes, with the "ng" and not just "g", which is due to consonant assimilation by the following consonant "m". Please REFRAIN from changing it to "Hangugmal"! Additionally, Korean is not like Chinese or Japanese, where Xi'an is different from Xian / an'i is ''different from ani, so please do not put apostrophes between characters in their transliterations. Hyphens'' may be used for disambiguation, but should not be used for anything else. -->
<!-- -->
<!-- -->
({{lang|ko|]}}; {{lang|ko|韓國말}}), or more formally, ''Hangugeo'' ({{lang|ko|]}}; {{lang|ko|韓國語}}) or ''Gugeo'' ({{lang|ko|]}}; {{lang|ko|國語}}; literally "national language").

In North Korea and Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture in China, the language is most often called ''Chosŏnmal'' ({{lang|ko|]}}; with ]: {{lang|ko|朝鮮말}}), or more formally, ''Chosŏnŏ'' ({{lang|ko|]}}; {{lang|ko|朝鮮語}}).

On the other hand, Korean people in the ], who refer to themselves as ] (고려사람; also ''Goryeoin'' ] person(s)"]) call the language '']'' ({{lang|ko|고려말}}; {{lang|ko|高麗말}}).

In ], following the establishment of diplomatic relations with South Korea in 1992, the term ''Cháoxiǎnyǔ'' ({{lang|zh|朝鲜语}} or the short form: ''Cháoyǔ'' ({{lang|zh|朝语}})) has normally been used to refer to the language spoken in North Korea and Yanbian, while ''Hánguóyǔ'' ({{lang|zh|韩国语}} or the short form: ''Hányǔ'' ({{lang|zh|韩语}})) is used to refer to the language spoken in South Korea.

Some older English sources also used the name "Korean" to refer to the language, country, and people. The word "Korean" is derived from ], which is thought to be the first dynasty known to western countries.

==Classification==
Most modern linguists consider Korean to be a ].<ref>Song, Jae Jung (2005) Routledge, p. 15<br>Lyle Campbell & Mauricio J. Mixco. 2007. ''A Glossary of Historical Linguistics''. University of Utah Press.</ref>

Since the publication of the article of ] in 1928, some linguists<ref>eg Miller 1971, 1996, Starostin et al. 2003</ref> support the hypothesis that Korean can be classified as an ] language or as a relative of proto-Altaic. Korean is similar to the Altaic languages in that they both lack certain grammatical elements, including ], fusional morphology and ]s. However, linguists agree today on the fact that typological resemblances cannot be used to prove genetic relatedness of languages<ref>eg Vovin 2008: 1</ref> as these features are typologically connected and ].<ref>Trask 1996: 147-151</ref> Such factors of typological divergence as Middle Mongolian's exhibition of gender agreement<ref>Rybatzki 2003: 57</ref> can be used to argue that a genetic relationship is unlikely.<ref>Vovin 2008: 5</ref>

The hypothesis that Korean might be related to ] has had some more supporters due to some considerable overlap in vocabulary and similar grammatical features that have been elaborated upon by such researchers as ]<ref>eg Martin 1966, 1990</ref> and ].<ref>eg Miller 1971, 1996</ref> ] (1991) found about 25% of potential cognates in the Japanese-Korean 100-word ], which - if valid - would place these two languages closer together than other possible members of the Altaic family.<ref>{{cite paper|title=Altaiskaya problema i proishozhdeniye yaponskogo yazika (The Altaic Problem and the Origins of the Japanese Language)|url=http://www.alib.ru/findp.php4?author=%D1%F2%E0%F0%EE%F1%F2%E8%ED&title=%C0%EB%F2%E0%E9%F1%EA%E0%FF+%EF%F0%EE%E1%EB%E5%EC%E0+%E8+%EF%F0%EE%E8%F1%F5%EE%E6%E4%E5%ED%E8%E5+%FF%EF%EE%ED%F1%EA%EE%E3%EE+%FF%E7%FB%EA%E0+|author=Sergei Starostin}}</ref>

Other linguists, most notably ], argue, however, that the similarities are not due to any genetic relationship, but rather to a '']'' effect and heavy borrowing especially from Korean into Western Old Japanese.<ref>Vovin 2008</ref> A good example might be Middle Korean ''sàm'' < Proto-Korean *''asam'' ‘hemp’ and Japanese ''asa'' ‘hemp’.<ref>Whitman 1985: 232, also found in Martin 1966: 233</ref> This word seems to be cognate, but while it is well-attested in Western Old Japanese and Northern Ryūkyū, in Eastern Old Japanese it only occurs in compounds, and it is only present in three subdialects of the South-Ryūkyūan dialect group. Then, the doublet ''wo'' ‘hemp’ is attested in Western Old Japanese and Southern Ryūkyū. It is thus plausible to assume a borrowed term.<ref>Vovin 2008: 211-212</ref> See ] for morphological features shared among languages of the East Asian ''sprachbund'', and ] for further details on the discussion of a possible relationship.

==History==
{{Main|History of the Korean language}}

Korean is descended from ], ] and ]. Controversy remains over the proposed ] language family and its inclusion of Proto-Korean. Since the ], contemporary ] in Korean have developed, including variance in pronunciation, verb inflection, and vocabulary.

==Geographic distribution==
{{seealso|Korean diaspora}}

Korean is spoken by the ] in ] and ] and by the ] in many countries including the ], ], and the ]. Korean-speaking minorities exist in these states, but because of ] into host countries, not all ethnic Korean immigrants may speak it with native fluency.

===Official status===

Korean is the official language of ] and ]. It is also one of the two official languages of the ] in China.

In South Korea, the regulatory body for Korean is the ]-based ] ({{lang|ko|국립국어원}}), which was created by presidential decree on January 23, 1991. In North Korea, the regulatory body is the ''Sahoe Kwahagwon Ŏhak Yŏnguso'' ({{lang|ko|사회과학원 어학연구소}}).

==Dialects==
{{Main|Korean dialects}}
]
Korean has several ]s (called ''mal''({{lang|ko|말}}) , ''saturi''({{lang|ko|사투리}}), or ''bang-eon''({{lang|ko|방언}}) in Korean). The ] (''pyojuneo'' or ''pyojunmal'') of South Korea is based on the dialect of the area around ], and the standard for North Korea is based on the dialect spoken around ]. All dialects of Korean are similar to each other, and are in fact all ], perhaps with the exception of the dialect of ] (see ]). The dialect spoken in Jeju is in fact classified as a different language by some Korean linguists.{{Who|date=June 2009}} One of the most notable differences between dialects is the use of stress: speakers of ] use very little stress, and standard South Korean has a very flat intonation; on the other hand, speakers of the ] have a very pronounced intonation.

It is also worth noting that there is substantial evidence for a history of extensive ], or even ] or intermixture of two or more originally distinct linguistic stocks, within the Korean language and its dialects. Many Korean dialects have basic vocabulary that is etymologically distinct from vocabulary of identical meaning in Standard Korean or other dialects, such as South Jeolla dialect /kur/ vs. Standard Korean ] {{IPA|/ip/}} "mouth" or Gyeongsang dialect {{IPA|/t͡ɕʌŋ.ɡu.d͡ʑi/}} vs. Standard Korean {{IPA|/puːt͡ɕʰu/}} "]." This suggests that the Korean Peninsula may have at one time been much more linguistically diverse than it is at present. See also the ] ].

There is a very close connection between the dialects of Korean and the ], since the boundaries of both are largely determined by mountains and seas. Here is a list of traditional dialect names and locations:

{| class="wikitable"
! Standard dialect
! Where used
|-
| ]
| ] (서울), ] (인천/仁川), most of ] (경기/京畿)
|-
| ] (평안/平壤)
| ], ] region, ] (North Korea)
|-
! Regional dialect
! Where used
|-
| ]
| limited areas of the ] region (South Korea)
|-
| ]
| ], ] region (South Korea)
|-
| ]
| ]/]
|-
| ]
| ], ], ], ] region (South Korea)
|-
| ]
| ], ] region, ] (North Korea)
|-
| ]
| ] region (North Korea)
|-
| ]
| ] (South Korea)
|-
| ]
| ], ] region (South Korea)
|}

==Sounds==
{{IPA notice}}
{{Main|Korean phonology}}

===Consonants===
]
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" |
!]
!]
!]
!]
!]
|-
! colspan=2|]
| {{lang|ko|]}} {{IPA|/m/}}
| {{lang|ko|]}} {{IPA|/n/}}
|
| {{lang|ko|]}} {{IPA|/ŋ/}} (syllable-final)
|
|-
! rowspan=3|] <br> and<br>]
!<small>plain</small>
| {{lang|ko|]}} {{IPA|/p/}}
| {{lang|ko|]}} {{IPA|/t/}}
| {{lang|ko|]}} {{IPA|/t͡ɕ/}}
| {{lang|ko|]}} {{IPA|/k/}}
|
|-
! <small>]</small>
| {{lang|ko|]}} {{IPA|/p͈/}}
| {{lang|ko|]}} {{IPA|/t͈/}}
| {{lang|ko|]}} {{IPA|/t͡ɕ͈/}}
| {{lang|ko|]}} {{IPA|/k͈/}}
|
|-
! <small>aspirated</small>
| {{lang|ko|]}} {{IPA|/pʰ/}}
| {{lang|ko|]}} {{IPA|/tʰ/}}
| {{lang|ko|]}} {{IPA|/t͡ɕʰ/}}
| {{lang|ko|]}} {{IPA|/kʰ/}}
|
|-
! rowspan=2|]
! <small>plain</small>
|
| {{lang|ko|]}} {{IPA|/s/}}
|
|
| {{lang|ko|]}} {{IPA|/h/}}
|-
! <small>tense</small>
|
| {{lang|ko|]}} {{IPA|/s͈/}}
|
|
|
|-
! colspan=2|]
|
| {{lang|ko|]}} {{IPA|/l/}}
|
|
|}

The ] symbol {{IPA|‹&#x25CC;&#x348;›}} (a subscript double straight quotation mark, shown here with a placeholder circle) is used to denote the tensed consonants {{IPA|/p͈/, /t͈/, /k͈/, /t͡ɕ͈/, /s͈/}}. Its official use in the ] is for ] articulation, but is used in the literature for ]. The Korean consonants also have elements of ], but it is not yet known how typical this is of faucalized consonants. They are produced with a partially constricted ] and additional subglottal pressure in addition to tense vocal tract walls, laryngeal lowering, or other expansion of the larynx.

===Vowels===
{| style="clear: both"
| valign="middle" | ]
| valign="middle" | ]
| valign="bottom" | ]
|}

{| class="IPA wikitable"
!Monophthongs
|{{IPA|/i/}} {{lang|ko|ㅣ}}, {{IPA|/e/}} {{lang|ko|ㅔ}}, {{IPA|/ɛ/}} {{lang|ko|ㅐ}}, {{IPA|/a/}} {{lang|ko|ㅏ}}, {{IPA|/o/}} {{lang|ko|ㅗ}}, {{IPA|/u/}} {{lang|ko|ㅜ}}, {{IPA|/ʌ/}} {{lang|ko|ㅓ}}, {{IPA|/ɯ/}} {{lang|ko|ㅡ}}, {{IPA|/ø/}} {{lang|ko|ㅚ}}
|-
!Vowels preceded by intermediaries,<br/>or Diphthongs
|{{IPA|/je/}} {{lang|ko|ㅖ}}, {{IPA|/jɛ/}} {{lang|ko|ㅒ}}, {{IPA|/ja/}} {{lang|ko|ㅑ}}, {{IPA|/wi/}} {{lang|ko|ㅟ}}, {{IPA|/we/}} {{lang|ko|ㅞ}}, {{IPA|/wɛ/}} {{lang|ko|ㅙ}}, {{IPA|/wa/}} {{lang|ko|ㅘ}}, {{IPA|/ɰi/}} {{lang|ko|ㅢ}}, {{IPA|/jo/}} {{lang|ko|ㅛ}}, {{IPA|/ju/}} {{lang|ko|ㅠ}}, {{IPA|/jʌ/}} {{lang|ko|ㅕ}}, {{IPA|/wʌ/}} {{lang|ko|ㅝ}}
|}

===Allophones===
{{IPA|/s/}} becomes an ] {{IPA|}} before {{IPA|}} or {{IPA|}} for most speakers (but see ]). This occurs with the tense fricative and all the affricates as well. At the end of a syllable, /s/ changes to /t/ (Example: beoseot (버섯) 'mushroom').<!-- it's actually much more complicated than this, isn't it?-->

{{IPA|/h/}} may become a ] {{IPA|}} before {{IPA|}} or {{IPA|}}, a ] {{IPA|}} before {{IPA|}} or {{IPA|}}, a ] {{IPA|}} before {{IPA|}}, a voiced {{IPA|}} between voiced sounds, and a {{IPA|}} elsewhere.{{Citation needed|date=August 2007}}

{{IPA|/p, t, t͡ɕ, k/}} become voiced {{IPA|}} between voiced sounds.

{{IPA|/l/}} becomes alveolar flap {{IPA|}} between vowels, and {{IPA|}} or {{IPA|}} at the end of a syllable or next to another {{IPA|/l/}}. Note that a written syllable-final 'ㄹ', when followed by a vowel or a glide (''i.e.'', when the next character starts with 'ㅇ'), migrates to the next syllable and thus becomes {{IPA|}}.

Traditionally, {{IPA|/l/}} was disallowed at the beginning of a word. It disappeared before {{IPA|}}, and otherwise became {{IPA|/n/}}. However, the inflow of western ] changed the trend, and now word-initial {{IPA|/l/}} (mostly from English loanwords) are pronounced as a free variation of either {{IPA|}} or {{IPA|}}. The traditional prohibition of word-initial {{IPA|/l/}} became a morphological rule called "initial law" (두음법칙) in South Korea, which pertains to Sino-Korean vocabulary. Such words retain their word-initial {{IPA|/l/}} in North Korea.

All ]s (plosives, affricates, fricatives) are ] {{IPA|}} at the end of a word.

Plosive stops {{IPA|/p, t, k/}} become nasal stops {{IPA|}} before nasal stops.

] spelling does not reflect these assimilatory pronunciation rules, but rather maintains the underlying, partly historical ]. Given this, it is sometimes hard to tell which actual phonemes are present in a certain word.

One difference between the pronunciation standards of North and South Korea is the treatment of initial {{IPA|}}, and initial {{IPA|}}. For example,
* "labour" - north: '''''r'''odong'' (로동), south: '''''n'''odong'' (노동)
* "history" - north: '''''ry'''ŏksa'' (력사), south: '''''y'''eoksa'' (역사)
* "female" - north: '''''ny'''ŏja'' (녀자), south: '''''y'''eoja'' (여자)

===Morphophonemics===
Grammatical morphemes may change shape depending on the preceding sounds. Examples include ''-eun/-neun'' (-은/-는) and ''-i/-ga'' (-이/-가). Sometimes sounds may be inserted instead. Examples include ''-eul/-reul'' (-을/-를), ''-euro/-ro'' (-으로/-로), ''-eseo/-seo'' (-에서/-서), ''-ideunji/-deunji'' (-이든지/-든지) and ''-iya/-ya'' (-이야/-야). However, ''-euro/-ro'' is somewhat irregular, since it will behave differently after a rieul consonant.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Korean particles
! After a consonant !! After a rieul !! After a vowel
|-
| colspan="3" | ''-ui'' (-의)
|-
| colspan="2" | ''-eun'' (-은) || ''-neun'' (-는)
|-
| colspan="2" |''-i'' (-이) || ''-ga'' (-가)
|-
| colspan="2" | ''-eul'' (-을) || ''-reul'' (-를)
|-
| colspan="2" | ''-gwa'' (-과) || ''-wa'' (-와)
|-
| ''-euro'' (-으로) || colspan="2" | ''-ro'' (-로)
|}

Some verbs may also change shape morphophonemically.

==Grammar==
{{Main|Korean grammar}}

=== Sentence structure ===
Korean is an ]. Modifiers generally precede the modified words, and in the case of verb modifiers, can be serially appended. The basic form of a Korean sentence is ], but the verb is the only required and immovable element.

{|
|'''A''':||&nbsp;||가게-에|| &nbsp; ||갔어-요? (가았어요?)
|-
| || ||''kage-e''|| ||''kasseo-yo''
|-
| || ||store + || ||++++
|}
:"Did go to the store?" ("you" implied in conversation)

{|
|'''B''': ||&nbsp;||예.
|-
| || ||''ye''
|-
| || ||yes
|}
:"Yes."

=== Parts of speech===
The Korean Language contains nine parts of speech.<ref>{{cite book |title=Essential Grammar for Korean as a second Language |last=Lee |first=Chul Young |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2004 |publisher= |location= |isbn= |page= |pages=18–19 |url= http://brskl.org/resources/upload/2009-8-28/KoreanGrammarTextbook.pdf|accessdate=3 January 2010}} </ref>
==== Verb ====
Korean ]s ({{lang|ko|]}}, ''tongsa'', {{lang|ko|動詞}}) are also known in English as "action verbs" or "dynamic verbs" to distinguish them from ](形容詞)}}, ''hyeong-yongsa'', "adjectives"]), which are also known as "descriptive verbs" or "stative verbs". Examples of action/dynamic verbs include {{lang|ko|]}} (''hada'', "to do") and {{lang|ko|]}} (''kada'', "to go") which constitute an action or movement as opposed to descriptive verbs such as {{lang|ko|]}} (''yehppeuda'', "to be beautiful"). For a larger list of Korean verbs, see ].

Unlike most of the European languages, Korean does not conjugate verbs using agreement with the subject, and nouns have no gender. Instead, verb conjugations depend upon the verb tense, aspect, mood, and the social relation between the speaker, the subjects, and the listeners.
The system of speech levels and honorifics loosely resembles the ] of most ]. For example, different endings are used depending on the speaker's relation with their subject or audience. Politeness is a critical part of Korean language and Korean culture, therefore, when talking to someone esteemed, the correct verb ending must be chosen to indicate the proper respect.

==== Adjective ====
Words categorized as Korean ]s ({{lang|ko|]}}, ''hyeong-yongsa'', {{lang|ko|形容詞}}) conjugate similarly to verbs, so some English texts call them "descriptive verbs" or "]s", but they are distinctly separate from {{lang|ko|동사}} (''tongsa'').

English does not have an identical grammatical category, so the English translation of Korean adjectives may misleadingly suggest that they are verbs. For example, {{lang|ko|]}} (''pukda'') translates literally as "to be red" and {{lang|ko|]}} (''aswipda'') often best translates as "to lack" or "to want for", but both are {{lang|ko|형용사}} (''hyeong-yongsa'', "adjectives"). For a larger list of Korean adjectives, see ].

==== Pre-nouns ====
Korean ] ({{lang|ko|]}}, ''gwanhyeongsa'', {{lang|ko|冠形詞}}) are also known in English as "determinatives", "attributives", and "unconjugated adjectives". Examples include {{lang|ko|]}} (''kak'', "each"). For a larger list, see ].

==== Noun ====
Core and basic noun words are native to the Korean language, e.g. {{lang|ko|]}} (''nara'', country), {{lang|ko|]}} (''nal'', day). A large body of Korean ]s ({{lang|ko|]}}, ''myeongsa'', {{lang|ko|名詞}}) stem from ], e.g. {{lang|ko|]}} (山, ''san'', mountain), {{lang|ko|]}} (驛, ''yeok'', station), {{lang|ko|]}} (文化, ''munhwa'', culture), etc. Many ] have a native Korean equivalent and vice versa, but not always. Nouns do not have ] and can be made ] by adding 들 to the end of the word, however in most instances the ] form is used even when in English it would be translated as plural. For example, while in English the sentence ''"there are three apples"'' would use the plural ''"apples"'' instead of the singular ''"apple"'', the Korean sentence "사과가 세 개 있습니다." (''sagwaga se gae isssumnida'') maintains the word 사과 (''sagwa'', "apple") in its singular form, thus rendered in English as "apple three(things) exist." For a list of Korean nouns, see ].

==== Pronoun ====
{{Main|Korean pronouns}}
Korean ]s ({{lang|ko|]}}, ''daemyeongsa'', {{lang|ko|代名詞}}) are highly influenced by the honorifics in the language. Pronouns change forms depending on the social status of the person or persons spoken to, e.g. the pronoun for "I" there is both the informal {{lang|ko|]}} (''na'') and the honorific/humble {{lang|ko|]}} (''jeo''). In general second person singular pronouns are avoided, especially when using honorific forms. For a larger list of Korean pronouns, see ].

==== Adverb ====
Korean ]s ({{lang|ko|]}}, ''busa'', {{lang|ko|副詞}}) include {{lang|ko|]}} (''tto'', "also") and {{lang|ko|]}} (''gadeuk'', "fully"). For a larger list, see ].

==== Particle ====
Korean ] ({{lang|ko|]}}, ''josa'', {{lang|ko|助詞}}) are also known in English as "]". Examples include {{lang|ko|]}} (''neun'', topic marker) and {{lang|ko|]}} (''reul'', object marker). For a larger list, see ].

==== Interjection ====
Korean ]s ({{lang|ko|]}}, ''gamtansa'', {{lang|ko|感歎詞}}) are also known in English as "exclamations". Examples include {{lang|ko|]}} (''ani'', "no"). For a larger list, see ].

==== Number ====
{{Main|Korean numerals}}
Korean ]s or numerals ({{lang|ko|]}}, ''susa'',<!-- sutja means numbers in general; susa means numbers as a "part of speech" --> {{lang|ko|數詞}}) constitute two regularly used sets: a native Korean set and a ] set. The Sino-Korean system is nearly entirely based on the ]. The distinction between the two numeral systems is very important. Everything that can be counted will use one of the two systems, but seldom both. Sino-Korean words are sometimes used to mark ordinal usage: yeol beon (열 번) means "ten times" while sip beon (십(十) 번(番)) means "number ten." The grouping of large numbers in Korean follow the Chinese tradition of myriads (10000) rather than thousands (1000) as is common in Europe and North America.

== Speech levels and honorifics ==
{{Main|Korean honorifics}}

The relationship between a speaker or writer and his or her subject and audience is paramount in Korean, and the grammar reflects this. The relationship between speaker/writer and subject referent is reflected in ''']s''', while that between speaker/writer and audience is reflected in '''speech level'''.

===Honorifics===
When talking about someone superior in status, a speaker or writer usually uses special nouns or verb endings to indicate the subject's superiority. Generally, someone is superior in status if he/she is an older relative, a stranger of roughly equal or greater age, or an employer, teacher, customer, or the like. Someone is equal or inferior in status if he/she is a younger stranger, student, employee or the like. Nowadays, there are special endings which can be used on declarative, interrogative, and imperative sentences; and both honorific or normal sentences. They are made for easier and faster use of Korean.

===Speech levels===
There are seven verb ]s or '''speech levels''' in Korean, and each level has its own unique set of verb endings which are used to indicate the level of formality of a situation.{{Citation needed|date=December 2008}} Unlike ]—which are used to show respect towards the referent—'''speech levels''' are used to show respect towards a speaker's or writer's audience. The names of the seven levels are derived from the non-honorific ] form of the verb ] (''hada'', "do") in each level, plus the suffix 체 ("che", ]: <span lang="KO">體</span>), which means "style".

The highest six levels are generally grouped together as ''jondaenmal'' (존댓말), while the lowest level (''haeche'', 해체) is called ''banmal'' (반말) in Korean.

==Vocabulary==
The core of the Korean vocabulary is made up of native Korean words. A significant proportion of the vocabulary, especially words that denote abstract ideas, are ],<ref name=Sohn>Sohn, Ho-Min. ''The Korean Language'' (Section 1.5.3 "Korean vocabulary", p.12–13), Cambridge University Press, 2001. ISBN 0-521-36943-6.</ref> either
* directly borrowed from ], or
* coined in Japan or Korea using ],
in a similar way European languages borrow from Latin and Greek.

The exact proportion of Sino-Korean vocabulary is a matter of debate. Sohn (2001) stated 50-60%.<ref name=Sohn/> However, Jeong Jae-do, one of the compilers of the dictionary ''Urimal Kun Sajeon'', asserts that the proportion is not so high. He points out that Korean dictionaries compiled during the ] include many unused Sino-Korean words. In his estimation, the proportion of native Korean vocabulary in the Korean language might be as high as 70%.<ref>{{citation|periodical=The Hankyoreh|url=http://www.hani.co.kr/arti/culture/religion/376204.html|date=2009-09-11|accessdate=2009-09-11|title=우리말 70%가 한자말? 일제가 왜곡한 거라네/Our language is 70% hanja? Japanese Empire distortion|last=Kim|first=Jin-su}}. The dictionary mentioned is {{citation|publisher=Hangeul Hakhoe|oclc=27072560|title=우리말　큰 사전|year=1992|publication-place=Seoul}}</ref>

Korean has two ]: one native, and one borrowed from Chinese.

To a much lesser extent, words have also occasionally been borrowed from ], ], and other languages. Conversely, the Korean language itself has also contributed some loanwords to other languages, most notably the ] of Japanese.

The vast majority of loanwords other than Sino-Korean come from modern times, 90% of which are from ].<ref name=Sohn/> Many words have also been borrowed from ] and ] such as ] ('']'' "part-time job", ''allereugi'' "allergy", "gibsu" "plaster cast used for broken bones"). Some Western words were borrowed indirectly via Japanese, taking a Japanese sound pattern, for example "dozen"&nbsp;> {{lang|ja-Kana|ダース}} ''dāsu''&nbsp;> {{lang|ko-Hang|다스}} ''daseu''. Most indirect Western borrowings are now written according to current Hangulization rules for the respective Western language, as if borrowed directly. There are a few more complicated borrowings such as "German(y)" (see ]), the first part of whose ] {{IPA|}} the Japanese approximated using the ] {{lang|ja-Hant|獨逸}} <!-- kyūjitai, no 独 please --> ''doitsu'' that were then accepted into the Korean language by their Sino-Korean pronunciation: {{lang|ko-Hant|]}}&nbsp;''dok'' + {{lang|ja-Hant|]}}&nbsp;''il'' = '']''. In South Korean official use, a number of other Sino-Korean country names have been replaced with phonetically oriented Hangulizations of the countries' endonyms or English names.

As in Japanese, Korean adapts words in ways that are uncommon in English. For example, in soccer ''heading'' ({{lang|ko|헤딩}}) is used to label a head-strike, rather than direction. This is a corrupted loan word from the English ''header''.

North Korean vocabulary shows a tendency to prefer native Korean over Sino-Korean or foreign borrowings, especially with recent political objectives aimed at eliminating foreign (mostly Chinese) influences on the Korean language in the North. By contrast, South Korean may have several Sino-Korean or foreign borrowings which tend to be absent in North Korean.

==Writing system==
{{Korean writing}}
{{Main|Hangul}}
{{See also|Hangul consonant and vowel tables}}
Formerly the languages of the Korean peninsula were written using ]s, using ] or ]. Such systems relied on principles of ], and were lost, later in history. Writing became confined to the ruling elite, who used hanja to write in Classical Chinese.

Korean is now mainly written in Hangul, the Korean alphabet promulgated in 1446 by ]; ] to write ]. While South Korean schools still teach 1,800 hanja characters, North Korea had abolished the use of hanja decades ago.

Below is a chart of the Korean alphabet's symbols and their canonical ] values:

{| class="wikitable"
|+ '''Consonants'''
|-
! ]
| ㅂ
| ㄷ
| ㅈ
| ㄱ
| ㅃ
| ㄸ
| ㅉ
| ㄲ
| ㅍ
| ㅌ
| ㅊ
| ㅋ
| ㅅ
| ㅎ
| ㅆ
| ㅁ
| ㄴ
| ㅇ
| &nbsp;
| ㄹ
| &nbsp;
|-
! ]
| ''b'',''p''
| ''d'',''t''
| ''j''
| ''g'',''k''
| ''pp''
| ''tt''
| ''jj''
| ''kk''
| ''p''
| ''t''
| ''ch''
| ''k''
| ''s''
| ''h''
| ''ss''
| ''m''
| ''n''
| ''ng''
| &nbsp;
| ''r'',''l''
| &nbsp;
|-
! ]
| {{IPA|p}}
| {{IPA|t}}
| {{IPA|t͡ɕ}}
| {{IPA|k}}
| {{IPA|p͈}}
| {{IPA|t͈}}
| {{IPA|t͡ɕ͈}}
| {{IPA|k͈}}
| {{IPA|pʰ}}
| {{IPA|tʰ}}
| {{IPA|t͡ɕʰ}}
| {{IPA|kʰ}}
| {{IPA|s}}
| {{IPA|h}}
| {{IPA|s͈}}
| {{IPA|m}}
| {{IPA|n}}
| {{IPA|ŋ}}
| {{IPA|w}}
| {{IPA|r}}
| {{IPA|j}}
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ '''Vowels'''
|-
! ]
| ㅣ
| ㅔ
| ㅚ
| ㅐ
| ㅏ
| ㅗ
| ㅜ
| ㅓ
| ㅡ
| ㅢ
| ㅖ
| ㅒ
| ㅑ
| ㅛ
| ㅠ
| ㅕ
| ㅟ
| ㅞ
| ㅙ
| ㅘ
| ㅝ
|-
! ]
| ''i''
| ''e''
| ''oe''
| ''ae''
| ''a''
| ''o''
| ''u''
| ''eo''
| ''eu''
| ''ui''
| ''ye''
| ''yae''
| ''ya''
| ''yo''
| ''yu''
| ''yeo''
| ''wi''
| ''we''
| ''wae''
| ''wa''
| ''wo''
|-
! ]
| {{IPA|i}}
| {{IPA|e}}
| {{IPA|ø}}
| {{IPA|ɛ}}
| {{IPA|a}}
| {{IPA|o}}
| {{IPA|u}}
| {{IPA|ʌ}}
| {{IPA|ɯ}}
| {{IPA|ɰi}}
| {{IPA|je}}
| {{IPA|jɛ}}
| {{IPA|ja}}
| {{IPA|jo}}
| {{IPA|ju}}
| {{IPA|jʌ}}
| {{IPA|wi}}
| {{IPA|we}}
| {{IPA|wɛ}}
| {{IPA|wa}}
| {{IPA|wʌ}}
|}

Modern Korean is written with ]s between ]s, a feature not found in Chinese or Japanese. Korean ] marks are almost identical to Western ones. Traditionally, Korean was written in columns from top to bottom, right to left, but is now usually written in rows from left to right, top to bottom.

==Differences between North Korean and South Korean==
{{Main|Korean language North-South differences}}
The Korean language used in the North and the South exhibits differences in pronunciation, spelling, grammar and vocabulary.<ref>Kanno, Hiroomi (ed.) / Society for Korean Linguistics in Japan (1987). ''Chōsengo o manabō'' (『朝鮮語を学ぼう』), Sanshūsha, Tokyo. ISBN 4-384-01506-2</ref>

===Pronunciation===
In North Korea, ] of {{IPA|/si/}} is optional, and {{IPA|/t͡ɕ/}} can be pronounced {{IPA|}} between vowels.

Words that are written the same way may be pronounced differently, such as the examples below. The pronunciations below are given in ], ] and Hangul, the last of which represents what the Hangul would be if one writes the word as pronounced.

{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" | Word
! rowspan="2" | Meaning
! colspan="4" | Pronunciation
|-
!North (RR/MR)
!North (Hangul)
!South (RR/MR)
!South (Hangul)
|-
|넓다
|wide
|neo'''l'''tta (nŏ'''l'''ta)
|널따
|neo'''p'''tta (nŏ'''p'''ta)
|넙따
|-
|읽고
|to read<br />(continuative form)
|il'''k'''o (il'''k'''o)
|일코
|il'''kk'''o (il'''kk'''o)
|일꼬
|-
|압록강
|]
|am'''r'''okgang (am'''r'''okkang)
|암록깡
|am'''n'''okkang (am'''n'''okkang)
|암녹깡
|-
|독립
|independence
|dong'''r'''ip (tong'''r'''ip)
|동립
|dong'''n'''ip (tong'''n'''ip)
|동닙
|-
|관념
|idea / sense / conception
|gwa'''ll'''yeom (kwa'''ll'''yŏm)
|괄렴
|gwa'''nn'''yeom (kwa'''nn'''yŏm)
|관념
|-
|혁신적*
|innovative
|hyeoksin'''jj'''eok (hyŏksin'''tch'''ŏk)
|혁씬쩍
|hyeoksin'''j'''eok (hyŏksin'''j'''ŏk)
|혁씬적
|}

<nowiki>*</nowiki> Similar pronunciation is used in the North whenever the hanja "的" is attached to a Sino-Korean word ending in ㄴ, ㅁ or ㅇ. (In the South, this rule only applies when it is attached to any single-character Sino-Korean word.)

===Spelling===
Some words are spelled differently by the North and the South, but the pronunciations are the same.
{| class="wikitable"
!colspan="2" | Word
!rowspan="2" | Meaning
!rowspan="2" | Pronunciation (RR/MR)
!rowspan="2" | Remarks
|-
!North spelling
!South spelling
|-
|{{lang|ko-Hang-KP|해빛}}
|{{lang|ko-Hang-KR|햇빛}}
|sunshine
|haeppit (haepit)
|The "sai siot" ('ㅅ' used for indicating sound change) is almost never written out in the North.
|-
|{{lang|ko-Hang-KP|벗꽃}}
|{{lang|ko-Hang-KR|벚꽃}}
|cherry blossom
|beotkkot (pŏtkkot)
|
|-
|{{lang|ko-Hang-KP|못읽다}}
|{{lang|ko-Hang-KR|못 읽다}}
|cannot read
|monnikda (monnikta)
|Spacing.
|-
|{{lang|ko-Hang-KP|한나산}}
|{{lang|ko-Hang-KR|한라산}}
|]
|hallasan (hallasan)
|When a ㄴ-ㄴ combination is pronounced as ''ll'', the original Hangul spelling is kept in the North, while the Hangul is changed in the South.
|-
|{{lang|ko-Hang-KP|규률}}
|{{lang|ko-Hang-KR|규율}}
|rules
|gyuyul (kyuyul)
|In words where the original hanja is spelt "렬" or "률" and follows a vowel, the initial ㄹ is not pronounced in the North, making the pronunciation identical with that in the South where the ㄹ is dropped in the spelling.
|}

===Spelling and pronunciation===
Some words have different spellings and pronunciations in the North and the South, some of which were given in the "Phonology" section above:

{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="4" |Word
! rowspan="2" |Meaning
! rowspan="2" |Remarks
|-
! North spelling
! North pronun.
! South spelling
! South pronun.
|-
| {{lang|ko-Hang-KP|력량}}
| ryeongryang (ryŏngryang)
| {{lang|ko-Hang-KR|역량}}
| yeongnyang (yŏngnyang)
| strength
| Initial ''r'''s are dropped if followed by ''i'' or ''y'' in the South Korean version of Korean.
|-
| {{lang|ko-Hang-KP|로동}}
| rodong (rodong)
| {{lang|ko-Hang-KR|노동}}
| nodong (nodong)
| work
| Initial ''r'''s are demoted to an ''n'' if not followed by ''i'' or ''y'' in the South Korean version of Korean.
|-
| {{lang|ko-Hang-KP|원쑤}}
| wonssu (wŏnssu)
| {{lang|ko-Hang-KR|원수}}
| wonsu (wŏnsu)
| mortal enemy
| "Mortal enemy" and "head of state" are homophones in the South. Possibly to avoid referring to ] / ] as the enemy, the second syllable of "enemy" is written and pronounced 쑤 in the North.
|-
| {{lang|ko-Hang-KP|라지오}}
| rajio (rajio)
| {{lang|ko-Hang-KR|라디오}}
| radio (radio)
| radio
|
|-
| {{lang|ko-Hang-KP|우}}
| u (u)
| {{lang|ko-Hang-KR|위}}
| wi (wi)
| on; above
|
|-
| {{lang|ko-Hang-KP|안해}}
| anhae (anhae)
| {{lang|ko-Hang-KR|아내}}
| anae (anae)
| wife
|
|-
| {{lang|ko-Hang-KP|꾸바}}
| kkuba (kkuba)
| {{lang|ko-Hang-KR|쿠바}}
| kuba (k'uba)
| ]
| When transcribing foreign words from languages that do not have contrasts between aspirated and unaspirated stops, North Koreans generally use tensed stops for the unaspirated ones while South Koreans use aspirated stops in both cases.
|-
|{{lang|ko-Hang-KP|페}}
|pe (p'e)
|{{lang|ko-Hang-KR|폐}}
|pye (p'ye), pe (p'e)
|lungs
|In the case where ''ye'' comes after a constant, such as in ''hye'' and ''pye'', it is pronounced without the palatal approximate. North Korean orthography reflect this pronunciation nuance.
|}

In general, when transcribing place names, North Korea tends to use the pronunciation in the original language more than South Korea, which often uses the pronunciation in English. For example:

{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" | Original name
! colspan="2" | North Korea transliteration
! rowspan="2" | English name
! colspan="2" | South Korea transliteration
|-
! Spelling
! Pronunciation
! Spelling
! Pronunciaton
|-
| ]
| 울란바따르
| ullanbattareu (ullanbattarŭ)
| Ulan Bator
| 울란바토르
| ullanbatoreu (ullanbat'orŭ)
|-
| København
| 쾨뻰하븐
| koeppenhabeun (k'oeppenhabŭn)
| ]
| 코펜하겐
| kopenhagen (k'op'enhagen)
|-
| al-Qāhirah
| 까히라
| kkahira (kkahira)
| ]
| 카이로
| kairo (k'airo)
|}

===Grammar===
Some grammatical constructions are also different:
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="4" |Word
! rowspan="2" |Meaning
! rowspan="2" |Remarks
|-
! North spelling
! North pronun.
! South spelling
! South pronun.
|-
| {{lang|ko-Hang-KP|되였다}}
| doeyeotda (toeyŏtta)
| {{lang|ko-Hang-KR|되었다}}
| doeeotda (toeŏtta)
| past tense of 되다 (doeda/toeda), "to become"
| All similar grammar forms of verbs or adjectives that end in ㅣ in the stem (i.e. ㅣ, ㅐ, ㅔ, ㅚ, ㅟ and ㅢ) in the North use 여 instead of the South's 어.
|-
| {{lang|ko-Hang-KP|고마와요}}
| gomawayo (komawayo)
| {{lang|ko-Hang-KR|고마워요}}
| gomawoyo (komawŏyo)
| thanks
| ㅂ-irregular verbs in the North use 와 (wa) for all those with a positive ending vowel; this only happens in the South if the verb stem has only one syllable.
|-
| {{lang|ko-Hang-KP|할가요}}
| halgayo (halkayo)
| {{lang|ko-Hang-KR|할까요}}
| halkkayo (halkkayo)
| Shall we do?
| Although the Hangul differ, the pronunciations are the same (i.e. with the tensed ㄲ sound).
|}

===Vocabulary===
Some vocabulary is different between the North and the South:
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="4" |Word
! rowspan="2" |Meaning
! rowspan="2" |Remarks
|-
! North spelling
! North pronun.
! South spelling
! South pronun.
|-
| {{lang|ko-Hang-KP|문화주택}}
| munhwajutaek (munhwajut'aek)
| {{lang|ko-Hang-KR|아파트}}
| apateu (ap'at'ŭ)
| Apartment
| {{lang|ko-Hang-KP|아빠트}} (appateu/appat'ŭ) is also used in the North.
|-
| {{lang|ko-Hang-KP|조선말}}
| joseonmal (chosŏnmal)
| {{lang|ko-Hang-KR|한국어}}
| han-gugeo(han'gugeo)
| Korean language
|
|-
| {{lang|ko-Hang-KP|곽밥}}
| gwakbap (kwakpap)
| {{lang|ko-Hang-KR|도시락}}
| dosirak (tosirak)
| lunch box
|
|-
| {{lang|ko-Hang-KP|동무}}
| dongmu (dongmoo)
| {{lang|ko-Hang-KR|친구}}
| chingu (chingoo)
| Friend
|
|-
|}

===Others===
In the North, ]s {{lang|ko-Hang-KP|《}} and {{lang|ko-Hang-KP|》}} are the symbols used for quotes; in the South, quotation marks equivalent to the English ones, “ and ”, are standard, although {{lang|ko-Hang-KR|『 』}} and {{lang|ko-Hang-KR|「 」}} are sometimes used in popular novels.

==Study by non-native speakers==
The ]' ] classifies Korean alongside ], ], and ] as a Category IV language, meaning that 63 weeks of instruction (as compared to just 25 weeks for ], ], ], and ]) are required to bring an English-speaking student to a limited working level of proficiency in which he or she has "sufficient capability to meet routine social demands and limited job requirements" and "can deal with concrete topics in past, present, and future tense."<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Applied Language Learning|volume=16|issue=2|url=http://www.dliflc.edu/academics/academic_materials/all/ALLissues/all16two.pdf|last=Raugh|first=Harold E.|title=The Origins of the Transformation of the Defense Language Program|pages=1–12|accessdate=2008-01-09}}</ref> As a result, the study of the Korean language in the United States is dominated by ] heritage language students; they are estimated to form over 80% of all students of the language at non-military universities.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Issues of Validity of SAT Subject Test Korea with Listening|last=Lee|first=Saekyun H.|coauthors=HyunJoo Han|pages=33–56|journal=Applied Language Learning|volume=17|issue=1|url=http://www.dliflc.edu/academics/academic_materials/all/ALLissues/ALL17.pdf}}</ref>

However, Korean is considerably easier for speakers of certain other languages, such as Japanese<!--, Mongolian, and Turkic languages --- are not mentioned in the source, find sources if you want to add this! -->; in Japan, it is more widely studied by non-heritage learners.<ref>{{cite book|chapter=Language Education Policy in Japan|last=Fujita-Round|first=Sachiyo|coauthors=John C. Maher|pages=393–404|book=Encyclopedia of Language and Education|publisher=Springer|location=United States|year=2007|isbn=978-0-387-32875-1|title=Language policy and political issues in education}}</ref> The ], an examination aimed at assessing non-native speakers' competence in Korean, was instituted in 1997; 17,000 people applied for the 2005 sitting of the examination.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://english.chosun.com/w21data/html/news/200410/200410100002.html|date=2004-10-10|accessdate=2008-01-09|title=Korea Marks 558th Hangul Day|work=The Chosun Ilbo}}</ref>

==See also==
*]
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== Notes ==
{{reflist}}

== References ==
*{{cite book | last=Chang | first=Suk-jin | title=Korean | location=Philadelphia | publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company | year=1996 | isbn=1556197284}} (Volume 4 of the ''London Oriental and African Language Library'').
*Hulbert, Homer B. (1905): ''A Comparative Grammar of the Korean Language and the Dravidian Dialects in India''. Seoul.
*Martin, Samuel E. (1966): Lexical Evidence Relating Japanese to Korean. ''Language 42/2'': 185–251.
*Martin, Samuel E. (1990): Morphological clues to the relationship of Japanese and Korean. In: Philip Baldi (ed.): ''Linguistic Change and Reconstruction Methodology''. Trends in Linguistics: Studies and Monographs 45: 483-509.
*Miller, Roy Andrew (1971): ''Japanese and the Other Altaic Languages''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-52719-0.
*Miller, Roy Andrew (1996): ''Languages and History: Japanese, Korean and Altaic''. Oslo: Institute for Comparative Research in Human Culture. ISBN 974-8299-69-4.
*Ramstedt, G. J. (1928): Remarks on the Korean language. Mémoires de la Société Finno-Oigrienne 58.
*Rybatzki, Volker (2003): Middle Mongol. In: Juha Janhunen (ed.) (2003): ''The Mongolic languages''. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-7007-1133-3: 47–82.
*Starostin, Sergei A.; Anna V. Dybo; Oleg A. Mudrak (2003): ''Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages'', 3 volumes. Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 90-04-13153-1.
*Sohn, H.-M. (1999): ''The Korean Language''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
*Song, J.-J. (2005): ''The Korean Language: Structure, Use and Context''. London: Routledge.
*Trask, R. L. (1996): ''Historical linguistics''. Hodder Arnold.
*Vovin, Alexander: ''Koreo-Japonica''. University of Hawai'i Press.
*Whitman, John B. (1985): ''The Phonological Basis for the Comparison of Japanese and Korean''. Unpublished Harvard University Ph.D. dissertation.

==External links==
{{InterWiki|code=ko}}
{{Wiktionarylang|code=ko}}
{{Wiktionary|Category:Korean language}}
{{Wikibooks|Korean}}
*
*
*
*
* Languages which are exceptionally difficult for native English speakers
* A Korean verb conjugation tool that explains the conjugations for learners of Korean


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{{Korean language}}
{{History of Korean}}
{{Korean dialects}}
}}
{{Template group
|title = Linguistics
|list =
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}}

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Revision as of 17:12, 23 April 2010