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'''Geography''' (from ] {{lang|el|''γεωγραφία''}} - ''geographia'', lit. land 'n shit
'''Geography''' (from ] {{lang|el|''γεωγραφία''}} - ''geographia'', lit. "earth describe-write"<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=geography |title=Online Etymology Dictionary |publisher=Etymonline.com |date= |accessdate=2009-04-17}}</ref>) is the science that deals with the study of the ] and its lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Geography |work=The American Heritage Dictionary/ of the English Language, Fourth Edition |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Company |url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/geography |accessdate=October 9, 2006}}</ref> A literal translation would be "to describe or write about the Earth". The first person to use the word "geography" was ] (276-194 BC). Four historical traditions in geographical research are the ] of natural and human phenomena (geography as a study of distribution), ] (places and regions), study of man-land relationship, and research in ]s.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pattison |first=W.D. |year=1990 |title=The Four Traditions of Geography |journal=Journal of Geography |volume=89 |issue=5 |pages=202–6 |url=http://www.geog.ucsb.edu/~kclarke/G200B/four_20traditions_20of_20geography.pdf |issn=0022-1341 |doi=10.1080/00221349008979196 }} Reprint of a 1964 article.</ref> Nonetheless, modern geography is an all-encompassing discipline that foremost seeks to understand the Earth and all of its human and natural complexities—not merely where objects are, but how they have changed and come to be. Geography has been called 'the world discipline'.<ref>Bonnett, Alastair ''What is Geography?'' London, Sage, 2008</ref> As "the bridge between the human and ]s," geography is divided into two main branches—] and ].<ref>http://web.clas.ufl.edu/users/morgans/lecture_2.prn.pdf</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/1b.html |title=1(b). Elements of Geography |publisher=Physicalgeography.net |date= |accessdate=2009-04-17}}</ref>

{{Science}}

==Introduction==
Traditionally, ]s have been viewed the same way as ] and people who study place names and numbers. Although many geographers are trained in ] and cartology, this is not their main preoccupation. Geographers study the ] and ] distribution of phenomena, processes and features as well as the ] of humans and their ].<ref name="Hayes-Bohanan">{{Cite web|last=Hayes-Bohanan |first=James |title=What is Environmental Geography, Anyway? |url=http://webhost.bridgew.edu/jhayesboh/environmentalgeography.htm |accessdate=October 9, 2006}}</ref> As space and place affect a variety of topics such as economics, health, climate, plants and animals, geography is highly interdisciplinary.

{{cquote2|...mere names of places...are not geography...know by heart a whole gazetteer full of them would not, in itself, constitute anyone a ]. Geography has higher aims than this: it seeks to classify phenomena (alike of the natural and of the political world, in so far as it treats of the latter), to compare, to generalize, to ascend from effects to causes, and, in doing so, to trace out the great laws of nature and to mark their influences upon man. This is 'a description of the world'—that is Geography. In a word Geography is a Science—a thing not of mere names but of argument and reason, of cause and effect.<ref>Hughes, William. (1863). ''The Study of Geography''. Lecture delivered at King's College, London by Sir Marc Alexander. Quoted in {{Cite book|last=Baker |first=J.N.L |year=1963 |title=The History of Geography |publisher=Basil Blackwell |location=Oxford |pages=66 |isbn=0853280223}}</ref>|William Hughes, 1863}}

Geography as a discipline can be split broadly into two main subsidiary fields: ] and ]. The former focuses largely on the ] and how space is created, viewed and managed by humans as well as the influence humans have on the space they occupy. The latter examines the natural environment and how the ], ] & life, ], ], and ]s are produced and interact.<ref>{{Cite web|title=What is geography? |work=AAG Career Guide: Jobs in Geography and related Geographical Sciences |publisher=Association of American Geographers |url=http://www.aag.org/Careers/What_is_geog.html |accessdate=October 9, 2006 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20061006152742/http://www.aag.org/Careers/What_is_geog.html <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archivedate = October 6, 2006}}</ref> As a result of the two subfields using different approaches a third field has emerged, which is ]. Environmental geography combines physical and human geography and looks at the interactions between the environment and humans.<ref name="Hayes-Bohanan"/>

==Branches==
===Physical geography===
{{Main|Physical geography}}

Physical geography (or physiography) focuses on geography as an ]. It aims to understand the physical ], ], ], ], and global ] and ] patterns (]). Physical geography can be divided into the following broad categories:

:{| style="border:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center; margin: auto;" cellspacing="15"
| ] || ] || ] || ]
|-
| ] || ] & ] || ] || ] & ]
|-
| ] || ] || ] ||]
|-
| ] || ] || ] || ] & ]
|-
| ] || ] || ] || ]
|-
| ] || ] || ] || ]
|-
| ]
|-
| ]
|}

===Human geography===
{{Main|Human geography}}

] is a branch of geography that focuses on the study of patterns and processes that shape human interaction with various environments. It encompasses ], ], ], ], and ] aspects. While the major focus of human geography is not the physical landscape of the Earth (see ]), it is hardly possible to discuss human geography without referring to the physical landscape on which human activities are being played out, and ] is emerging as a link between the two. Human geography can be divided into many broad categories, such as:

:{| style="border:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center; margin: auto;" cellspacing="15"
| ] || ] || ] || ]
|-
|] || ] || ] || ]
|-
| ] || ] || ] || ]
|-
| ] & ] || ] & ] || ] or ] || ]
|-
| ] || ] || ] || ]
|-
| ] || ] || ] || ]
|}

Various approaches to the study of human geography have also arisen through time and include:
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]

===Environmental geography===
{{Main|Environmental geography}}

] is the branch of geography that describes the spatial aspects of interactions between humans and the natural world. It requires an understanding of the traditional aspects of physical and human geography, as well as the ways in which human societies conceptualize the environment.

Environmental geography has emerged as a bridge between human and physical geography as a result of the increasing specialisation of the two sub-fields. Furthermore, as human relationship with the environment has changed as a result of ] and ] a new approach was needed to understand the changing and dynamic relationship. Examples of areas of research in environmental geography include ], ], ], and ].

===Geomatics===
{{Main|Geomatics}}

]
] is a branch of geography that has emerged since the quantitative revolution in geography in the mid 1950s. Geomatics involves the use of traditional spatial techniques used in cartography and topography and their application to computers. Geomatics has become a widespread field with many other disciplines using techniques such as GIS and remote sensing. Geomatics has also led to a revitalization of some geography departments especially in Northern America where the subject had a declining status during the 1950s.

Geomatics encompasses a large area of fields involved with ], such as ], ], ], and ].

===Regional geography===
{{Main|Regional geography}}
] is a branch of geography that studies the regions of all sizes across the ]. It has a prevailing descriptive character. The main aim is to understand or define the uniqueness or character of a particular region which consists of natural as well as human elements. Attention is paid also to ] which covers the proper techniques of space ] into regions.

Regional geography is also considered as a certain approach to study in geographical sciences (similar to ] or ], for more information see ]).

===Related fields===
* ], ] and ]: use the science of geography to assist in determining how to develop (or not develop) the land to meet particular criteria, such as safety, beauty, economic opportunities, the preservation of the built or natural heritage, and so on. The planning of towns, cities, and rural areas may be seen as applied geography.
* ]: In the 1950s the regional science movement led by Walter Isard arose, to provide a more quantitative and analytical base to geographical questions, in contrast to the descriptive tendencies of traditional geography programs. Regional science comprises the body of knowledge in which the spatial dimension plays a fundamental role, such as ], ], ], ] and ], ] and ], ], population distribution, ], and environmental quality.
* ]: While the discipline of geography is normally concerned with the ], the term can also be informally used to describe the study of other worlds, such as the ]s of the ] and even beyond. The study of systems larger than the earth itself usually forms part of ] or ]. The study of other planets is usually called ]. Alternative terms such as ] (the study of Mars) have been proposed, but are not widely used.

==Techniques==
As spatial interrelationships are key to this synoptic science, ]s are a key tool. Classical ] has been joined by a more modern approach to geographical analysis, computer-based ]s (GIS).

In their study, geographers use four interrelated approaches:
* Systematic - Groups geographical knowledge into categories that can be explored globally.
* Regional - Examines systematic relationships between categories for a specific region or location on the planet.
* Descriptive - Simply specifies the locations of features and populations.
* Analytical - Asks ''why'' we find features and populations in a specific geographic area.

===Cartography===
{{Main|Cartography}}
Cartography studies the representation of the Earth's surface with abstract symbols (map making). Although other subdisciplines of geography rely on maps for presenting their analyses, the actual making of maps is abstract enough to be regarded separately. Cartography has grown from a collection of drafting techniques into an actual science.

Cartographers must learn ] and ergonomics to understand which symbols convey information about the Earth most effectively, and ] to induce the readers of their maps to act on the information. They must learn ] and fairly advanced ] to understand how the ] affects the distortion of map symbols projected onto a flat surface for viewing. It can be said, without much controversy, that cartography is the seed from which the larger field of geography grew. Most geographers will cite a childhood fascination with maps as an early sign they would end up in the field.

===Geographic information systems===
{{Main|Geographic information system}}
<!-- Deleted image removed: ] software (Idrisi, Clark Labs).]] -->
<!-- the section's use of a singular verb for a seemingly plural noun is intentional. The name of the academic subject is "Geographic information systems". If you didn't care about parallel construction, you could precede the following with THE SUBJECT OF --->
Geographic information systems (GIS) deal with the storage of information about the Earth for automatic retrieval by a computer, in an accurate manner appropriate to the information's purpose. In addition to all of the other subdisciplines of geography, GIS specialists must understand ] and ] systems. GIS has revolutionized the field of cartography; nearly all mapmaking is now done with the assistance of some form of ]. GIS also refers to the science of using GIS software and GIS techniques to represent, analyze and predict spatial relationships. In this context, GIS stands for Geographic Information Science.

===Remote sensing===
{{Main|Remote sensing}}
Remote sensing is the science of obtaining information about Earth features from measurements made at a distance. Remotely sensed data comes in many forms such as ], ] and data obtained from hand-held sensors. Geographers increasingly use remotely sensed data to obtain information about the Earth's ], ocean and atmosphere because it: a) supplies objective information at a variety of spatial scales (local to global), b) provides a synoptic view of the area of interest, c) allows access to distant and/or inaccessible sites, d) provides spectral information outside the visible portion of the ], and e) facilitates studies of how features/areas change over time. Remotely sensed data may be analyzed either independently of, or in conjunction with, other digital data layers (e.g., in a Geographic Information System).

===Quantitative methods===
{{Main|Geostatistics}}

] deal with ] analysis, specifically the application of statistical methodology to the exploration of geographic phenomena. Geostatistics is used extensively in a variety of fields including: ], ], ] exploration, weather analysis, ], ], and ]. The mathematical basis for geostatistics derives from ], ] and ], and a variety of other subjects. Applications of geostatistics rely heavily on ]s, particularly for the ] (estimate) of unmeasured points. Geographers are making notable contributions to the method of quantitative techniques.

===Qualitative methods===
{{Main|Ethnography}}
Geographic qualitative methods, or ethnographical; research techniques, are used by human geographers. In ] there is a tradition of employing ] techniques also used in ] and ]. ] and in-depth interviews provide human geographers with qualitative data.

==History==
{{Main|History of geography}}
{{History of geography sidebar}}

The oldest known world maps date back to ancient ] from the 9th century BC.<ref name="Kurt A. Raaflaub & Richard J. A. Talbert 2009 147">{{Cite book|title=Geography and Ethnography: Perceptions of the World in Pre-Modern Societies|author=Kurt A. Raaflaub & Richard J. A. Talbert|publisher=]|year=2009|isbn=1405191465|page=147|postscript=<!--None-->}}</ref> The best known ]n world map, however, is the '']'' of 600 BC.<ref>Siebold, Jim via henry-davis.com - accessed 2008-02-04</ref> The map as reconstructed by Eckhard Unger shows ] on the ], surrounded by a circular landmass showing ], ]<ref>http://www.jstor.org/pss/1151277 IMAGO MVNDI, Vol.48 pp.209</ref> and several cities, in turn surrounded by a "bitter river" (]), with seven islands arranged around it so as to form a seven-pointed star. The accompanying text mentions seven outer regions beyond the encircling ocean. The descriptions of five of them have survived.<ref>{{Cite book|first=Irving|last=Finel|title=A join to the map of the world: A notable discover|year=1995|pages=26–27}}</ref> In contrast to the ''Imago Mundi'', an earlier Babylonian ] dating back to the 9th century BC depicted Babylon as being further north from the center of the world, though it is not certain what that center was supposed to represent.<ref name="Kurt A. Raaflaub & Richard J. A. Talbert 2009 147"/>

The ideas of ] (c. 610 BC-c. 545 BC), considered by later Greek writers to be the true founder of geography, come to us through fragments quoted by his successors. Anaximander is credited with the invention of the gnomon,the simple yet efficient Greek instrument that allowed the early measurement of latitude. Thales, Anaximander is also credited with the prediction of eclipses. The foundations of geography can be traced to the ancient cultures, such as the ancient, medieval, and early modern ]. The ], who were the first to explore geography as both ] and ], achieved this through ], ], and ], or through ]. There is some debate about who was the first person to assert that the Earth is spherical in shape, with the credit going either to ] or ]. ] was able to demonstrate that the profile of the Earth was circular by explaining ]s. However, he still believed that the Earth was a flat disk, as did many of his contemporaries. One of the first estimates of the radius of the Earth was made by ].<ref>{{Cite book|author=Jean-Louis and Monique Tassoul |title=A Concise History of Solar and Stellar Physics |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=London |year=1920 |isbn=069111711X }}</ref>

The first rigorous system of ] lines is credited to ]. He employed a ] system that was derived from ]. The parallels and meridians were sub-divided into 360°, with each degree further subdivided 60′ (]). To measure the longitude at different location on Earth, he suggested using eclipses to determine the relative difference in time.<ref>{{Cite web|year=2001 |url=http://astrogeology.usgs.gov/HotTopics/index.php?/archives/147-Names-for-the-Columbia-astronauts-provisionally-approved.html |title=Hipparcos of Rhodes |publisher=Technology Museum of Thessaloniki|accessdate=2006-10-16 }}</ref> The extensive mapping by the ] as they explored new lands would later provide a high level of information for ] to construct detailed ]es. He extended the work of ], using a grid system on his maps and adopting a length of 56.5 ]s for a degree.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Sullivan |first=Dan |year=2000 |url=http://www.math.rutgers.edu/~cherlin/History/Papers2000/sullivan.html |title=Mapmaking and its History |publisher=Rutgers University |accessdate=2006-10-16 }}</ref>

From the 3rd century onwards, ] methods of geographical study and writing of geographical literature became much more complex than what was found in Europe at the time (until the 13th century).<ref name="needham volume 3 512"/> Chinese geographers such as ], ], ], ], ], ], and ] wrote important treatises, yet by the 17th century, advanced ideas and methods of Western-style geography were adopted in China.

During the ], the ] led to a shift in the evolution of geography from ] to the ].<ref name="needham volume 3 512">Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 3. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. Page 512.</ref> ] such as ] produced detailed world maps (such as ]), while other geographers such as ], ], ] and ] provided detailed accounts of their journeys and the geography of the regions they visited. Turkish geographer, ] drew a world map on a linguistic basis, and later so did ] (]). Further, Islamic scholars translated and ] the earlier works of the ] and ] and established the ] in ] for this purpose.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.islamicity.com/education/ihame/default.asp?Destination=/education/ihame/20.asp |title=Education |publisher=IslamiCity.com |date= |accessdate=2009-04-17}}</ref> ], originally from ], founded the "Balkhī school" of terrestrial mapping in ].<ref name = E61-3>E. Edson and Emilie Savage-Smith, ''Medieval Views of the Cosmos'', pp. 61-3, Bodleian Library, ]</ref> Suhrāb, a late tenth century Muslim geographer, accompanied a book of geographical coordinates with instructions for making a rectangular world map, with ] or cylindrical equidistant projection.<ref name = E61-3/> In the early 11th century, ] hypothesized on the ] causes of ]s in '']'' (1027).{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}}

] (976-1048) first described a polar equi-] of the ].<ref>David A. King (1996), "Astronomy and Islamic society: Qibla, gnomics and timekeeping", in Roshdi Rashed, ed., '']'', Vol. 1, p. 128-184 . ], London and New York.</ref>{{Verify source|date=September 2010}} He was regarded as the most skilled when it came to mapping cities and measuring the distances between them, which he did for many cities in the ] and ]. He often combined astronomical readings and mathematical equations, in order to develop methods of pin-pointing locations by recording degrees of ] and ]. He also developed similar techniques when it came to measuring the heights of ]s, depths of ]s, and expanse of the ]. He also discussed ] and the ] of the ]. He hypothesized that roughly a quarter of the Earth's surface is habitable by ]s.{{Citation needed|date=June 2010}} He also calculated the ] of Kath, ], using the maximum altitude of the Sun, and solved a complex ] equation in order to accurately compute the ]'s ], which were close to modern values of the Earth's circumference.<ref>James S. Aber (2003). Alberuni calculated the Earth's circumference at a small town of Pind Dadan Khan, District Jhelum, Punjab, Pakistan., ].</ref> His estimate of 6,339.9&nbsp;km for the ] was only 16.8&nbsp;km less than the modern value of 6,356.7&nbsp;km. In contrast to his predecessors who measured the Earth's circumference by sighting the Sun simultaneously from two different locations, ] developed a new method of using ] calculations based on the angle between a ] and ] top which yielded more accurate measurements of the Earth's circumference and made it possible for it to be measured by a single person from a single location.<ref>Lenn Evan Goodman (1992), ''Avicenna'', p. 31, ], ISBN 041501929X.</ref>{{Verify source|date=September 2010}} He also published a study of ]s, '']'', which included a method for projecting a ] on a ].{{Citation needed|date=June 2010}}

], one of the early pioneers of geography]]

The European ] during the 16th and 17th centuries, where many new lands were discovered and accounts by European explorers such as ], ] and ], revived a desire for both accurate geographic detail, and more solid theoretical foundations in Europe. The problem facing both explorers and geographers was finding the latitude and longitude of a geographic location. The problem of latitude was solved long ago but that of longitude remained; agreeing on what zero meridian should be was only part of the problem. It was left to ] to solve it by inventing the chronometer ], in 1760, and later in 1884 for the ] to adopt by convention the ] as zero meridian.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Aughton |first=Peter |title=Voyages that changed the world |page=164 |publisher=Quercus |year=2007 |isbn=1847240040 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=bz4GyOioMF4C&pg=RA1-PA164&dq=Voyages+that+changed+the+world+H-4&cd=1#v=onepage&q= }}</ref>

The 18th and 19th centuries were the times when geography became recognized as a discrete ] and became part of a typical ] curriculum in ] (especially ] and ]). The development of many geographic societies also occurred during the 19th century with the foundations of the ] in 1821,<ref>{{Cite web
|url=http://www.socgeo.org/index.html
|title=Société de Géographie, Paris, France
|accessdate=2007-01-15
|language=French
}}</ref> the ] in 1830,<ref>{{Cite web
|url=http://www.rgs.org/AboutUs/about+us.htm
|title=About Us
|publisher=Royal Geographical Society
|accessdate=2007-01-15
}}</ref> ] in 1845,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.rgo.org.ru/ |title=Русское Географическое Общество (основано в 1845 г.) |publisher=Rgo.org.ru |date= |accessdate=2009-04-17}}</ref> ] in 1851,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.amergeog.org/ |title=The American Geographical Society |publisher=Amergeog.org |date=2009-04-02 |accessdate=2009-04-17}}</ref> and the ] in 1888.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nationalgeographic.com/index.html |title=Inspiring People to Care About the Planet |publisher=National Geographic |date=2002-10-17 |accessdate=2009-04-17}}</ref> The influence of ], ], ] and ] can be seen as a major turning point in geography from a philosophy to an academic subject.

Over the past two centuries the advancements in technology such as computers, have led to the development of ] and new practices such as participant observation and geostatistics being incorporated into geography's portfolio of tools. In the West during the 20th century, the discipline of geography went through four major phases: ], ], the ], and ]. The strong interdisciplinary links between geography and the sciences of ] and ], as well as ], ] and ] have also grown greatly especially as a result of Earth System Science that seeks to understand the world in a holistic view.

==Notable geographers==
{{Main|List of geographers}}
]]]
* ] (276BC - 194BC) - calculated the size of the Earth.
* ] (c.90–c.168) - compiled Greek and Roman knowledge into the book ].
* ] (Arabic: أبو عبد الله محمد الإدريسي‎; Latin: Dreses) (1100–1165/66) - author of Nuzhatul Mushtaq.
* ] (1512–1594) - innovative ] produced the ]
* ] (1769–1859) - Considered Father of modern geography, published the Kosmos and founder of the sub-field biogeography.
* ] (1779–1859) - Considered Father of modern geography. Occupied the first chair of geography at Berlin University.
* ] (1807–1884) - noted the structure of glaciers and advanced understanding in ], especially in fast ice flow.
* ] (1850–1934) - father of American geography and developer of the ].
* ] (1845–1918) - founder of the French school of geopolitics and wrote the principles of human geography.
* Sir ] (1861–1947) - Co-founder of the ], ]
* ] (1889–1975) - Prominent cultural geographer
* ] (1893–1969) - human geographer and inventor of ].
* ] (1930-) - Chinese-American scholar credited with starting Humanistic Geography as a discipline.
* ] (1935-) - Marxist geographer and author of theories on spatial and urban geography, winner of the ].
* ] (born 1941) - Noted for his work on regional development, planning and governance along with coining the terms ] and Postmetropolis.
* ] (1944-) - prominent GIS scholar and winner of the RGS founder's medal in 2003.
* ] (1944-) - Key scholar in the space and places of ] and its pluralities, winner of the ].
* ] (1949-) - originator of ].
* ] (1863–1932) - She was America's first influential female geographer.

==Institutions and societies==
* ] (Slovenia)
* ] (U.S.)
* ] (U.S.)
* ] (U.S.)
* ] (Canada)
* ] (UK)

==Publications==
* '']''
* '']''

==See also==
{{Portal box|Geography|Atlas}}
{{Misplaced Pages-Books}}
{{Main|Outline of geography|Index of geography articles}}
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
{{Clear}}

==Notes and references==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{Sister project links}}

{{Geography topics}}

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Revision as of 16:33, 18 February 2011

"Geographical" redirects here. For the magazine of the Royal Geographical Society, see Geographical (magazine). For other uses, see Geography (disambiguation).
Map of the Earth

Geography (from Greek Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) - geographia, lit. land 'n shit