Revision as of 05:07, 30 July 2011 editDuff (talk | contribs)Extended confirmed users, Pending changes reviewers4,040 edits →Peter Cook and Becky Northey: recovered ref Southern for orphaned refname tag.← Previous edit | Revision as of 06:42, 2 August 2011 edit undoGaius Cornelius (talk | contribs)Administrators164,008 editsm Fix accessdate field and tidy using AWBNext edit → | ||
Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
{{Double image|right|Needle n thread.jpg|{{#expr: (250 * (238 / 349)) round 0}}|Pete in garden chair 01.jpg|{{#expr: (250 * (644 / 879)) round 0}}|''Needle & Thread Tree'' by ]|Artist Peter Cook seated in his living garden chair grown via the Pooktre method.}} | {{Double image|right|Needle n thread.jpg|{{#expr: (250 * (238 / 349)) round 0}}|Pete in garden chair 01.jpg|{{#expr: (250 * (644 / 879)) round 0}}|''Needle & Thread Tree'' by ]|Artist Peter Cook seated in his living garden chair grown via the Pooktre method.}} | ||
'''Tree shaping''' is the practice of training living ] and other ]s into artistic shapes and useful structures. |
'''Tree shaping''' is the practice of training living ] and other ]s into artistic shapes and useful structures. The art is also known as '''tree training''', '''arborsculpture''', '''Pooktre''' and several ]. It is a form of ], sharing a common heritage with other artistic ] and ] practices, such as ], ], and ], and employing some similar techniques. A unique and distinguishing feature evident in many (but not all) examples of the work is the purposeful ] of living ], ]es, and ]s to form artistic designs or functional structures. | ||
Practitioners choose from among various compliant species and an evolving array of design options, techniques, and tools to control and direct living wood, both above and below ground; perhaps bending, ], ], twisting, ], ], framing, ], controlling light, or ] to create a project. | Practitioners choose from among various compliant species and an evolving array of design options, techniques, and tools to control and direct living wood, both above and below ground; perhaps bending, ], ], twisting, ], ], framing, ], controlling light, or ] to create a project. | ||
Tree shaping has been practiced for at least several hundred years, as demonstrated by the ]s built and maintained by the ] people of ]. |
Tree shaping has been practiced for at least several hundred years, as demonstrated by the ]s built and maintained by the ] people of ]. Early 20th century practitioners and artisans included ] ], ] with his famous ''']''', and ] ]. Contemporary ]s include artists Peter Cook and Becky Northey, who call their work "Pooktre", arborist ], who coined the term "arborsculpture", and furniture designer Chris Cattle, who uses the phrase "grownup furniture". | ||
==History== | ==History== | ||
Line 11: | Line 11: | ||
Some species of woody plants exhibit a botanical phenomenon known as ] (or self-grafting); whether among parts of a single specimen tree or between two or more individual specimens of the same (or very similar) species. Trees exhibiting this behavior are called inosculate trees.<ref name=goodwoodprimack>{{cite web|last = Primack|first = Mark|title= Pleaching|publisher=The NSW Good Wood Guide|url=http://www.rainforestinfo.org.au/good_wood/pleachng.htm|accessdate=2010-05-10}}</ref> Many contemporary designers of living wood trace their initial inspiration to having seen natural occurrences of this phenomenon. | Some species of woody plants exhibit a botanical phenomenon known as ] (or self-grafting); whether among parts of a single specimen tree or between two or more individual specimens of the same (or very similar) species. Trees exhibiting this behavior are called inosculate trees.<ref name=goodwoodprimack>{{cite web|last = Primack|first = Mark|title= Pleaching|publisher=The NSW Good Wood Guide|url=http://www.rainforestinfo.org.au/good_wood/pleachng.htm|accessdate=2010-05-10}}</ref> Many contemporary designers of living wood trace their initial inspiration to having seen natural occurrences of this phenomenon. | ||
The earliest known surviving examples of purposeful, ]-made inosculation are the ] of ], ], and ], in the present-day ] state of northeast ]. These ] are handmade from the ]s of living ] trees, such as the ]. |
The earliest known surviving examples of purposeful, ]-made inosculation are the ] of ], ], and ], in the present-day ] state of northeast ]. These ] are handmade from the ]s of living ] trees, such as the ]. The pliable tree roots are gradually trained to grow across a gap, weaving in sticks, stones, and other inclusions, until they take root on the other side. There are specimens spanning over 100 feet. The useful lifespan of the bridges, once complete, is thought to be 500–600 years. They are naturally self-renewing and self-strengthening as the component roots grow thicker.<ref name=Cherrapunjee>{{cite web|url=http://www.cherrapunjee.com/index.php?mid=66&pid=66|title=''Cherrapunjee.com: A Dream Place''|publisher=Cherrapunjee Holiday Resort|accessdate=2010-05-07}}</ref><ref name=Laitkynsew>{{cite web|url=http://www.india9.com/i9show/Living-Root-Bridge-48779.htm|title=''Living Root Bridge''|publisher=Online Highways LLC|date=2005-10-21|accessdate=2010-05-07}}</ref> | ||
] is a technique used in the very old horticultural practice of ]. Pleaching consists of first ] living branches and twigs and then ] them together to promote their inosculation. |
] is a technique used in the very old horticultural practice of ]. Pleaching consists of first ] living branches and twigs and then ] them together to promote their inosculation. It is most commonly used to train trees into raised hedges, though other shapes are easily developed. Useful implementations include fences, lattices, roofs, and walls.<ref name=goodwoodprimack/><ref name=Fischbacher/> Some of the outcomes of pleaching can be considered an early form of what is known today as tree shaping. In an early, labor-intensive, practical use of pleaching in medieval Europe, trees were installed in the ground in parallel ] lines or ] patterns, then shaped by ] to form a flat-plane grid above ground level. When the trees' branches in this grid met those of neighboring trees, they were grafted together. Once the network of joints were of substantial size, planks were laid across the grid, upon which they built huts to live in, thus keeping the human settlement safe in times of annual flooding.<ref name=goodwoodprimack/> Wooden dancing platforms were also built and the living tree branch grid bore the weight of the platform and dancers.<ref name=BioPro/> | ||
In ] ]an gardens through the 18th century, pleached ]s, interwoven canopies of tree-lined garden avenues, were common. |
In ] ]an gardens through the 18th century, pleached ]s, interwoven canopies of tree-lined garden avenues, were common. The ornamental craft of ], the agricultural craft of ], and the arboricultural craft of tree shaping all may have developed from the utilitarian practice of pleaching. | ||
==Structural advantages== | ==Structural advantages== | ||
{{Expand section|date=June 2010}} | {{Expand section|date=June 2010}} | ||
Living grown structures are more resistant to ] than harvested ones or those constructed of ]. {{Citation needed|date=October 2010}} While there are some decay organisms that can rot live wood from the outside, and though living trees can carry decayed and decaying ] inside them; in general, living trees decay from the inside out and dead wood decays from the outside in.<ref name=Worrall>{{Citation|title=Forest and Shade Tree Pathology: Wood Decay|url=http://www.forestpathology.org/decay.html|first1=Jim|last1=Worrall|date=27 May 2007|accessdate=2011-06-10}}</ref> Living wood tissue, particularly ], wields a very potent defense against decay from either direction, known as ]. |
Living grown structures are more resistant to ] than harvested ones or those constructed of ]. {{Citation needed|date=October 2010}} While there are some decay organisms that can rot live wood from the outside, and though living trees can carry decayed and decaying ] inside them; in general, living trees decay from the inside out and dead wood decays from the outside in.<ref name=Worrall>{{Citation|title=Forest and Shade Tree Pathology: Wood Decay|url=http://www.forestpathology.org/decay.html|first1=Jim|last1=Worrall|date=27 May 2007|accessdate=2011-06-10}}</ref> Living wood tissue, particularly ], wields a very potent defense against decay from either direction, known as ]. This protection is stronger in some species than it is in others, but once wood is harvested it is dead and this defense dies with it. | ||
Grown structures also have several ] when compared to structures built using artificial ] and ].<ref name=Fischbacher>{{Citation| first = Thomas|last=Fischbacher| contribution = Botanical Engineering| contribution-url = http://www.soton.ac.uk/~doctom/talks/botanical-engineering.pdf| year = 2007| publisher = School of Engineering Sciences @ University of Southampton}}</ref> | Grown structures also have several ] when compared to structures built using artificial ] and ].<ref name=Fischbacher>{{Citation| first = Thomas|last=Fischbacher| contribution = Botanical Engineering| contribution-url = http://www.soton.ac.uk/~doctom/talks/botanical-engineering.pdf| year = 2007| publisher = School of Engineering Sciences @ University of Southampton}}</ref> | ||
==Design options== | ==Design options== | ||
] | ] | ||
Designs may include abstract, symbolic, or functional elements. Some shapes crafted and grown are purely artistic; perhaps cubes, circles, or letters of an ], while other designs might yield any of a wide variety of useful implements, such as ]s,<ref name=walpolegrownhome>{{Citation|last = Walpole| first = Lois|title=grown home|year=2004|url=http://www.loiswalpole.com/grown_home.htm#grown home|accessdate=2010-06-14}}</ref> ] and ]s,<ref name=walpolegrownhome/> ]s,<ref name= UCDavisLTN>{{Citation| last = University of California| first = Cooperative Extension| title = Arborsculpture: Horticultural Art| periodical = Landscape & Turf News| page = 6| date = November 2003| url = http://cesacramento.ucdavis.edu/newsletterfiles/Landscape_-_Turf_News4016.pdf| accessdate = 6/8/2010}}</ref> ],<ref name=PurdueU>{{Citation| first = Ken | last = Mudge| first2 = Jules | last2 = Janick|first3 =Steven |last3 =Scofield|first4=Eliezer E.|last4=Goldschmidt| editor-last = Janick| editor-first = Jules|contribution = A History of Grafting| contribution-url =http://www.hort.purdue.edu/NEWCROP/c09.pdf | series = Issues in New Crops and New Uses| year = 2009|pages =442–443| publisher = Purdue University Center for New Crops and Plants Products, orig. pub. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.}} Note large file: 8.04MB</ref> ]s, and tool ]s. Eye-catching structures such as living ]s and ]s<ref name=UCDavisLTN/> can also be grown, and even large architectural designs such as live ]ways, ]s,<ref name=PurdueU/> ]s,<ref name=UCDavisLTN/> tunnels, rooms, and entire homes |
Designs may include abstract, symbolic, or functional elements. Some shapes crafted and grown are purely artistic; perhaps cubes, circles, or letters of an ], while other designs might yield any of a wide variety of useful implements, such as ]s,<ref name=walpolegrownhome>{{Citation|last = Walpole| first = Lois|title=grown home|year=2004|url=http://www.loiswalpole.com/grown_home.htm#grown home|accessdate=2010-06-14}}</ref> ] and ]s,<ref name=walpolegrownhome/> ]s,<ref name= UCDavisLTN>{{Citation| last = University of California| first = Cooperative Extension| title = Arborsculpture: Horticultural Art| periodical = Landscape & Turf News| page = 6| date = November 2003| url = http://cesacramento.ucdavis.edu/newsletterfiles/Landscape_-_Turf_News4016.pdf| accessdate = 6/8/2010}}</ref> ],<ref name=PurdueU>{{Citation| first = Ken | last = Mudge| first2 = Jules | last2 = Janick|first3 =Steven |last3 =Scofield|first4=Eliezer E.|last4=Goldschmidt| editor-last = Janick| editor-first = Jules|contribution = A History of Grafting| contribution-url =http://www.hort.purdue.edu/NEWCROP/c09.pdf | series = Issues in New Crops and New Uses| year = 2009|pages =442–443| publisher = Purdue University Center for New Crops and Plants Products, orig. pub. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.}} Note large file: 8.04MB</ref> ]s, and tool ]s. Eye-catching structures such as living ]s and ]s<ref name=UCDavisLTN/> can also be grown, and even large architectural designs such as live ]ways, ]s,<ref name=PurdueU/> ]s,<ref name=UCDavisLTN/> tunnels, rooms, and entire homes<ref name=FriendsofTAU>{{cite web|publisher=American Friends of Tel Aviv University|url=http://www.aftau.org/site/News2?page=NewsArticle&id=7595|title=''Eco-Architecture Could Produce "Grow Your Own" Homes''}}</ref> are possible with careful planning, planting, and culturing over time.<ref name=BioPro>{{cite web|url=http://www.bio-pro.de/magazin/index.html?lang=en&artikelid=/artikel/04762/index.html |title=A very special tree house |publisher=Bio-pro.de |date=2010-02-04 |accessdate=2010-04-14}}</ref> The ] Design team (H.E.D.) at the ] is designing homes that can be grown from native trees in a variety of climates.<ref name=CassidyRIHLD/> | ||
Suitable trees are installed according to design specifications and then cultured over time into intended structures. Some designs may use only living, growing wood to form the structures, while others might also incorporate inclusions such as ], ], ] and ], any of which might be used either as either structural or aesthetic elements. These can be positioned in a project as it is grown and, depending on the design, may either be removed when no longer needed for support or left in place to become fixed inclusions in the growing tissue. | Suitable trees are installed according to design specifications and then cultured over time into intended structures. Some designs may use only living, growing wood to form the structures, while others might also incorporate inclusions such as ], ], ] and ], any of which might be used either as either structural or aesthetic elements. These can be positioned in a project as it is grown and, depending on the design, may either be removed when no longer needed for support or left in place to become fixed inclusions in the growing tissue. | ||
Line 31: | Line 31: | ||
Young tree shaping may start with designing and framing.<ref name=cattlehowto/><ref name="Living Trees, Living Art">{{cite web|url=http://www.designshell.com/articles/living-trees-living-art-pooktre.html|title=Living Trees, Living Art |accessdate=2009-05-08}}</ref> Once these are set up, young seedlings or saplings<ref name=Wilma/>{{rp|4}} 3–12 in. (7.6–30.5 cm) long<ref name=cattlehowto/><ref name="Living Trees, Living Art"/> are planted and then gradually trained to form the framed shape.<ref name=TheIndependentNewpaper>{{Citation| last = Davies | first = David | title = Plant your own furniture. Watch it grow| newspaper = The Independent| pages = | date = Saturday, 1 June 1996|publisher= |location= England| url = http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/plant-your-own-furniture-watch-it-grow-1334849.html| accessdate = }}</ref> New growth may require weekly or day-to-day guidance along the predetermined design pathways.{{Citation needed|date=May 2011}} | Young tree shaping may start with designing and framing.<ref name=cattlehowto/><ref name="Living Trees, Living Art">{{cite web|url=http://www.designshell.com/articles/living-trees-living-art-pooktre.html|title=Living Trees, Living Art |accessdate=2009-05-08}}</ref> Once these are set up, young seedlings or saplings<ref name=Wilma/>{{rp|4}} 3–12 in. (7.6–30.5 cm) long<ref name=cattlehowto/><ref name="Living Trees, Living Art"/> are planted and then gradually trained to form the framed shape.<ref name=TheIndependentNewpaper>{{Citation| last = Davies | first = David | title = Plant your own furniture. Watch it grow| newspaper = The Independent| pages = | date = Saturday, 1 June 1996|publisher= |location= England| url = http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/plant-your-own-furniture-watch-it-grow-1334849.html| accessdate = }}</ref> New growth may require weekly or day-to-day guidance along the predetermined design pathways.{{Citation needed|date=May 2011}} | ||
Established tree shaping starts with more mature trees, perhaps 6–12 ft. (2–3.6 m) long<ref name=Reames2/>{{rp|196}} and 3-4in (7.6–10 cm) in trunk diameter, |
Established tree shaping starts with more mature trees, perhaps 6–12 ft. (2–3.6 m) long<ref name=Reames2/>{{rp|196}} and 3-4in (7.6–10 cm) in trunk diameter,<ref name=Reames2/>{{rp|172}} which are bent into the desired design and held until cast. Understanding a tree's fluid dynamics is important to achieving the desired result.<ref name=Reames1/>{{rp|69}} | ||
==Species options== | ==Species options== | ||
Line 66: | Line 66: | ||
*''Ficus'' ]<ref name=Cherrapunjee/> | *''Ficus'' ]<ref name=Cherrapunjee/> | ||
*''Ficus microcarpa'' ]<ref name=goodwoodprimack/> | *''Ficus microcarpa'' ]<ref name=goodwoodprimack/> | ||
*''Fraxinus'' ]<ref name= |
*''Fraxinus'' ]<ref name=Wilma/><ref name=TLink/> | ||
*''Laburnum'' ]<ref name=goodwoodprimack/> | *''Laburnum'' ]<ref name=goodwoodprimack/> | ||
*''Lagerstroemia indica'' ] | *''Lagerstroemia indica'' ] | ||
Line 74: | Line 74: | ||
*''Pinus ponderosa'' ]<ref name=TLink/> | *''Pinus ponderosa'' ]<ref name=TLink/> | ||
*''Platanus'' ]<ref name=goodwoodprimack/><ref name=TLink/><ref name=openmuseum/> | *''Platanus'' ]<ref name=goodwoodprimack/><ref name=TLink/><ref name=openmuseum/> | ||
*''Populus'' ]<ref name= |
*''Populus'' ]<ref name=Wilma/><ref name=TLink/> | ||
*''Prunus'' ] | *''Prunus'' ] | ||
*''Prunus avium'' ]<ref name=TLink/> | *''Prunus avium'' ]<ref name=TLink/> | ||
Line 86: | Line 86: | ||
*''Quercus alnifolia'' ]<ref name=goodwoodprimack/> | *''Quercus alnifolia'' ]<ref name=goodwoodprimack/> | ||
*''Quercus ilex'' ]<ref name=goodwoodprimack/> | *''Quercus ilex'' ]<ref name=goodwoodprimack/> | ||
*''Quercus suber'' ]<ref name= |
*''Quercus suber'' ]<ref name=Wilma/><ref name=TLink/> | ||
*''Quercus virginiana'' ]<ref name=goodwoodprimack/> | *''Quercus virginiana'' ]<ref name=goodwoodprimack/> | ||
*''Robinia pseudoacacia'' ]<ref name=TLink/> | *''Robinia pseudoacacia'' ]<ref name=TLink/> | ||
Line 94: | Line 94: | ||
*''Tectona grandis'' ]{{Citation needed|date=June 2010}} | *''Tectona grandis'' ]{{Citation needed|date=June 2010}} | ||
*''Tilia'' ]<ref name=goodwoodprimack/> | *''Tilia'' ]<ref name=goodwoodprimack/> | ||
*''Ulmus'' ]<ref name=goodwoodprimack/><ref name= |
*''Ulmus'' ]<ref name=goodwoodprimack/><ref name=Wilma/><ref name=TLink/><ref name=openmuseum/> | ||
*''Vitis'' ]<ref name=goodwoodprimack/> | *''Vitis'' ]<ref name=goodwoodprimack/> | ||
*''Wisteria'' ]<ref name=goodwoodprimack/> | *''Wisteria'' ]<ref name=goodwoodprimack/> | ||
Line 100: | Line 100: | ||
==Techniques== | ==Techniques== | ||
A variety of ], ], and ] techniques may be used to craft an intended design. |
A variety of ], ], and ] techniques may be used to craft an intended design. Many are experimental techniques involving ongoing research.<ref name="FriendsofTAU"/><ref name=Reames2>{{Cite book|last = Reames|first = Richard| authorlink = Richard Reames|title = Arborsculpture: Solutions for a Small Planet|publisher = Arborsmith Studios|year = 2005|location = Oregon |isbn = 0964728087}}</ref>{{rp|154}} Most projects start with an idea of the intended outcome and while some begin with detailed designs and drawings,<ref name=Wilma>{{Citation| last = Erlandson| first = Wilma| title = My father "talked to trees"| place = Westview| publisher = Boulder| year = 2001| page = 22| isbn = 0-9708932-0-5}}</ref> {{rp|7}}<ref name=QSFMagazine>{{Citation| last = Volz| first = Martin | title = A Tree shaper's life. |newspaper = Queensland Smart Farmer| pages = | year = 2008| date = Oct/Nov| url =http://martinvolz.net/article6.pdf | archiveurl =| archivedate =| accessdate = }}</ref> others might be suggested by the existing features of an established plant.<ref name=Reames1>{{cite book|last=Reames|first=Richard|authorlink = Richard Reames|coauthors=Delbol, Barbara|title=How to Grow a Chair: The Art of Tree Trunk Topiary|year=1995|isbn=0-9647280-0-1}}</ref> {{rp|56-57}} | ||
===Aeroponic culture=== | ===Aeroponic culture=== | ||
] | ] | ||
The oldest known living examples of woody plant shaping are the aeroponically cultured ] built by the ancient War-Khasi people of the Cherrapunjee region in India. |
The oldest known living examples of woody plant shaping are the aeroponically cultured ] built by the ancient War-Khasi people of the Cherrapunjee region in India. These are being maintained and further developed today by the people of that region. ] growing was first formally studied by W. Carter in 1942, before the process had an English language name. Carter researched air culture growing and described "a method of growing plants in water vapor to facilitate examination of roots".<ref>Carter, W.A. (1942). ''A method of growing plants in water vapor to facilitate examination of roots.'' Phytopathology 732: 623-625.</ref> Later researchers, including L. J Klotz and G. G. Trowel, expanded on his work.<ref name="Stoner">Stoner, R.J. (1983). ''Rooting in Air.'' Greenhouse Grower Vol I No. 11</ref> In 1957, F. W. Went described "the process of growing plants with air-suspended roots and applying a nutrient mist to the root section," and in it he coined the word 'aeroponics' to describe that process. In 2008, root researcher and craftsman Ezekiel Golan described and secured a patent for a process which allows the roots of some aeroponically grown woody plants to lengthen and thicken while still remaining flexible. At lengths of perhaps {{convert|6|m|ft}} or more, the soft roots can be formed into pre-determined shapes which will continue thickening after the shapes are formed and as they continue to grow.<ref name="Golan patent">{{Citation| inventor1-last = Golan| inventor1-first = Ezekiel| title = Method and a kit for shaping a portion of a woody plant into a desired form| issue-date = 2008-02-12| patent-number = 7328532| country-code = US| description = "A method of shaping a portion of a woody plant into a desired form is provided. The method is effected by providing a root of a woody plant, shaping the root into the desired form and culturing the root under conditions suitable for secondary thickening of the root."}}</ref> | ||
Newer techniques and applications, such as ], may allow architects to design, grow, and form large permanent structures, such as homes, by shaping aeroponically grown plants and their roots.<ref name=FriendsofTAU/> | Newer techniques and applications, such as ], may allow architects to design, grow, and form large permanent structures, such as homes, by shaping aeroponically grown plants and their roots.<ref name=FriendsofTAU/> | ||
===Approach grafting=== | ===Approach grafting=== | ||
] is a common technique of this craft; exploiting the natural biological process of inosculation. |
] is a common technique of this craft; exploiting the natural biological process of inosculation. An approach graft is effected by precisely wounding two or more sections of bark and then binding the wounded parts together securely while they grow together. Physically joining two branches from one plant together, or branches from two plants with each other, can cause the ] of one ] to join with that of the other on extended contact. As new layers of wood form at each point of contact, living wood swells the design and perpetuates the intended shapes. The primary purpose of causing such a joint, in this craft, is to cause branches to fuse and form a design. | ||
===Bending=== | ===Bending=== | ||
Bending is sometimes used to achieve a design.<ref name=Reames1 /> If a plant's tissue is bent at too sharp an angle it may break, which can be mostly avoided by un-localizing the bend. |
Bending is sometimes used to achieve a design.<ref name=Reames1 /> If a plant's tissue is bent at too sharp an angle it may break, which can be mostly avoided by un-localizing the bend. This is achieved by making small bends along the curve of the tree. Bends are then held in place for several years until their form is permanently cast.<ref name=Reames1 /> {{rp|80}} The tree's rate of growth determines the time necessary to overcome its resistance to the initial bending.<ref name=Reames2 />{{rp|178}} The work of bending and securing in this way might be accomplished in an hour or perhaps in an afternoon depending on the design.{{Citation needed|date=May 2011}} | ||
===Creasing=== | ===Creasing=== | ||
Line 117: | Line 117: | ||
===Framing=== | ===Framing=== | ||
Framing may be used for various purposes and might consist of any one or a combination of several materials, such as ], ], tubes made of hollow plant parts, complex wire designs<ref name=QSFMagazine/> |
Framing may be used for various purposes and might consist of any one or a combination of several materials, such as ], ], tubes made of hollow plant parts, complex wire designs,<ref name=QSFMagazine/> wooden jigs,<ref name=TheIndependentNewpaper/> or the shaped woody plant itself.<ref name=Reames2 />{{rp|178}} It can be used in many project designs to support grafted joints until the grafts are well-established. Some projects might employ framing to hold a shape created by bending or fletching mature wood until the wood tissues have overcome their resistance to the initial bending and grown enough annual rings to cast the design permanently.<ref name=Reames2/> Others might use framing to support and shape the growth of young saplings until they are strong enough to maintain an intended shape without support. Still other approaches might employ frames to guide the roots of aeroponically grown woody plants into desired patterns. | ||
===Pruning=== | ===Pruning=== | ||
] can be used to balance a design by controlling and directing growth into a desired shape. Pruning above a ] can steer plant growth in the direction of the natural placement of that leaf bud. |
] can be used to balance a design by controlling and directing growth into a desired shape. Pruning above a ] can steer plant growth in the direction of the natural placement of that leaf bud. Pruning may also be used to keep a design free of unwanted branches and to reduce canopy size. Pruning is sometimes the only technique used to craft a project. Deciduous trees are mainly pruned in winter, while they are dormant above-ground, although sometimes it is necessary to prune them during the growing season. Trees repeatedly subjected to hard pruning may experience stunted growth, and some trees may not survive this treatment. | ||
===Ring barking=== | ===Ring barking=== | ||
Line 129: | Line 129: | ||
The time needed to grow and construct a project depends on many variables, including the size of targeted trees, the growth rate of species chosen for the design, the intended design height, the combination of design options chosen, the individual cultivation details, the local ] conditions, and the specific techniques used. | The time needed to grow and construct a project depends on many variables, including the size of targeted trees, the growth rate of species chosen for the design, the intended design height, the combination of design options chosen, the individual cultivation details, the local ] conditions, and the specific techniques used. | ||
It is possible to perform initial bending and grafting on a project in an hour, as with ] by Richard Reames,<ref name=Reames1>{{Citation|last=Reames|first=Richard|authorlink = Richard Reames|coauthors=Delbol, Barbara|title=How to Grow a Chair: The Art of Tree Trunk Topiary|year=1995|isbn=0-9647280-0-1}}</ref>{{rp|56–57 |
It is possible to perform initial bending and grafting on a project in an hour, as with ] by Richard Reames,<ref name=Reames2/>{{rp|193}}<ref name=Reames1>{{Citation|last=Reames|first=Richard|authorlink = Richard Reames|coauthors=Delbol, Barbara|title=How to Grow a Chair: The Art of Tree Trunk Topiary|year=1995|isbn=0-9647280-0-1}}</ref>{{rp|56–57}} removing supports in as little as a year and following up with minimal pruning thereafter.<ref name=TLink>{{Citation| last = Link| first = Tracey| title = Arborsculpture: An Emerging Art Form and Solutions to our Environment| chapter = Senior project for Bachelor of Science degree in Landscape Architecture|page=15| page = 41| date = June 13, 2008| url = http://lda.ucdavis.edu/people/2008/TLink.pdf}}</ref> As little as one season of guiding growth might be enough to form a design, and then longer for the wood to grow and thicken to the desired size. A project might be intended for immediate harvest and drying at design maturity, or instead might remain permanently installed in its original medium for the life of the trees and beyond. Larger designs may take a few to several years to achieve design height and perhaps several more years for the wood caliper to increase to the desired size. | ||
For example, a chair design might take 8 to 10 years to reach maturity<ref name=farmshowmagazine>{{Citation|title =''Money Making Ideas to Boost Farm Income: Artists Shape Trees into Furniture and Art''|magazine=Farm Show Magazine|page=9, vol.32 no.4|date=june/august 2008|url=http://www.pooktre.com/pdf/09.pdf|archiveurl=http://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:wIzx8ZvyptYJ:www.pooktre.com/pdf/09.pdf+Pooktre+Australia+business+listing&hl=en&gl=us&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEEShMmIiNXLAK_8-4NqCp4yBdhlHWNm74dzjyRFVBVkPBYbkYSrs4zYok-jziCpbVZEkwxQ3m_75ICOiPzqwaEsjH1VMefalYsCWEb99StcD3hRhJiMZT1zubEX5Ma1TfTKIQbUy4&sig=AHIEtbQ42sQuAmPrngvKyvjoml5flwUa6A|archivedate=unknown date|accessdate=2010-05-08}}</ref> and might then either remain growing, as with the living ], or perhaps be harvested as a finished work, as with Krubsak's ''The Chair that Lived''. Some component specimens may not grow or survive precisely as planned, so some pieces and even the designs themselves may require adjustment to accommodate the lost components. Taller architectural projects, such as ''Two Leg Tree'' by Axel Erlandson, may require 10 years of growth or more to accomplish even the first grafting.{{Citation needed|date=June 2010}} Eventually, they all die, since each living tree has a lifespan. | For example, a chair design might take 8 to 10 years to reach maturity<ref name=farmshowmagazine>{{Citation|title =''Money Making Ideas to Boost Farm Income: Artists Shape Trees into Furniture and Art''|magazine=Farm Show Magazine|page=9, vol.32 no.4|date=june/august 2008|url=http://www.pooktre.com/pdf/09.pdf|archiveurl=http://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:wIzx8ZvyptYJ:www.pooktre.com/pdf/09.pdf+Pooktre+Australia+business+listing&hl=en&gl=us&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEEShMmIiNXLAK_8-4NqCp4yBdhlHWNm74dzjyRFVBVkPBYbkYSrs4zYok-jziCpbVZEkwxQ3m_75ICOiPzqwaEsjH1VMefalYsCWEb99StcD3hRhJiMZT1zubEX5Ma1TfTKIQbUy4&sig=AHIEtbQ42sQuAmPrngvKyvjoml5flwUa6A|archivedate=unknown date|accessdate=2010-05-08}}</ref> and might then either remain growing, as with the living ], or perhaps be harvested as a finished work, as with Krubsak's ''The Chair that Lived''. Some component specimens may not grow or survive precisely as planned, so some pieces and even the designs themselves may require adjustment to accommodate the lost components. Taller architectural projects, such as ''Two Leg Tree'' by Axel Erlandson, may require 10 years of growth or more to accomplish even the first grafting.{{Citation needed|date=June 2010}} Eventually, they all die, since each living tree has a lifespan. | ||
Line 150: | Line 150: | ||
{{Clear}} | {{Clear}} | ||
===Axel Erlandson=== | ===Axel Erlandson=== | ||
{{Double image|right|Erlandson basket.jpg|{{#expr: (160 * (288 / 435)) round 0}}|Needle n thread.jpg|{{#expr: (160 * (238 / 349)) round 0}}|''Basket Tree'' by ]|''Needle & Thread Tree'' by ]}} | {{Double image|right|Erlandson basket.jpg|{{#expr: (160 * (288 / 435)) round 0}}|Needle n thread.jpg|{{#expr: (160 * (238 / 349)) round 0}}|''Basket Tree'' by ]|''Needle & Thread Tree'' by ]}} | ||
Line 157: | Line 158: | ||
{{Clear}} | {{Clear}} | ||
===Arthur Wiechula=== | ===Arthur Wiechula=== | ||
] | ] | ||
Line 162: | Line 164: | ||
{{Clear}} | {{Clear}} | ||
===David Nash=== | ===David Nash=== | ||
] is a ] ], born in 1945 and based in ], in ], ] ]. He is perhaps best known for his sculptures incorporating living elements. In 1977 he installed ''Ash Dome'', 22 ash trees planted in a ring on his property, near his home at Cae'n-y-coed in north Wales. Nearly 30 years later, the work was just taking on the domed form that he had planned for and intended when he first began.<ref name="renamed_from_2004_on_20101220232609">{{cite web|url=http://coetirmynydd.co.uk/menulesspages/ashdome.html |title=David Nash's Ash Dome |publisher=Coetirmynydd.co.uk |date=2004-09-25 |accessdate=2010-04-13}}</ref><ref name=sculpture.org>{{cite web| last = Grande | first = John| title = Real Living Art: A Conversation with David Nash| work = Sculpture: Vol. 20, No. 10| publisher = International Sculpture Center| year = 2001| url = http://www.sculpture.org/documents/scmag01/dec01/nash/nash.shtml| accessdate = 2010-05-13}}</ref> | ] is a ] ], born in 1945 and based in ], in ], ] ]. He is perhaps best known for his sculptures incorporating living elements. In 1977 he installed ''Ash Dome'', 22 ash trees planted in a ring on his property, near his home at Cae'n-y-coed in north Wales. Nearly 30 years later, the work was just taking on the domed form that he had planned for and intended when he first began.<ref name="renamed_from_2004_on_20101220232609">{{cite web|url=http://coetirmynydd.co.uk/menulesspages/ashdome.html |title=David Nash's Ash Dome |publisher=Coetirmynydd.co.uk |date=2004-09-25 |accessdate=2010-04-13}}</ref><ref name=sculpture.org>{{cite web| last = Grande | first = John| title = Real Living Art: A Conversation with David Nash| work = Sculpture: Vol. 20, No. 10| publisher = International Sculpture Center| year = 2001| url = http://www.sculpture.org/documents/scmag01/dec01/nash/nash.shtml| accessdate = 2010-05-13}}</ref> | ||
Line 167: | Line 170: | ||
===Dan Ladd=== | ===Dan Ladd=== | ||
Dan Ladd is an American artist who works with trees and gourds. He is based in Florida,<ref name=CassidyRIHLD/> He began experimenting with ], ], and ] inclusions in trees in 1977 in Vermont and started planting trees for '''Extreme Nature''' in 1978.<ref name=openmuseum/> He became inspired by inosculation he noticed in nature and by the growth of tree trunks around man-made objects such as ]s and idle ].<ref name=openmuseum/> He shapes and grafts trees, including their ]s and their roots, into architectural and ] forms.<ref name=openmuseum>{{Citation| last = Ladd| first = Dan| date = 2009-01-22| title = Sculpturefest 2008: Daniel Ladd| url = http://www.openmuseum.org/objet/show/237?facet=837| accessdate =2010-06-14 }}</ref> Ladd calls human-initiated inosculation 'pleaching' and calls his own work 'tree sculpture'.<ref name=openmuseum/> Ladd binds a variety of objects to trees, for live wood to grow around and be incorporated, including teacups, bicycle wheels, headstones, steel spheres, water piping, and electrical conduit.<ref name=openmuseum/> He guides roots into shapes, such as stairs, using above-ground wooden and ] forms and even shapes woody, hard-shelled ]s by allowing them to grow into detailed molds.<ref name=Laddsite>{{cite web|url=http://danladd.com/ |title=Dan Ladd's home page |publisher=Dan Ladd |date= |accessdate=2010-05-09}}</ref><ref name="Shaw2002"> October 10, 2006.</ref> A current project at the ] in ] incorporates eleven ] trees grafted next to each other to form a long hillside stair banister. Another of his installations, ''Three Arches'', consists of |
Dan Ladd is an American artist who works with trees and gourds. He is based in Florida,<ref name=CassidyRIHLD/> He began experimenting with ], ], and ] inclusions in trees in 1977 in Vermont and started planting trees for '''Extreme Nature''' in 1978.<ref name=openmuseum/> He became inspired by inosculation he noticed in nature and by the growth of tree trunks around man-made objects such as ]s and idle ].<ref name=openmuseum/> He shapes and grafts trees, including their ]s and their roots, into architectural and ] forms.<ref name=openmuseum>{{Citation| last = Ladd| first = Dan| date = 2009-01-22| title = Sculpturefest 2008: Daniel Ladd| url = http://www.openmuseum.org/objet/show/237?facet=837| accessdate =2010-06-14 }}</ref> Ladd calls human-initiated inosculation 'pleaching' and calls his own work 'tree sculpture'.<ref name=openmuseum/> Ladd binds a variety of objects to trees, for live wood to grow around and be incorporated, including teacups, bicycle wheels, headstones, steel spheres, water piping, and electrical conduit.<ref name=openmuseum/> He guides roots into shapes, such as stairs, using above-ground wooden and ] forms and even shapes woody, hard-shelled ]s by allowing them to grow into detailed molds.<ref name=Laddsite>{{cite web|url=http://danladd.com/ |title=Dan Ladd's home page |publisher=Dan Ladd |date= |accessdate=2010-05-09}}</ref><ref name="Shaw2002"> October 10, 2006.</ref> A current project at the ] in ] incorporates eleven ] trees grafted next to each other to form a long hillside stair banister. Another of his installations, ''Three Arches'', consists of three pairs of 14-foot ] trees, which he ] into ]es to frame different city views, at ] in ].<ref name=CassidyRIHLD/><ref name=TribLiveNews>{{Citation| last = Shaw| first =Kurt | title =Persephone Project promotes gardening as contemporary art medium| newspaper = TribLiveNews | date = August 11, 2002| url =http://www.pittsburghlive.com/x/pittsburghtrib/s_85186.html | archiveurl =| archivedate =| accessdate =2010-06-30}}</ref> | ||
===Nirandr Boonnetr=== | ===Nirandr Boonnetr=== | ||
Nirandr Boonnetr is a ] ]er and crafter. He became inspired as a child, both by a photograph of some unusually twisted ] palms in southern ] and by a living fallen tree he noticed, which had grown new branches along its trunk, forming a kind of canopied bridge.<ref name=Reames2/> His hobby began in 1980 because of his concern the Thailand forests are being ravaged by woodcarvers to the point that one day the industry would eventually carve itself out of existence.<ref name=Sundaymail>{{Citation| title = No need to pull up a stump:Short of garden funiture?| newspaper = Sunday mail| reporter = Steve Rhodes | pages = | year = 2003| date = 6, April|url =| archiveurl =| archivedate =| accessdate =}}</ref> He began his first piece, a guava chair, around 1983.<ref name=Reames2/> Originally intended as something for his children to climb and play on, the piece evolved into a living tree chair.<ref name=Reames2/>{{rp|91}} In fifteen years he created six pieces of "living furniture," |
Nirandr Boonnetr is a ] ]er and crafter. He became inspired as a child, both by a photograph of some unusually twisted ] palms in southern ] and by a living fallen tree he noticed, which had grown new branches along its trunk, forming a kind of canopied bridge.<ref name=Reames2/> His hobby began in 1980 because of his concern the Thailand forests are being ravaged by woodcarvers to the point that one day the industry would eventually carve itself out of existence.<ref name=Sundaymail>{{Citation| title = No need to pull up a stump:Short of garden funiture?| newspaper = Sunday mail| reporter = Steve Rhodes | pages = | year = 2003| date = 6, April|url =| archiveurl =| archivedate =| accessdate =}}</ref> He began his first piece, a guava chair, around 1983.<ref name=Reames2/> Originally intended as something for his children to climb and play on, the piece evolved into a living tree chair.<ref name=Reames2/>{{rp|91}} In fifteen years he created six pieces of "living furniture,"<ref name=Sundaymail/> including five chairs and a table. The Bangkok Post dubbed him the father of Living Furniture.<ref name=Reames2/><ref name="renamed_from_1996_on_20101220232609">{{Citation| title = The father of Living Furniture| newspaper = Bangkok Post| pages = | year = | date = January 16, 1996| url = | archiveurl =| archivedate =| accessdate = }}</ref> Shortly thereafter, he presented a chair as a gift to her Royal Highness, ]<!--I'm changing this tentatively to her, and to princess, because Sirinthorn is the King's daughter. If it turns out that the gift was to the Crown Prince, which is Vajiralongkorn, we can edit accordingly. both have their own wiki articles as does the Thai Royal Family, which see.-->. Nirandr Boonnetr has written a detailed, step-by-step booklet of instructions hoping his hobby of living furniture will spread to other countries.<ref name=Sundaymail/> One of his chairs was exhibited in the Growing Village pavilion at the ] ] in ], ], ]. | ||
===Peter Cook and Becky Northey=== | ===Peter Cook and Becky Northey=== | ||
Line 183: | Line 186: | ||
===Richard Reames=== | ===Richard Reames=== | ||
] entitled ''Peace in Cherry'', depicting the ] logo]]] is an American arborsculptor<ref name=VWANewsletter>{{Citation| title = Arbor Sculpture: "If you like I'll grow you a mirror"| newsletter = The Cutting Edge; the Newsletter of the Victorian Woodworkers Association, Inc.| page = 16| date = June 2006| url = http://www.vwa.org.au/newsletter/Archive06/June%20Newsletter%202006.pdf| accessdate =2010-05-15 }}</ref> based in ], where he manages a ], ], and ] collectively named Arborsmith Studios.<ref name=arborsmith>{{Citation|title=Biography of Richard Reames|url=http://arborsmith.com/bio.html|accessdate =2010-06-27}}</ref><ref name=companydb.org>{{Citation|title=Company profile: Arborsmith Studios|url=http://companydatabase.org/c/garden-ornaments/ornamental-trees/art-garden/furniture-garden/arborsmith-studios.html}}</ref> He was inspired by the works of Axel Erlandson,<ref name= |
] entitled ''Peace in Cherry'', depicting the ] logo]]] is an American arborsculptor<ref name=VWANewsletter>{{Citation| title = Arbor Sculpture: "If you like I'll grow you a mirror"| newsletter = The Cutting Edge; the Newsletter of the Victorian Woodworkers Association, Inc.| page = 16| date = June 2006| url = http://www.vwa.org.au/newsletter/Archive06/June%20Newsletter%202006.pdf| accessdate =2010-05-15 }}</ref> based in ], where he manages a ], ], and ] collectively named Arborsmith Studios.<ref name=arborsmith>{{Citation|title=Biography of Richard Reames|url=http://arborsmith.com/bio.html|accessdate =2010-06-27}}</ref><ref name=companydb.org>{{Citation|title=Company profile: Arborsmith Studios|url=http://companydatabase.org/c/garden-ornaments/ornamental-trees/art-garden/furniture-garden/arborsmith-studios.html}}</ref> He was inspired by the works of Axel Erlandson,<ref name=Reames2/>{{rp|150}}<ref name=Reames1/>{{rp|16}}<ref name="Okenga2001">{{Citation|last=Okenga|first=S.|title=Eden on Their Minds: American Gardeners with Bold Visions|publisher=Clarkson Potter|year=2001|page=110|isbn=0-609-605879}}</ref> and began sculpting trees in 1991<ref name=nestor>{{Citation| last = Nestor| first = James| title = Branching Out| magazine = Dwell|page=96|publisher=Dwell, LLC| date = February 2007| url = http://www.dwell.com/articles/branching-out.html | accessdate = 2010-06-15}}</ref> or 1992.<ref name=Hicks>{{Citation| last = Hicks| first = Ivan| last2 = Rosenfeld| first2 = Richard|last3=Whitworth|first3=Jo| title = Tricks with Trees| publisher = Pavilion Books| year = 2007| page =123| page =160| url = http://books.google.com/?id=WDy1fnWXsN8C&dq=arborsculptor&cd=26| isbn = 1-86205-734-6}}</ref> By 2007, he had grown over 100 pieces, including chairs and other furniture, sculptures, fences, tool handles, and ].<ref name=nestor/> He began his first experimental grown chairs<ref name=Reames1/>{{rp|57}} in the spring of 1993.<ref name=Reames1/>{{rp|85}} | ||
In 1995, Reames wrote and published his first book, ''How to Grow a Chair: The Art of Tree Trunk Topiary.'' In it, he coined the word '''arborsculpture'''.<ref name=Reames1/> | In 1995, Reames wrote and published his first book, ''How to Grow a Chair: The Art of Tree Trunk Topiary.'' In it, he coined the word '''arborsculpture'''.<ref name=Reames1/> | ||
Line 195: | Line 198: | ||
Cattle has multiple plantings in at least four different locations in England. He participates in woodland and craft shows in England and at the Big Tent at ] in ]. He exhibited his grown stools at the World's Fair Expo 2005 in the Growing Village pavilion at Nagakute, Japan.<ref name=cattlehomepage/> | Cattle has multiple plantings in at least four different locations in England. He participates in woodland and craft shows in England and at the Big Tent at ] in ]. He exhibited his grown stools at the World's Fair Expo 2005 in the Growing Village pavilion at Nagakute, Japan.<ref name=cattlehomepage/> | ||
He aims to encourage as many people as possible to grow their own furniture,<ref name=CassidyRIHLD/><ref name=MERLpressrelease/> and envisions that, "One day, furniture factories could be replaced by furniture orchards."<ref name=CassidyRIHLD/> Cattle calls his works '''grown up furniture'''<ref name=cattlehomepage/><!--several citations removed here, as overkill and unnecessary to support the point; his self-pub website calling his stools is adequate and ok to cite in his bio. |
He aims to encourage as many people as possible to grow their own furniture,<ref name=CassidyRIHLD/><ref name=MERLpressrelease/> and envisions that, "One day, furniture factories could be replaced by furniture orchards."<ref name=CassidyRIHLD/> Cattle calls his works '''grown up furniture'''<ref name=cattlehomepage/><!--several citations removed here, as overkill and unnecessary to support the point; his self-pub website calling his stools is adequate and ok to cite in his bio. Cites recorded for posterity at ] subpage.--> and '''grown stools''',<ref name=cattleexamples>{{cite web| last = Cattle| first = Christopher| url = http://www.grown-furniture.co.uk/examples.html | title = grown furniture examples| publisher = Christopher Cattle| accessdate = 2010-06-14}}</ref> but also refers to them as grown furniture, calling them "the result of mature thinking."<ref name=cattlehomepage/> | ||
{{Clear}} | {{Clear}} | ||
===Mr. Wu=== | ===Mr. Wu=== | ||
Mr. Wu is a ] ]<ref name=ChinaMBV/> who designs and crafts furniture in ], ].<ref name=ChinaMBV>{{Citation| title = Five year deliveries| date =2-11-2005|newspaper= China Morning Business View|publisher =AccessMyLibrary, via CMP Information Ltd., via The Gale Group|location=Farmington, Michigan| year = 2003| url = http://www.accessmylibrary.com/article-1G1-128650642/five-year-deliveries-china.html| accessdate = 06-15-2010}}</ref><ref name=flatrocktreetise>{{Citation| title = Treet Them Well| date = 2 February 2005|publisher=Chaotic Web Development, via ananova.com)| url = http://www.flatrock.org.nz/topics/environment/treetise.htm | accessdate =2010-06-15 }}</ref> He has patented his technique of growing wooden chairs and as of 2005, had designed, grown, and harvested one chair, in 2004, and had six more growing in his garden.<ref name=flatrocktreetise/> Wu uses young elm trees,<ref name=pqarchiverNYPost>{{Citation| last = Hoffman| first = Bill |last2=Wire Services| title = Weird But True| newspaper = New York Post|edition=news| page = 23| date = 2-3-2005| url = http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/nypost/access/788428831.html?dids=788428831:788428831&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Feb+03%2C+2005&author=Bill+Hoffmann%2C+Wire+Services&pub=New+York+Post&desc=WEIRD+BUT+TRUE&pqatl=google| accessdate =2010-06-15 }}</ref> which he says are pliant and do not break easily.<ref name=flatrocktreetise/> He also says that it takes him about five years to grow a tree chair.<ref name=ChinaMBV/> | Mr. Wu is a ] ]<ref name=ChinaMBV/> who designs and crafts furniture in ], ].<ref name=ChinaMBV>{{Citation| title = Five year deliveries| date =2-11-2005|newspaper= China Morning Business View|publisher =AccessMyLibrary, via CMP Information Ltd., via The Gale Group|location=Farmington, Michigan| year = 2003| url = http://www.accessmylibrary.com/article-1G1-128650642/five-year-deliveries-china.html| accessdate = 06-15-2010}}</ref><ref name=flatrocktreetise>{{Citation| title = Treet Them Well| date = 2 February 2005|publisher=Chaotic Web Development, via ananova.com)| url = http://www.flatrock.org.nz/topics/environment/treetise.htm | accessdate =2010-06-15 }}</ref> He has patented his technique of growing wooden chairs and as of 2005, had designed, grown, and harvested one chair, in 2004, and had six more growing in his garden.<ref name=flatrocktreetise/> Wu uses young elm trees,<ref name=pqarchiverNYPost>{{Citation| last = Hoffman| first = Bill |last2=Wire Services| title = Weird But True| newspaper = New York Post|edition=news| page = 23| date = 2-3-2005| url = http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/nypost/access/788428831.html?dids=788428831:788428831&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Feb+03%2C+2005&author=Bill+Hoffmann%2C+Wire+Services&pub=New+York+Post&desc=WEIRD+BUT+TRUE&pqatl=google| accessdate =2010-06-15 }}</ref> which he says are pliant and do not break easily.<ref name=flatrocktreetise/> He also says that it takes him about five years to grow a tree chair.<ref name=ChinaMBV/> | ||
Line 212: | Line 216: | ||
;Topiary | ;Topiary | ||
] is the ] practice of sculpturing live ]s, by clipping the ] and ] of ] and shrubs to develop and maintain clearly defined shapes,<ref name=Coombs>{{Citation| last = Coombs| first =Duncan | last2 = Blackburne-Maze| first2 = Peter| last3 = Cracknell | first3 =Martyn| last4 = Bentley| first4 = Roger| title =The Complete Book of Pruning | publisher = Sterling Publishing Company| year =2001 | edition = illustrated| chapter =9| page =99| page =224| url =http://books.google.com/?id=Le1pi3Vz31wC&pg=PA99&dq=topiary+is&q=topiary%20is| isbn = 9781841881430}}</ref> often geometric or fanciful. The ] is a simple form of topiary used to create boundaries, walls or screens. |
] is the ] practice of sculpturing live ]s, by clipping the ] and ] of ] and shrubs to develop and maintain clearly defined shapes,<ref name=Coombs>{{Citation| last = Coombs| first =Duncan | last2 = Blackburne-Maze| first2 = Peter| last3 = Cracknell | first3 =Martyn| last4 = Bentley| first4 = Roger| title =The Complete Book of Pruning | publisher = Sterling Publishing Company| year =2001 | edition = illustrated| chapter =9| page =99| page =224| url =http://books.google.com/?id=Le1pi3Vz31wC&pg=PA99&dq=topiary+is&q=topiary%20is| isbn = 9781841881430}}</ref> often geometric or fanciful. The ] is a simple form of topiary used to create boundaries, walls or screens. Topiary always involves regular shearing and shaping of foliage to maintain the shape. | ||
==Other names== | ==Other names== | ||
Line 228: | Line 232: | ||
*{{Cite journal|last = Foer| first =Joshua | last2 = Reames| first2 = Richard | author2-link = Richard Reames|title=How to Grow a Chair: An Interview with Richard Reames|magazine=Cabinet Magazine|date= Winter 2005–2006|url=http://www.cabinetmagazine.org/issues/20/foer.php|accessdate=2010-05-15}} | *{{Cite journal|last = Foer| first =Joshua | last2 = Reames| first2 = Richard | author2-link = Richard Reames|title=How to Grow a Chair: An Interview with Richard Reames|magazine=Cabinet Magazine|date= Winter 2005–2006|url=http://www.cabinetmagazine.org/issues/20/foer.php|accessdate=2010-05-15}} | ||
*{{Citation| title = Landscape Architecture| journal = American Society of Landscape Architects| volume = 90| issue = 10–12| year = 2000| url = http://books.google.com/?id=QXpMAAAAYAAJ&q=arborsculptor&dq=arborsculptor&cd=4}} | *{{Citation| title = Landscape Architecture| journal = American Society of Landscape Architects| volume = 90| issue = 10–12| year = 2000| url = http://books.google.com/?id=QXpMAAAAYAAJ&q=arborsculptor&dq=arborsculptor&cd=4}} | ||
*{{Citation|publication=In the Shade newsletter|title=The Tree Circus|date=March 2007|volume=30|number=5|page=8|author=Pat Wentworth|publisher=International Society of Arboriculture; Texas Chapter|url=http://www.isatexas.com/images/newsletters/ISAT%20Newsltr%200307%20color.pdf| |
*{{Citation|publication=In the Shade newsletter|title=The Tree Circus|date=March 2007|volume=30|number=5|page=8|author=Pat Wentworth|publisher=International Society of Arboriculture; Texas Chapter|url=http://www.isatexas.com/images/newsletters/ISAT%20Newsltr%200307%20color.pdf|accessdate=June 2, 2011}} | ||
*{{Citation|publication=Slosson Report 98-99|title=Fair Oaks Orchard Demonstration Project|author=Chuck Ingels| |
*{{Citation|publication=Slosson Report 98-99|title=Fair Oaks Orchard Demonstration Project|author=Chuck Ingels|year=1999|page=2|publisher=University of California @ Davis|url=http://slosson.ucdavis.edu/newsletters/Ingels_199929058.pdf|accessdate=2011-06-10}} | ||
*{{Citation|publication=MSU Monroe Master Gardener Newsletter|title=Educational Opportunities|date=March 2007|page=6|publisher=Michigan State University Extension|url=http://web1.msue.msu.edu/monroe/MGNewsArchives/mgnewsletterMar07.pdf| |
*{{Citation|publication=MSU Monroe Master Gardener Newsletter|title=Educational Opportunities|date=March 2007|page=6|publisher=Michigan State University Extension|url=http://web1.msue.msu.edu/monroe/MGNewsArchives/mgnewsletterMar07.pdf|accessdate=|2011-06-10}} | ||
*{{Citation|first=John|last=May|title=The Art of Arborsculpture|publication=Tree News http://www.treenews.org.uk/|page=37|date=Spring/Summer 2005|publisher=The Tree Council http://www.treecouncil.org.uk/}} | *{{Citation|first=John|last=May|title=The Art of Arborsculpture|publication=Tree News http://www.treenews.org.uk/|page=37|date=Spring/Summer 2005|publisher=The Tree Council http://www.treecouncil.org.uk/}} | ||
*{{Cite episode| title= Fantasy Trees|series= Tree Stories|number= 103}} | *{{Cite episode| title= Fantasy Trees|series= Tree Stories|number= 103}} | ||
*{{Cite episode|title=Offbeat America|number=OB310|airdate= |
*{{Cite episode|title=Offbeat America|number=OB310|airdate=December 4, 2006}} | ||
*{{Citation| last = Ingels| first = C.| last2 = Geisel| first2 = P.|last3=Norton|first3=M| title = The home orchard: growing your own deciduous fruit and nut trees| publisher = ANR Publications| year = 2007| chapter =8| chapterurl =http://books.google.com/books?id=g7-hK5l7jS4C&lpg=PA121&dq=arborsculptor&lr&as_brr=0&pg=PA120#v=onepage&q&f=false| pages =120–122, 192| length =202| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=g7-hK5l7jS4C&lpg=PA121&dq=arborsculptor&lr&as_brr=0&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false| isbn = 9781879906723}} | *{{Citation| last = Ingels| first = C.| last2 = Geisel| first2 = P.|last3=Norton|first3=M| title = The home orchard: growing your own deciduous fruit and nut trees| publisher = ANR Publications| year = 2007| chapter =8| chapterurl =http://books.google.com/books?id=g7-hK5l7jS4C&lpg=PA121&dq=arborsculptor&lr&as_brr=0&pg=PA120#v=onepage&q&f=false| pages =120–122, 192| length =202| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=g7-hK5l7jS4C&lpg=PA121&dq=arborsculptor&lr&as_brr=0&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false| isbn = 9781879906723}} | ||
*{{Citation| last = Nadkarni| first = Nalini| title = Between Earth and Sky: Our Intimate Connections to Trees| publisher = University of California Press| year = 2008| edition = illustrated| chapter =5|page=154| chapterurl =http://books.google.com/books?id=9ZysXoComdoC&lpg=PA154&dq=arborsculptor&lr&as_brr=0&pg=PA135#v=onepage&q&f=false| length =322| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=9ZysXoComdoC&lpg=PA154&dq=arborsculptor&lr&as_brr=0&pg=PA154#v=onepage&q=arborsculpture&f=false| |
*{{Citation| last = Nadkarni| first = Nalini| title = Between Earth and Sky: Our Intimate Connections to Trees| publisher = University of California Press| year = 2008| edition = illustrated| chapter =5|page=154| chapterurl =http://books.google.com/books?id=9ZysXoComdoC&lpg=PA154&dq=arborsculptor&lr&as_brr=0&pg=PA135#v=onepage&q&f=false| length =322| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=9ZysXoComdoC&lpg=PA154&dq=arborsculptor&lr&as_brr=0&pg=PA154#v=onepage&q=arborsculpture&f=false|accessdate=2011-06-10 isbn =9780520248564 }} | ||
*{{cite book|last=Cassidy|first=Patti|title=Art to Grow|publisher=Acreage Life (Canada)|date=April/May 2006|page=17}} | *{{cite book|last=Cassidy|first=Patti|title=Art to Grow|publisher=Acreage Life (Canada)|date=April/May 2006|page=17}} | ||
*{{Citation|last=Cassidy|first=Patti|date= January/February 2009|title=Planting Your Future|publication=Hobby Farm Home Magazine|page=74}} | *{{Citation|last=Cassidy|first=Patti|date= January/February 2009|title=Planting Your Future|publication=Hobby Farm Home Magazine|page=74}} | ||
*{{Citation|title=Arborsculpture: A Living Art - and the Art of Living|publisher=Thomas Jefferson High School for Science and Technology: Science Frontiers|url=http://activities.tjhsst.edu/scifront/articles/arborsculpture.html| |
*{{Citation|title=Arborsculpture: A Living Art - and the Art of Living|publisher=Thomas Jefferson High School for Science and Technology: Science Frontiers|url=http://activities.tjhsst.edu/scifront/articles/arborsculpture.html|accessdate=2011-06-10}} | ||
*{{Citation|first=Jules|last=Janick|title=Horticultural Reviews|volume=35|page=443|length=529|publisher=John Wiley and Sons|year=2009|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=mOwRnHQivb4C&dq=arborsculpture&q=arborsculpture#v=snippet&q=arborsculpture&f=false|isbn=9780470386422}} | *{{Citation|first=Jules|last=Janick|title=Horticultural Reviews|volume=35|page=443|length=529|publisher=John Wiley and Sons|year=2009|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=mOwRnHQivb4C&dq=arborsculpture&q=arborsculpture#v=snippet&q=arborsculpture&f=false|isbn=9780470386422}} | ||
*{{Citation|title=Living Sculpture|publisher=Department of Horticulture, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Cornell University| |
*{{Citation|title=Living Sculpture|publisher=Department of Horticulture, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Cornell University|year=2008|url=http://www.hort.cornell.edu/livingsculpture/tree_sculpture/index.htm|accessdate=2011-06-10}} | ||
*{{Citation|title=Axel Erlandson|publisher=University of Vermont, Department of Plant and Soil Science, Dr. Leonard Perry and University of Vermont Cooperative Extension|url=http://www.uvm.edu/pss/ppp/aerland.htm| |
*{{Citation|title=Axel Erlandson|publisher=University of Vermont, Department of Plant and Soil Science, Dr. Leonard Perry and University of Vermont Cooperative Extension|url=http://www.uvm.edu/pss/ppp/aerland.htm|accessdate=2011-06-10}} | ||
*{{Citation|first=Midori|last=Snyder, Editor|title=:To Grow a Chair|publisher=Journal of Mythic Arts|date=2006-11-04| |
*{{Citation|first=Midori|last=Snyder, Editor|title=:To Grow a Chair|publisher=Journal of Mythic Arts|date=2006-11-04|accessdate=2011-06-10}} | ||
*{{Citation|title=California Landscape Contractors Association North Coast Journal|page=2|publisher=California Landscape Contractors Association, North Coast Chapter|date=August 2010|url=http://www.clcanorthcoastchapter.org/newsletters/NorthCoastJournal_August_2010.pdf| |
*{{Citation|title=California Landscape Contractors Association North Coast Journal|page=2|publisher=California Landscape Contractors Association, North Coast Chapter|date=August 2010|url=http://www.clcanorthcoastchapter.org/newsletters/NorthCoastJournal_August_2010.pdf|accessdate=2011-06-10}} | ||
*{{Citation| |
*{{Citation|first=Neil|last=Greenberg|title=Environmental Semester:Resources for the interdisciplinary study of Environmentalism and nature|publisher=University of Tennessee, Knoxville|year=2003|url=http://environmentalsemester.utk.edu/resources.html|accessdate=2011-06-10}} | ||
*{{Cite web|title=Cattle website: Wayback archive, February 2008| url=http://www.grown-furniture.co.uk/|archiveurl =http://web.archive.org/web/20080225153523re_/www.grown-furniture.co.uk/|archivedate=2008-02-25|access date 2011-06-10}} | *{{Cite web|title=Cattle website: Wayback archive, February 2008| url=http://www.grown-furniture.co.uk/|archiveurl =http://web.archive.org/web/20080225153523re_/www.grown-furniture.co.uk/|archivedate=2008-02-25|access date 2011-06-10}} | ||
*{{Citation|first=Jaya|last=Jiwatram|title=We're going to Live in the Trees|publisher=Popular Science Magazine|date=2008-08-25|url=http://www.popsci.com/jaya-jiwatram/article/2008-08/were-going-live-trees| |
*{{Citation|first=Jaya|last=Jiwatram|title=We're going to Live in the Trees|publisher=Popular Science Magazine|date=2008-08-25|url=http://www.popsci.com/jaya-jiwatram/article/2008-08/were-going-live-trees|accessdate=2011-06-10}} | ||
</ref> | </ref> | ||
*'''Arbortecture''' |
*'''Arbortecture'''<ref> | ||
*{{Citation| last = Nestor| first = James| title = Branching Out| magazine = Dwell|page=96|publisher=Dwell, LLC| date = February 2007| url = http://www.dwell.com/articles/branching-out.html | accessdate = 2010-06-15}} | *{{Citation| last = Nestor| first = James| title = Branching Out| magazine = Dwell|page=96|publisher=Dwell, LLC| date = February 2007| url = http://www.dwell.com/articles/branching-out.html | accessdate = 2010-06-15}} | ||
*{{Cite journal|last = Foer| first =Joshua | last2 = Reames| first2 = Richard | author2-link = Richard Reames|title=How to Grow a Chair: An Interview with Richard Reames|magazine=Cabinet Magazine|date= Winter 2005–2006|url=http://www.cabinetmagazine.org/issues/20/foer.php|accessdate=2010-05-15}} | *{{Cite journal|last = Foer| first =Joshua | last2 = Reames| first2 = Richard | author2-link = Richard Reames|title=How to Grow a Chair: An Interview with Richard Reames|magazine=Cabinet Magazine|date= Winter 2005–2006|url=http://www.cabinetmagazine.org/issues/20/foer.php|accessdate=2010-05-15}} | ||
Line 259: | Line 263: | ||
*{{Citation| last = McKie| first =Fred | title =Warwick artist grows wooden 'jewels' for World Expo| newspaper = The Southern Free Times| date = April 20, 2005| url =| archiveurl =| archivedate =| accessdate =}} | *{{Citation| last = McKie| first =Fred | title =Warwick artist grows wooden 'jewels' for World Expo| newspaper = The Southern Free Times| date = April 20, 2005| url =| archiveurl =| archivedate =| accessdate =}} | ||
</ref> | </ref> | ||
*'''Live Art''' |
*'''Live Art'''<ref> | ||
*{{Citation| last = Balgi| first = Swati| author-link =| last2 =| first2 =| author2-link =| title = Live Art| periodical = Society Interiors Magazine|publisher=Magna Publishing|location=Prabhadevi, Mumbai| pages = | *{{Citation| last = Balgi| first = Swati| author-link =| last2 =| first2 =| author2-link =| title = Live Art| periodical = Society Interiors Magazine|publisher=Magna Publishing|location=Prabhadevi, Mumbai| pages = | ||
|date = September 2009| url = http://pooktre.com/pdf/Innovation.pdf| archiveurl =| archivedate =| doi =| id = }} | |date = September 2009| url = http://pooktre.com/pdf/Innovation.pdf| archiveurl =| archivedate =| doi =| id = }} | ||
Line 273: | Line 277: | ||
*'''Pooktre'''<ref> | *'''Pooktre'''<ref> | ||
*{{Citation| unused_data | newspaper = Culture| title = The art of Tree shaping| author = Hao Jinyao | date = 11 May 2009| publisher = }} | *{{Citation| unused_data | newspaper = Culture| title = The art of Tree shaping| author = Hao Jinyao | date = 11 May 2009| publisher = }} | ||
*{{Citation|first=Jaya|last=Jiwatram|title=We're going to Live in the Treees|publisher=Popular Science Magazine|date=2008-08-25|url=http://www.popsci.com/jaya-jiwatram/article/2008-08/were-going-live-trees| |
*{{Citation|first=Jaya|last=Jiwatram|title=We're going to Live in the Treees|publisher=Popular Science Magazine|date=2008-08-25|url=http://www.popsci.com/jaya-jiwatram/article/2008-08/were-going-live-trees|accessdate=2011-06-10}} | ||
<!--/PopSci/Jiwatram added back @ other names for those it supports, per --> | <!--/PopSci/Jiwatram added back @ other names for those it supports, per --> | ||
</ref> | </ref> | ||
Line 285: | Line 289: | ||
Throughout history humans have portrayed their wish to mold nature to their fancy. | Throughout history humans have portrayed their wish to mold nature to their fancy. | ||
In 1516, ] painted an allegorical image,<ref name=nestor/> ''la complainte de nature à l'alchimiste errant'', (The Lament of Nature to the Wandering Alchemist), in which a winged figure with arms crossed, representing ], sits on a tree stump with a fire burning in its base, conversing with an ] in an ankle-length coat, standing outside of his stone-laid shoreline laboratory. Live resprouting shoots emerge from either side of the tree stump seat to form a fancifully twined and inosculated two-story-tall chair back.<ref name=designboom3>{{ |
In 1516, ] painted an allegorical image,<ref name=nestor/> ''la complainte de nature à l'alchimiste errant'', (The Lament of Nature to the Wandering Alchemist), in which a winged figure with arms crossed, representing ], sits on a tree stump with a fire burning in its base, conversing with an ] in an ankle-length coat, standing outside of his stone-laid shoreline laboratory. Live resprouting shoots emerge from either side of the tree stump seat to form a fancifully twined and inosculated two-story-tall chair back.<ref name=designboom3>{{cite web|title=designboom: the alchemic force of the imagination transmutes nature|url=http://www.designboom.com/eng/education/trees_alchemical.html|accessdate=2011-06-10}}</ref><ref name=Marmotten>{{cite web|last= Perréal|first=Jean|title=la complainte de nature à l'alchimiste errant|publisher = Musée Marmottan Monet|year = 1516|url = http://www.marmottan.com/uk/enluminures/jean_perreal.asp|title=l'Alchimie|accessdate=2010-05-08}} {{Dead link|date=November 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref><ref name=Kamil>{{Citation|last=Kamil|first=Neil|title=''Fortress of the Soul: Violence, Metaphysics, and Material Life in the Huguenots' New World 1517–1751''|publisher=JHU Press|year=2005 |pages=384–385|url=http://books.google.com/?id=ekSkZXXjVWUC&pg=RA1-PA385&dq=jean+perreal+%22Dialogue+between+the+Alchemist+and+Nature%22&cd=1#v=onepage&q=jean%20perreal%20%22Dialogue%20between%20the%20Alchemist%20and%20Nature%22|accessdate=2010-02-22| isbn=0801873908 }}</ref> | ||
] mentions pleaching in Act 1, Scene 2 of the play '']''. | ] mentions pleaching in Act 1, Scene 2 of the play '']''. | ||
Line 297: | Line 301: | ||
In ]'s popular fiction, ], elves were able to shape trees by singing,<ref>http://books.google.com.au/books?ei=bCJKTZiGB4WmuQOBm9AW&ct=result&id=GuLZAAAAMAAJ&dq=lord+of+the+rings&q=tree+homes#search_anchor</ref> and in ], a forest described therein, trees were shaped into homes and walkways. | In ]'s popular fiction, ], elves were able to shape trees by singing,<ref>http://books.google.com.au/books?ei=bCJKTZiGB4WmuQOBm9AW&ct=result&id=GuLZAAAAMAAJ&dq=lord+of+the+rings&q=tree+homes#search_anchor</ref> and in ], a forest described therein, trees were shaped into homes and walkways. | ||
There are also tree-shaping elves in the 1978 comic book series ]. They cause homes, bows, animal forms, and other things to grow instantly from living trees |
There are also tree-shaping elves in the 1978 comic book series ]. They cause homes, bows, animal forms, and other things to grow instantly from living trees. Most notable of these elves are ]. | ||
==See also== | ==See also== |
Revision as of 06:42, 2 August 2011
Tree shaping is the practice of training living trees and other woody plants into artistic shapes and useful structures. The art is also known as tree training, arborsculpture, Pooktre and several other names. It is a form of living sculpture, sharing a common heritage with other artistic horticultural and agricultural practices, such as bonsai, espalier, and topiary, and employing some similar techniques. A unique and distinguishing feature evident in many (but not all) examples of the work is the purposeful inosculation of living trunks, branches, and roots to form artistic designs or functional structures.
Practitioners choose from among various compliant species and an evolving array of design options, techniques, and tools to control and direct living wood, both above and below ground; perhaps bending, pleaching, weaving, twisting, braiding, grafting, framing, molding, controlling light, or pruning to create a project.
Tree shaping has been practiced for at least several hundred years, as demonstrated by the living root bridges built and maintained by the Khasi people of India. Early 20th century practitioners and artisans included banker John Krubsack, Axel Erlandson with his famous circus trees, and landscape engineer Arthur Wiechula. Contemporary designers include artists Peter Cook and Becky Northey, who call their work "Pooktre", arborist Richard Reames, who coined the term "arborsculpture", and furniture designer Chris Cattle, who uses the phrase "grownup furniture".
History
Some species of woody plants exhibit a botanical phenomenon known as inosculation (or self-grafting); whether among parts of a single specimen tree or between two or more individual specimens of the same (or very similar) species. Trees exhibiting this behavior are called inosculate trees. Many contemporary designers of living wood trace their initial inspiration to having seen natural occurrences of this phenomenon.
The earliest known surviving examples of purposeful, human-made inosculation are the living root bridges of Cherrapunji, Laitkynsew, and Nongriat, in the present-day Meghalaya state of northeast India. These suspension bridges are handmade from the aerial roots of living banyan fig trees, such as the rubber plant. The pliable tree roots are gradually trained to grow across a gap, weaving in sticks, stones, and other inclusions, until they take root on the other side. There are specimens spanning over 100 feet. The useful lifespan of the bridges, once complete, is thought to be 500–600 years. They are naturally self-renewing and self-strengthening as the component roots grow thicker.
Pleaching is a technique used in the very old horticultural practice of hedge laying. Pleaching consists of first plashing living branches and twigs and then weaving them together to promote their inosculation. It is most commonly used to train trees into raised hedges, though other shapes are easily developed. Useful implementations include fences, lattices, roofs, and walls. Some of the outcomes of pleaching can be considered an early form of what is known today as tree shaping. In an early, labor-intensive, practical use of pleaching in medieval Europe, trees were installed in the ground in parallel hedgerow lines or quincunx patterns, then shaped by trimming to form a flat-plane grid above ground level. When the trees' branches in this grid met those of neighboring trees, they were grafted together. Once the network of joints were of substantial size, planks were laid across the grid, upon which they built huts to live in, thus keeping the human settlement safe in times of annual flooding. Wooden dancing platforms were also built and the living tree branch grid bore the weight of the platform and dancers.
In late medieval European gardens through the 18th century, pleached allées, interwoven canopies of tree-lined garden avenues, were common. The ornamental craft of topiary, the agricultural craft of espalier, and the arboricultural craft of tree shaping all may have developed from the utilitarian practice of pleaching.
Structural advantages
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (June 2010) |
Living grown structures are more resistant to decay than harvested ones or those constructed of lumber. While there are some decay organisms that can rot live wood from the outside, and though living trees can carry decayed and decaying heartwood inside them; in general, living trees decay from the inside out and dead wood decays from the outside in. Living wood tissue, particularly sapwood, wields a very potent defense against decay from either direction, known as compartmentalization. This protection is stronger in some species than it is in others, but once wood is harvested it is dead and this defense dies with it. Grown structures also have several mechanical structural advantages when compared to structures built using artificial joints and joinery.
Design options
Designs may include abstract, symbolic, or functional elements. Some shapes crafted and grown are purely artistic; perhaps cubes, circles, or letters of an alphabet, while other designs might yield any of a wide variety of useful implements, such as clothes hangers, laundry and wastepaper bins, ladders, furniture, tools, and tool handles. Eye-catching structures such as living fences and jungle gyms can also be grown, and even large architectural designs such as live archways, domes, gazebos, tunnels, rooms, and entire homes are possible with careful planning, planting, and culturing over time. The Human Ecology Design team (H.E.D.) at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology is designing homes that can be grown from native trees in a variety of climates.
Suitable trees are installed according to design specifications and then cultured over time into intended structures. Some designs may use only living, growing wood to form the structures, while others might also incorporate inclusions such as glass, mirror, steel and stone, any of which might be used either as either structural or aesthetic elements. These can be positioned in a project as it is grown and, depending on the design, may either be removed when no longer needed for support or left in place to become fixed inclusions in the growing tissue.
Plant maturity options
Young tree shaping may start with designing and framing. Once these are set up, young seedlings or saplings 3–12 in. (7.6–30.5 cm) long are planted and then gradually trained to form the framed shape. New growth may require weekly or day-to-day guidance along the predetermined design pathways.
Established tree shaping starts with more mature trees, perhaps 6–12 ft. (2–3.6 m) long and 3-4in (7.6–10 cm) in trunk diameter, which are bent into the desired design and held until cast. Understanding a tree's fluid dynamics is important to achieving the desired result.
Species options
In a given region, any disease and insect resistant species that grow well there, especially thin-barked species that commonly inosculate in nature might be good candidates for shaping. Each species has its own quirks, which can be understood with time and experience. These trees are known to inosculate naturally:
- Acer Maple
- Acer negundo Box Elder
- Acer palmatum Japanese Maple
- Alnus Alder
- Betula Birch
- Betula pendula White Birch
- Carpinus Hornbeam
- Cornus Dogwood
- Corylus Hazelnut
- Eucalyptus Eucalyptus
- Eucalyptus camaldulensis River Red Gum
- Fagus Beech
- Ficus Fig
- Ficus microcarpa Curtain Fig
- Fraxinus Ash
- Laburnum Golden Chain
- Lagerstroemia indica Crape myrtle
- Ligustrum Privet
- Malus Apple
- Olea europaea Olive
- Pinus ponderosa Ponderosa pine
- Platanus Sycamore
- Populus Poplar
- Prunus Prunus
- Prunus avium Cherry
- Prunus cerasifera Myrobalan Plum
- Prunus dulcis Almond
- Prunus persica Peach
- Prunus serotina Black Cherry
- Psidium Guava
- Pyrus Pear
- Quercus Oak
- Quercus alnifolia Golden Oak
- Quercus ilex Holm or Holly Oak
- Quercus suber Cork Oak
- Quercus virginiana Live Oak
- Robinia pseudoacacia Locust
- Salix Willow
- Salix alba 'Vitellina' Golden Willow
- Salix babylonica Weeping Willow
- Tectona grandis Teak
- Tilia Linden
- Ulmus Elm
- Vitis Grape
- Wisteria Wisteria
Techniques
A variety of horticultural, arboricultural, and artistic techniques may be used to craft an intended design. Many are experimental techniques involving ongoing research. Most projects start with an idea of the intended outcome and while some begin with detailed designs and drawings, others might be suggested by the existing features of an established plant.
Aeroponic culture
The oldest known living examples of woody plant shaping are the aeroponically cultured living root bridges built by the ancient War-Khasi people of the Cherrapunjee region in India. These are being maintained and further developed today by the people of that region. Aeroponic growing was first formally studied by W. Carter in 1942, before the process had an English language name. Carter researched air culture growing and described "a method of growing plants in water vapor to facilitate examination of roots". Later researchers, including L. J Klotz and G. G. Trowel, expanded on his work. In 1957, F. W. Went described "the process of growing plants with air-suspended roots and applying a nutrient mist to the root section," and in it he coined the word 'aeroponics' to describe that process. In 2008, root researcher and craftsman Ezekiel Golan described and secured a patent for a process which allows the roots of some aeroponically grown woody plants to lengthen and thicken while still remaining flexible. At lengths of perhaps 6 metres (20 ft) or more, the soft roots can be formed into pre-determined shapes which will continue thickening after the shapes are formed and as they continue to grow. Newer techniques and applications, such as eco-architecture, may allow architects to design, grow, and form large permanent structures, such as homes, by shaping aeroponically grown plants and their roots.
Approach grafting
Approach grafting is a common technique of this craft; exploiting the natural biological process of inosculation. An approach graft is effected by precisely wounding two or more sections of bark and then binding the wounded parts together securely while they grow together. Physically joining two branches from one plant together, or branches from two plants with each other, can cause the vascular cambium of one branch to join with that of the other on extended contact. As new layers of wood form at each point of contact, living wood swells the design and perpetuates the intended shapes. The primary purpose of causing such a joint, in this craft, is to cause branches to fuse and form a design.
Bending
Bending is sometimes used to achieve a design. If a plant's tissue is bent at too sharp an angle it may break, which can be mostly avoided by un-localizing the bend. This is achieved by making small bends along the curve of the tree. Bends are then held in place for several years until their form is permanently cast. The tree's rate of growth determines the time necessary to overcome its resistance to the initial bending. The work of bending and securing in this way might be accomplished in an hour or perhaps in an afternoon depending on the design.
Creasing
Creasing is folding trees such as willow and poplar over upon themselves, creating a right angle, This method is a more radical then bending.
Framing
Framing may be used for various purposes and might consist of any one or a combination of several materials, such as timber, steel, tubes made of hollow plant parts, complex wire designs, wooden jigs, or the shaped woody plant itself. It can be used in many project designs to support grafted joints until the grafts are well-established. Some projects might employ framing to hold a shape created by bending or fletching mature wood until the wood tissues have overcome their resistance to the initial bending and grown enough annual rings to cast the design permanently. Others might use framing to support and shape the growth of young saplings until they are strong enough to maintain an intended shape without support. Still other approaches might employ frames to guide the roots of aeroponically grown woody plants into desired patterns.
Pruning
Pruning can be used to balance a design by controlling and directing growth into a desired shape. Pruning above a leaf node can steer plant growth in the direction of the natural placement of that leaf bud. Pruning may also be used to keep a design free of unwanted branches and to reduce canopy size. Pruning is sometimes the only technique used to craft a project. Deciduous trees are mainly pruned in winter, while they are dormant above-ground, although sometimes it is necessary to prune them during the growing season. Trees repeatedly subjected to hard pruning may experience stunted growth, and some trees may not survive this treatment.
Ring barking
Ring barking is sometimes employed to help balance a design by slowing the growth of too-vigorous branches or stopping the growth of inopportunely placed branches, using different degrees of ring barking, from simple scoring to complete removal of a 3/8"-wide (1 cm) band of bark.
Time component
The time needed to grow and construct a project depends on many variables, including the size of targeted trees, the growth rate of species chosen for the design, the intended design height, the combination of design options chosen, the individual cultivation details, the local climate conditions, and the specific techniques used.
It is possible to perform initial bending and grafting on a project in an hour, as with Peace in Cherry by Richard Reames, removing supports in as little as a year and following up with minimal pruning thereafter. As little as one season of guiding growth might be enough to form a design, and then longer for the wood to grow and thicken to the desired size. A project might be intended for immediate harvest and drying at design maturity, or instead might remain permanently installed in its original medium for the life of the trees and beyond. Larger designs may take a few to several years to achieve design height and perhaps several more years for the wood caliper to increase to the desired size.
For example, a chair design might take 8 to 10 years to reach maturity and might then either remain growing, as with the living Pooktre garden chair, or perhaps be harvested as a finished work, as with Krubsak's The Chair that Lived. Some component specimens may not grow or survive precisely as planned, so some pieces and even the designs themselves may require adjustment to accommodate the lost components. Taller architectural projects, such as Two Leg Tree by Axel Erlandson, may require 10 years of growth or more to accomplish even the first grafting. Eventually, they all die, since each living tree has a lifespan.
Tools
Various materials and tools may be used for creating, shaping, or even molding a project design. For example, a metal patio bench could be used as a design pattern. Lumber, pipe, rope, wire, string, yarn, twine, wire rope, rocks, sandbags, or other weighting objects, tape, and any number of other materials might be useful in effecting the design outcome. Some of the same tools that arborists, bonsai artists, gardeners, and other horticulturists use, are useful here as well, including hand pruners (secateurs), pruning knives, saws, and shovels for planting. Shears and hedge trimmers are used less commonly, being perhaps better suited for establishment and foliage maintenance of topiary or sheared hedges.
Chronology of notable practitioners
Some contemporary artists were aware of and inspired by earlier artists, while others have discovered and developed their art independently.
War-Khasi people
The ancient War-Khasi people of India worked with the aerial roots of native banyan fig trees, adapting them to create footbridges over watercourses. Modern people of the Cherrapunjee region carry on this traditional building craft. Roots selected for bridge spans are supported and guided in darkness as they are being formed, by threading long, thin, supple banyan roots through tubes made from hollowed-out trunks of woody grasses. Preferred species for the tubes are either bamboo or areca palm, or 'kwai' in Khasi, which they cultivate for areca nuts. The Khasi incorporate aerial roots from overhanging trees to form support spans and safety handrails. Some bridges can carry fifty or more people at once. At least one example, over the Umshiang stream, is a double-decker bridge. They can take ten to fifteen years to become fully functional and are expected to last up to 600 years.
John Krubsack
John Krubsack was an American banker and farmer from Embarrass, Wisconsin. He shaped and grafted the first known grown chair, harvesting it in 1914. He lived from 1858 to 1941. He had studied tree grafting and become a skilled found-wood furniture crafter. The idea first came to him to grow his own chair during a weekend wood-hunting excursion with his son.
He started box elder seeds in 1903, selecting and planting either 28 or 32 of the saplings in a carefully designed pattern in the spring of 1907. In the spring of 1908, the trees had grown to six feet tall and he began training them along a trellis, grafting the branches at critical points to form the parts of his chair. In 1913, he cut all the trees except those forming the legs, which he left to grow and increase in diameter for another year, before harvesting and drying the chair in 1914; eleven years after he started the box elder seeds. Dubbed The Chair that Lived; it is the only known tree shaping that John Krubsack did. The chair is on permanent display in a Plexiglas case at the entrance of Noritage Furniture; the furniture manufacturing business now owned by Krubsack's descendants, Steve and Dennis Krubsack.
Axel Erlandson
Axel Erlandson was a Swedish American farmer who started training trees as a hobby on his farm in Hilmar, California, in 1925. He was inspired by observing a natural sycamore inosculation in his hedgerow. In 1945, he moved his family and the best of his trees from Hilmar to Scotts Valley, California and in 1947, opened an horticultural attraction called the Tree Circus.
Erlandson lived from 1884 to 1964; training more than 70 trees during his lifetime. He considered his methods trade secrets and when asked how he made his trees do this, he would only reply, "I talk to them." His work appeared in the column of Ripley's Believe It or Not! twelve times. 24 trees from his original garden have survived transplanting to their permanent home at Gilroy Gardens in Gilroy, California. His Telephone Booth Tree is on permanent display at the American Visionary Art Museum in Baltimore, Maryland and his Birch Loop tree is on permanent display at the Museum of Art and History in Santa Cruz, California. Both of these are preserved dead specimens.
Arthur Wiechula
Arthur Wiechula was a German landscape engineer who lived from 1868 to 1941. In 1926, he published Wachsende Häuser aus lebenden Bäumen entstehend (Developing Houses from Living Trees) in German. In it, he gave detailed illustrated descriptions of houses grown from trees and described simple building techniques involving guided grafting together of live branches; including a system of v-shaped lateral cuts used to bend and curve individual trunks and branches in the direction of a design, with reaction wood soon closing the wounds to hold the curves. He proposed growing wood so that it constituted walls during growth, thereby enabling the use of young wood for building. Weichula never built a living home, but he grew a 394' wall of Canadian poplars to help keep the snow off of a section of train tracks. His illustrated ideas have inspired many other artists' designs.
David Nash
David Nash is a British sculptor, born in 1945 and based in Blaenau Ffestiniog, in Gwynedd, north-west Wales. He is perhaps best known for his sculptures incorporating living elements. In 1977 he installed Ash Dome, 22 ash trees planted in a ring on his property, near his home at Cae'n-y-coed in north Wales. Nearly 30 years later, the work was just taking on the domed form that he had planned for and intended when he first began. In 1985, Nash began work on Divided Oaks, an installation involving some 600 pre-existing trees which he saved from demolition, in a park at the Kröller-Müller Museum, in Otterlo, in The Netherlands. Nash treated these trees with a technique he calls "fletching," which is a term generally used to refer to the structures added to a projectile to improve its flight, such as feathers added for aerodynamic stabilization of an arrow or dart, or fins on a rocket. He simply pushed over and staked down the very small trees. He cut out a series of V-shapes for the larger ones, bent them over, and then wrapped them so the cambium layer could heal over. This stimulated compensating tissue growth in the bent and wounded trees, which are now growing and curving upwards.
Dan Ladd
Dan Ladd is an American artist who works with trees and gourds. He is based in Florida, He began experimenting with glass, china, and metal inclusions in trees in 1977 in Vermont and started planting trees for Extreme Nature in 1978. He became inspired by inosculation he noticed in nature and by the growth of tree trunks around man-made objects such as fences and idle farm equipment. He shapes and grafts trees, including their fruits and their roots, into architectural and geometric forms. Ladd calls human-initiated inosculation 'pleaching' and calls his own work 'tree sculpture'. Ladd binds a variety of objects to trees, for live wood to grow around and be incorporated, including teacups, bicycle wheels, headstones, steel spheres, water piping, and electrical conduit. He guides roots into shapes, such as stairs, using above-ground wooden and concrete forms and even shapes woody, hard-shelled Lagenaria gourds by allowing them to grow into detailed molds. A current project at the DeCordova and Dana Museum and Sculpture Park in Lincoln, Massachusetts incorporates eleven American Liberty Elm trees grafted next to each other to form a long hillside stair banister. Another of his installations, Three Arches, consists of three pairs of 14-foot sycamore trees, which he grafted into arches to frame different city views, at Frank Curto Park in Pittsburgh.
Nirandr Boonnetr
Nirandr Boonnetr is a Thai furniture designer and crafter. He became inspired as a child, both by a photograph of some unusually twisted coconut palms in southern Thailand and by a living fallen tree he noticed, which had grown new branches along its trunk, forming a kind of canopied bridge. His hobby began in 1980 because of his concern the Thailand forests are being ravaged by woodcarvers to the point that one day the industry would eventually carve itself out of existence. He began his first piece, a guava chair, around 1983. Originally intended as something for his children to climb and play on, the piece evolved into a living tree chair. In fifteen years he created six pieces of "living furniture," including five chairs and a table. The Bangkok Post dubbed him the father of Living Furniture. Shortly thereafter, he presented a chair as a gift to her Royal Highness, Princess Sirindhorn. Nirandr Boonnetr has written a detailed, step-by-step booklet of instructions hoping his hobby of living furniture will spread to other countries. One of his chairs was exhibited in the Growing Village pavilion at the World's Fair Expo 2005 in Nagakute, Aichi, Japan.
Peter Cook and Becky Northey
Peter Cook and Becky Northey are Australian artists who live in South East Queensland. Peter Cook became inspired to grow a chair in 1987, after visiting three figs trees in a remote corner of his property. He started the next day, with 7 willow cuttings. In 1988, he planted a wattle intended for harvest as a potted plant stand. Becky Northey moved to Peter's property in 1995 and the two formed Pooktre.
Their methods involve guiding a tree's growth along predetermined wired design pathways over long time periods. They shape growing trees both for living outdoor art and for intentional harvest. They most often use Myrobalan Plum for shaping. Examples of their functional artwork include a growing garden table, a harvested coffee table, hat stands, mirrors, and a gemstone neck piece.
Peter and Becky exhibited eight of their creations, including two that were trained to grow into the shapes of humans, in the Growing Village pavilion at the World's Fair Expo 2005 in Nagakute, Aichi Prefecture, Japan. Their work was published in the annual book series, Ripley's Believe It or Not.
Richard Reames
Richard Reames is an American arborsculptor based in Williams, Oregon, where he manages a nursery, botanical garden, and design studio collectively named Arborsmith Studios. He was inspired by the works of Axel Erlandson, and began sculpting trees in 1991 or 1992. By 2007, he had grown over 100 pieces, including chairs and other furniture, sculptures, fences, tool handles, and mailboxes. He began his first experimental grown chairs in the spring of 1993.
In 1995, Reames wrote and published his first book, How to Grow a Chair: The Art of Tree Trunk Topiary. In it, he coined the word arborsculpture.
In 2005, he published his second book, Arborsculpture: Solutions for a Small Planet. His current experimental projects include six plantings intended in 2006 to grow into habitable homes within perhaps ten years. Construction of living buildings is a design process he calls arbortecture. Reames believes that people could, within one generation, be "living in houses where the walls and ceilings are composed of living tree material and there are leaves coming out of the roof." He envisions that living buildings would produce wood, fruit, and flowers to support their occupants and that live wood would grow around windows, doorways, plumbing, and electrical conduits; treating them all as inclusions by engulfing and incorporating them. He currently lectures worldwide and teaches arborsculpture at the John C. Campbell Folk School.
Christopher Cattle
Dr. Christopher Cattle is a retired furniture design professor from England. He started his first planting of furniture in 1996. According to Cattle, he developed an idea to train and graft trees to grow into shapes, which came to him in the late 1970s, in response to questions from students asking how to build furniture using less energy. Using various species of trees and wooden jigs to shape them, he has grown 15 three-legged stools to completion.
Cattle has multiple plantings in at least four different locations in England. He participates in woodland and craft shows in England and at the Big Tent at Falkland Palace in Scotland. He exhibited his grown stools at the World's Fair Expo 2005 in the Growing Village pavilion at Nagakute, Japan.
He aims to encourage as many people as possible to grow their own furniture, and envisions that, "One day, furniture factories could be replaced by furniture orchards." Cattle calls his works grown up furniture and grown stools, but also refers to them as grown furniture, calling them "the result of mature thinking."
Mr. Wu
Mr. Wu is a Chinese pensioner who designs and crafts furniture in Shenyang, Liaoning, China. He has patented his technique of growing wooden chairs and as of 2005, had designed, grown, and harvested one chair, in 2004, and had six more growing in his garden. Wu uses young elm trees, which he says are pliant and do not break easily. He also says that it takes him about five years to grow a tree chair.
Related practices
Other artistic horticultural practices such as bonsai, espalier, and topiary share some elements and a common heritage, though a number of distinctions may be identified.
- Bonsai
Bonsai is the art of growing trees in containers. Bonsai uses techniques such as pruning, root reduction, and grafting to produce small trees that mimic mature, full-sized trees. Bonsai is not intended for production of useful implements or food, but instead mainly for contemplation by viewers, like most fine art. It is possible to craft a miniature Tree shaping in a bonsai pot and keep it tiny, but if it were intended to be eventually harvested, for example as food, that would contrast with the true nature of bonsai.
- Espalier
Espalier is the horticultural practice of shaping trees for fruit production by pruning and/or grafting branches so that they grow relatively flat, frequently in formal patterns, against a structure such as a wall, fence, or trellis. The practice is commonly used to accelerate and increase production in fruit-bearing trees and also to decorate flat exterior walls while conserving space.
- Topiary
Topiary is the horticultural practice of sculpturing live trees, by clipping the foliage and twigs of trees and shrubs to develop and maintain clearly defined shapes, often geometric or fanciful. The hedge is a simple form of topiary used to create boundaries, walls or screens. Topiary always involves regular shearing and shaping of foliage to maintain the shape.
Other names
Throughout its history, various names have been used to describe this craft, including:
- Arborsculpture
- Arbortecture
- Biotecture/Biotechture
- Grown furniture
- Live Art
- Living furniture
- Pleaching
- Pooktre
- Tree training
Tree shaping in fiction and art.
Throughout history humans have portrayed their wish to mold nature to their fancy.
In 1516, Jean Perréal painted an allegorical image, la complainte de nature à l'alchimiste errant, (The Lament of Nature to the Wandering Alchemist), in which a winged figure with arms crossed, representing Nature, sits on a tree stump with a fire burning in its base, conversing with an alchemist in an ankle-length coat, standing outside of his stone-laid shoreline laboratory. Live resprouting shoots emerge from either side of the tree stump seat to form a fancifully twined and inosculated two-story-tall chair back.
William Shakespeare mentions pleaching in Act 1, Scene 2 of the play Much Ado About Nothing.
- Leonato's brother tells Leonato, "The Prince and Count Claudio, walking in a thick pleached alley in mine orchard, were thus much overheard by a man of mine..."
In 1758, Swedish scientist, philosopher, Christian mystic, and theologian Emanuel Swedenborg published Earths in the Universe, in which he wrote of visiting another planet where the residents dwelled in living groves of trees, whose growth they had planned and directed from a very young stage into living quarters and sanctuaries.
In the late 19th century, Styrian Christian mystic and visionary Jakob Lorber published The Household of God. In it, he wrote about the wisdom of planting trees in a circle, because once grown together, the ring of trees would be a much better house than could be built.
In J. R. R. Tolkien's popular fiction, Lord of the Rings, elves were able to shape trees by singing, and in Lothlórien, a forest described therein, trees were shaped into homes and walkways.
There are also tree-shaping elves in the 1978 comic book series Elfquest. They cause homes, bows, animal forms, and other things to grow instantly from living trees. Most notable of these elves are Redlance and Goodtree.
See also
|
References
- ^ Primack, Mark. "Pleaching". The NSW Good Wood Guide. Retrieved 2010-05-10.
- ^ "Cherrapunjee.com: A Dream Place". Cherrapunjee Holiday Resort. Retrieved 2010-05-07.
- "Living Root Bridge". Online Highways LLC. 2005-10-21. Retrieved 2010-05-07.
- ^ Fischbacher, Thomas (2007), "Botanical Engineering" (PDF), School of Engineering Sciences @ University of Southampton
{{citation}}
: Missing or empty|title=
(help) - ^ "A very special tree house". Bio-pro.de. 2010-02-04. Retrieved 2010-04-14.
- Worrall, Jim (27 May 2007), Forest and Shade Tree Pathology: Wood Decay, retrieved 2011-06-10
- ^ Walpole, Lois (2004), home grown home, retrieved 2010-06-14
{{citation}}
: Check|url=
value (help) - ^ University of California, Cooperative Extension (November 2003), "Arborsculpture: Horticultural Art" (PDF), Landscape & Turf News, p. 6, retrieved 6/8/2010
{{citation}}
: Check date values in:|accessdate=
(help) - ^ Mudge, Ken; Janick, Jules; Scofield, Steven; Goldschmidt, Eliezer E. (2009), "A History of Grafting" (PDF), in Janick, Jules (ed.), Issues in New Crops and New Uses, Purdue University Center for New Crops and Plants Products, orig. pub. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., pp. 442–443
{{citation}}
: Missing or empty|title=
(help) Note large file: 8.04MB - ^ "Eco-Architecture Could Produce "Grow Your Own" Homes". American Friends of Tel Aviv University.
- ^ Cassidy, Patti (August, 2008), "A Truly Living Art", Rhode Island Home, Living and Design Magazine, Swansea, Massachusetts: Home, Living & Design, Inc., pp. 26–27
{{citation}}
:|access-date=
requires|url=
(help); Check date values in:|date=
(help) - ^ Cattle, Christopher. "How to grow your stool". Christopher Cattle. Retrieved 2010-06-14.
- ^ "Living Trees, Living Art". Retrieved 2009-05-08.
- ^ Erlandson, Wilma (2001), My father "talked to trees", Westview: Boulder, p. 3, ISBN 0-9708932-0-5 Cite error: The named reference "Wilma" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
- ^ Davies, David (Saturday, 1 June 1996), "Plant your own furniture. Watch it grow", The Independent, England
{{citation}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help) - ^ Reames, Richard (2005). Arborsculpture: Solutions for a Small Planet. Oregon: Arborsmith Studios. ISBN 0964728087. Cite error: The named reference "Reames2" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
- ^ Reames, Richard (1995). How to Grow a Chair: The Art of Tree Trunk Topiary. ISBN 0-9647280-0-1.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) Cite error: The named reference "Reames1" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page). - Balgi, Swati (September 2009), "Live Art" (PDF), Society Interiors Magazine, Prabhadevi, Mumbai: Magna Publishing
- ^ Link, Tracey (June 13, 2008), "Senior project for Bachelor of Science degree in Landscape Architecture", Arborsculpture: An Emerging Art Form and Solutions to our Environment (PDF), p. 41
- ^ Mack, Daniel (1996-12-31) , Making Rustic Furniture: The Tradition, Spirit, and Technique with Dozens of Project Ideas (illustrated ed.), Lark Books, p. 160, ISBN 1887374124
- ^ "Only Natural Grown Chair". Shawano Leader Newspaper. Wisconsin Historical Society. 1922-10-19. Retrieved 2010-05-15.
- ^ Ladd, Dan (2009-01-22), Sculpturefest 2008: Daniel Ladd, retrieved 2010-06-14
- ^ Volz, Martin (Oct/Nov), "A tree shaper's life." (PDF), Queensland Smart Farmer, Ormiston, Queensland: Rural Press Ltd., retrieved 2010-06-13
{{citation}}
: Check date values in:|date=
and|year=
/|date=
mismatch (help) Cite error: The named reference "QSFMagazine" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page). - ^ "Interactive Agricultural Ecological Atlas of Russia and Neighboring Countries:Economic Plants and their Diseases, Pests and Weeds". Agroatlas.com. Retrieved 2010-05-04. Cite error: The named reference "AgroAtlas" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
- ^ "UConn Plant Database of Trees, Shrubs, and Vines". Retrieved 2010-05-04.
- Carter, W.A. (1942). A method of growing plants in water vapor to facilitate examination of roots. Phytopathology 732: 623-625.
- Stoner, R.J. (1983). Rooting in Air. Greenhouse Grower Vol I No. 11
- Method and a kit for shaping a portion of a woody plant into a desired form
{{citation}}
: Unknown parameter|country-code=
ignored (help); Unknown parameter|description=
ignored (help); Unknown parameter|inventor1-first=
ignored (help); Unknown parameter|inventor1-last=
ignored (help); Unknown parameter|issue-date=
ignored (help); Unknown parameter|patent-number=
ignored (help) - ^ "Money Making Ideas to Boost Farm Income: Artists Shape Trees into Furniture and Art", Farm Show Magazine, p. 9, vol.32 no.4, june/august 2008, archived from the original (PDF) on unknown date, retrieved 2010-05-08
{{citation}}
: Check date values in:|date=
and|archivedate=
(help) - Reddy, Jini (2010-01-23). "Trail Of The Unexpected: The root masters of India". Cherrapunjee Holiday Resort. Retrieved 2010-05-08.
- "Obituary of Axel Erlandson", Turlock Journal, p. 15, April 30, 1964
- Wiechula, Arthur (1926) , Wachsende Häuser aus lebenden Bäumen entstehend (Developing Houses from Living Trees), Verl. Naturbau-Ges, p. 320
- ^ "designboom:history of arborsculpture".
- "David Nash's Ash Dome". Coetirmynydd.co.uk. 2004-09-25. Retrieved 2010-04-13.
- ^ Grande, John (2001). "Real Living Art: A Conversation with David Nash". Sculpture: Vol. 20, No. 10. International Sculpture Center. Retrieved 2010-05-13.
- "Dan Ladd's home page". Dan Ladd. Retrieved 2010-05-09.
- Extreme Nature: The Sculptures of Dan Ladd at Putney Library October 10, 2006.
- Shaw, Kurt (August 11, 2002), "Persephone Project promotes gardening as contemporary art medium", TribLiveNews, retrieved 2010-06-30
- ^ "No need to pull up a stump:Short of garden funiture?", Sunday mail, 6, April
{{citation}}
: Check date values in:|date=
and|year=
/|date=
mismatch (help); Unknown parameter|reporter=
ignored (help) - "The father of Living Furniture", Bangkok Post, January 16, 1996
- ^ "Pooktre". Northey, Becky. Retrieved 2010-05-05. (Archived by WebCite at http://www.webcitation.org/5pVaujskD)
- ^ "Pooktre", Bricks & Mortar Magazine, 2008
{{citation}}
: Unknown parameter|unused_data=
ignored (help) - "Pooktre". Northey, Becky. Retrieved 2010-10-18.
- McKie, Fred (April 20, 2005), "Warwick artist grows wooden 'jewels' for World Expo", The Southern Free Times
- Tibballs, Geoff; Proud, James (2009), Ripley's Believe It or Not: Seeing is Believing, :Orlando, FL: Ripley Publishing, p. 32, ISBN 978-1-893951-45-7
- Arbor Sculpture: "If you like I'll grow you a mirror" (PDF), June 2006, p. 16, retrieved 2010-05-15
{{citation}}
: Unknown parameter|newsletter=
ignored (help) - ^ Biography of Richard Reames, retrieved 2010-06-27
- Company profile: Arborsmith Studios
- Okenga, S. (2001), Eden on Their Minds: American Gardeners with Bold Visions, Clarkson Potter, p. 110, ISBN 0-609-605879
- ^ Nestor, James (February 2007), "Branching Out", Dwell, Dwell, LLC, p. 96, retrieved 2010-06-15
- Hicks, Ivan; Rosenfeld, Richard; Whitworth, Jo (2007), Tricks with Trees, Pavilion Books, p. 160, ISBN 1-86205-734-6
- ^ Foer, Joshua; Reames, Richard (Winter 2005–2006). "How to Grow a Chair: An Interview with Richard Reames". Cabinet Magazine. Retrieved 2010-05-15.
- ^ Cattle, Christopher. "grown furniture home page". Christopher Cattle. Retrieved 2010-06-14.
- ^ "Grown Furniture at the Museum of English Rural Life" (Press release). University of Reading, UK. 26 March 2008. Retrieved 2010-06-14.
- Cattle, Christopher. "grown furniture examples". Christopher Cattle. Retrieved 2010-06-14.
- ^ "Five year deliveries", China Morning Business View, Farmington, Michigan: AccessMyLibrary, via CMP Information Ltd., via The Gale Group, 2-11-2005, retrieved 06-15-2010
{{citation}}
: Check date values in:|accessdate=
,|date=
, and|year=
/|date=
mismatch (help) - ^ Treet Them Well, Chaotic Web Development, via ananova.com), 2 February 2005, retrieved 2010-06-15
- Hoffman, Bill; Wire Services (2-3-2005), "Weird But True", New York Post (news ed.), p. 23, retrieved 2010-06-15
{{citation}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help) - Chan, Peter (1987), Bonsai Masterclass, Sterling Publishing Co., Inc., ISBN 0-8069-6763-3
- Koreshoff, Deborah R. (1984), Bonsai: Its Art, Science, History and Philosophy, Timber Press, Inc., p. 1, ISBN 0-88192-389-3
- ^ Evans, Erv, Espalier, North Carolina State University Horticultural Science Department Cooperative Extension Service, retrieved 2010-06-29
- Coombs, Duncan; Blackburne-Maze, Peter; Cracknell, Martyn; Bentley, Roger (2001), "9", The Complete Book of Pruning (illustrated ed.), Sterling Publishing Company, p. 224, ISBN 9781841881430
-
- University of California, Cooperative Extension (November 2003), "Arborsculpture: Horticultural Art" (PDF), Landscape & Turf News, p. 6, retrieved 6/8/2010
{{citation}}
: Check date values in:|accessdate=
(help) - Mudge, Ken; Janick, Jules; Scofield, Steven; Goldschmidt, Eliezer E. (2009), "A History of Grafting" (PDF), in Janick, Jules (ed.), Issues in New Crops and New Uses, Purdue University Center for New Crops and Plants Products, orig. pub. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., pp. 442–443
{{citation}}
: Missing or empty|title=
(help) Note large file: 8.04MB - Cassidy, Patti (August, 2008), "A Truly Living Art", Rhode Island Home, Living and Design Magazine, Swansea, Massachusetts: Home, Living & Design, Inc., pp. 26–27
{{citation}}
:|access-date=
requires|url=
(help); Check date values in:|date=
(help) - Link, Tracey (June 13, 2008), "Senior project for Bachelor of Science degree in Landscape Architecture", Arborsculpture: An Emerging Art Form and Solutions to our Environment (PDF), p. 41
- "designboom:history of arborsculpture".
- "Arbor Sculpture: "If you like I'll grow you a mirror"" (PDF), The Cutting Edge: Newsletter of the Victorian Woodworkers Association, Inc., p. 16, June 2006, retrieved 2010-05-15
- Nestor, James (February 2007), "Branching Out", Dwell, Dwell, LLC, p. 96, retrieved 2010-06-15
- Hicks, Ivan; Rosenfeld, Richard; Whitworth, Jo (2007), Tricks with Trees, Pavilion Books, p. 160, ISBN 1-86205-734-6
- Foer, Joshua; Reames, Richard (Winter 2005–2006). "How to Grow a Chair: An Interview with Richard Reames". Cabinet Magazine. Retrieved 2010-05-15.
- "Landscape Architecture", American Society of Landscape Architects, 90 (10–12), 2000
- Pat Wentworth (March 2007), The Tree Circus (PDF), vol. 30, International Society of Arboriculture; Texas Chapter, p. 8, retrieved June 2, 2011
{{citation}}
: Unknown parameter|publication=
ignored (help) - Chuck Ingels (1999), Fair Oaks Orchard Demonstration Project (PDF), University of California @ Davis, p. 2, retrieved 2011-06-10
{{citation}}
: Unknown parameter|publication=
ignored (help) - Educational Opportunities (PDF), Michigan State University Extension, March 2007, p. 6
{{citation}}
: Text "2011-06-10" ignored (help) - May, John (Spring/Summer 2005), The Art of Arborsculpture, The Tree Council http://www.treecouncil.org.uk/, p. 37
{{citation}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help); External link in
(help); Unknown parameter|publisher=
|publication=
ignored (help) - "Fantasy Trees". Tree Stories. Episode 103.
- "Offbeat America". Episode OB310. December 4, 2006.
{{cite episode}}
: Missing or empty|series=
(help) - Ingels, C.; Geisel, P.; Norton, M (2007), "8", The home orchard: growing your own deciduous fruit and nut trees, ANR Publications, pp. 120–122, 192, ISBN 9781879906723
{{citation}}
: External link in
(help); Unknown parameter|chapterurl=
|chapterurl=
ignored (|chapter-url=
suggested) (help); Unknown parameter|length=
ignored (help) - Nadkarni, Nalini (2008), "5", Between Earth and Sky: Our Intimate Connections to Trees (illustrated ed.), University of California Press, p. 154, retrieved 2011-06-10 isbn =9780520248564
{{citation}}
: Check date values in:|accessdate=
(help); External link in
(help); Missing pipe in:|chapterurl=
|accessdate=
(help); Unknown parameter|chapterurl=
ignored (|chapter-url=
suggested) (help); Unknown parameter|length=
ignored (help) - Cassidy, Patti (April/May 2006). Art to Grow. Acreage Life (Canada). p. 17.
{{cite book}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help) - Cassidy, Patti (January/February 2009), Planting Your Future, p. 74
{{citation}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help); Unknown parameter|publication=
ignored (help) - Arborsculpture: A Living Art - and the Art of Living, Thomas Jefferson High School for Science and Technology: Science Frontiers, retrieved 2011-06-10
- Janick, Jules (2009), Horticultural Reviews, vol. 35, John Wiley and Sons, p. 443, ISBN 9780470386422
{{citation}}
: Unknown parameter|length=
ignored (help) - Living Sculpture, Department of Horticulture, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Cornell University, 2008, retrieved 2011-06-10
- Axel Erlandson, University of Vermont, Department of Plant and Soil Science, Dr. Leonard Perry and University of Vermont Cooperative Extension, retrieved 2011-06-10
- Snyder, Editor, Midori (2006-11-04), :To Grow a Chair, Journal of Mythic Arts
{{citation}}
:|access-date=
requires|url=
(help);|last=
has generic name (help) - California Landscape Contractors Association North Coast Journal (PDF), California Landscape Contractors Association, North Coast Chapter, August 2010, p. 2, retrieved 2011-06-10
- Greenberg, Neil (2003), Environmental Semester:Resources for the interdisciplinary study of Environmentalism and nature, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, retrieved 2011-06-10
- "Cattle website: Wayback archive, February 2008". Archived from the original on 2008-02-25.
{{cite web}}
: Text "access date 2011-06-10" ignored (help) - Jiwatram, Jaya (2008-08-25), We're going to Live in the Trees, Popular Science Magazine, retrieved 2011-06-10
- University of California, Cooperative Extension (November 2003), "Arborsculpture: Horticultural Art" (PDF), Landscape & Turf News, p. 6, retrieved 6/8/2010
-
- Nestor, James (February 2007), "Branching Out", Dwell, Dwell, LLC, p. 96, retrieved 2010-06-15
- Foer, Joshua; Reames, Richard (Winter 2005–2006). "How to Grow a Chair: An Interview with Richard Reames". Cabinet Magazine. Retrieved 2010-05-15.
-
- Fischbacher, Thomas (2007), "Botanical Engineering" (PDF), School of Engineering Sciences @ University of Southampton
{{citation}}
: Missing or empty|title=
(help)
- Fischbacher, Thomas (2007), "Botanical Engineering" (PDF), School of Engineering Sciences @ University of Southampton
-
- Fischbacher, Thomas (2007), "Botanical Engineering" (PDF), School of Engineering Sciences @ University of Southampton
{{citation}}
: Missing or empty|title=
(help) - McKie, Fred (April 20, 2005), "Warwick artist grows wooden 'jewels' for World Expo", The Southern Free Times
- Fischbacher, Thomas (2007), "Botanical Engineering" (PDF), School of Engineering Sciences @ University of Southampton
-
- Balgi, Swati (September 2009), "Live Art" (PDF), Society Interiors Magazine, Prabhadevi, Mumbai: Magna Publishing
-
- Primack, Mark. "Pleaching". The NSW Good Wood Guide. Retrieved 2010-05-10.
- Reames, Richard (2005). Arborsculpture: Solutions for a Small Planet. Oregon: Arborsmith Studios. ISBN 0964728087.
- Link, Tracey (June 13, 2008), "Senior project for Bachelor of Science degree in Landscape Architecture", Arborsculpture: An Emerging Art Form and Solutions to our Environment (PDF), p. 41
-
- Hao Jinyao (11 May 2009), "The art of Tree shaping", Culture
{{citation}}
: Text "unused_data" ignored (help) - Jiwatram, Jaya (2008-08-25), We're going to Live in the Treees, Popular Science Magazine, retrieved 2011-06-10
- Hao Jinyao (11 May 2009), "The art of Tree shaping", Culture
-
- Erlandson, Wilma (2001), My father "talked to trees", Westview: Boulder, p. 3, ISBN 0-9708932-0-5
- Hicks, Ivan; Rosenfeld, Richard; Whitworth, Jo (2007), Tricks with Trees, Pavilion Books, p. 160, ISBN 1-86205-734-6
- May, John (Spring/Summer 2005), The Art of Arborsculpture, The Tree Council http://www.treecouncil.org.uk/, p. 37
{{citation}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help); External link in
(help); Unknown parameter|publisher=
|publication=
ignored (help)
- "designboom: the alchemic force of the imagination transmutes nature". Retrieved 2011-06-10.
- Perréal, Jean (1516). "l'Alchimie". Musée Marmottan Monet. Retrieved 2010-05-08.
- Kamil, Neil (2005), Fortress of the Soul: Violence, Metaphysics, and Material Life in the Huguenots' New World 1517–1751, JHU Press, pp. 384–385, ISBN 0801873908, retrieved 2010-02-22
- Shakespeare, William; Werstine, Paul; Mowat, Barbara A. (2005) , Much Ado About Nothing, Folger Shakespeare Library, New Folger Library Shakespeare, London, England: Simon and Schuster, p. 304, ISBN 0743484940
- ^ Swedenborg, Emanuel (2008) , Earths in the Universe, BiblioBazaar, LLC, p. 104, ISBN 1437531067
{{citation}}
: Unknown parameter|unused_data=
ignored (help) - Lorber, Jakob (1995), Die Haushaltung Gottes (The Household of God) (Translation by Violet Ozols ed.), Lorber Verlag, pp. 564isbn = 978–3874953146
- http://books.google.com.au/books?ei=bCJKTZiGB4WmuQOBm9AW&ct=result&id=GuLZAAAAMAAJ&dq=lord+of+the+rings&q=tree+homes#search_anchor
External links
- Arborsculpture: Installations, history and links
- Extreme nature installations
- History of the Tree Circus
- Tree shapers from around the world, history and links