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Manchu

Manju
滿族/满族

Nurhaci • Hong Taiji • Kangxi Emperor • Yongzheng Emperor Qianlong Emperor • Empress Dowager Cixi • Guangxu Emperor • Puyi Dorgon • Hešen • Yixin • Pujie Lao She • John Fugh • Rosamund Kwan • Lang Lang
Total population
10,430,000 0.15% of global human population (estimate) 10,410,585 0.77% of China's population (estimate)
Regions with significant populations
China	10,410,585
↳ Hong Kong	>288
Taiwan	12,000
Languages
Standard Chinese • Manchu
Religion
Shamanism • Buddhism • Chinese folklore • Christianity, also many are Atheists or Agnostics
Related ethnic groups
Evenks • Nanai • Oroqen • Udege • Sibe and other Tungusic peoples

The Manchus (Manchu: Manju; simplified Chinese: 满族; traditional Chinese: 滿族; pinyin: Mǎnzú), also known as "Man", "Bannermen", Tartars and "red tasseled Mongols", are members of an indigenous people of Manchuria and the largest branch of the Tungusic peoples. They are distributed throughout China as the fourth largest ethnic group and the third largest ethnic minority group there.

The actual etymology of the name Manchu is debated. The alleged connection to Manjusri faces alternative theories, one of which links the name to the Tungusic word *mangu(n) "river".

As a result of the Manchu conquest of China in the 17th century, they are to be found in many regions of China, apart from their origin in Manchuria. There are now Manchu-originated residents in 31 Chinese provinces. Among them, Liaoning has the largest population and Hebei, Heilongjiang, Jilin, Inner Mongolia and Beijing each house over 100,000. About half of the Manchu population lives in Liaoning province and about one-fifth in Hebei province. In both of these provinces there are a number of Manchu autonomous counties.

Manchus conquered China and established the Qing Dynasty in 1644. The dynasty came to an end in 1912 when the country became a republic. In recent years, there has been a resurgence of interest in Manchu culture among both ethnic Manchus and Han.

History

Origins and early history

The Manchus can be traced back to the ancient Sushen people who was famous and good at creating bows and arrows. They paid bows and arrows as tribute to the ancient China in Shun's period and another few times in Zhou Dynasty. Since 2nd century BC, they were called in different names, such as "Yilou" ,"Wuji" and "Mohe", by the Chinese. Till the beginning of 10th century, they were known as "Jurchen" in the documents of late Tang dynasty which is considered as an alternative pronunciation of "Sushen". Jurchen people are the main ancestors of later Manchus in 17th century.

Jurchens were affiliated to Khitan Empire, which was known as Liao dynasty later, since their expansion in 900s. In the year of 1114, Wanyan Aguda, the Jurchen leader of Wanyan tribe, revolted Khitan's regime and established Jin dynasty. His brother and successor, Wanyan Wuqimai successfully perished Liao and Northern Song and made Jurchen state a powerful empire. During Jin Dynasty, Jurchens had created their first scripts in 1120s. It was mainly derived from Khitan script.

In 1206, the Mongols who were vassal to Jurchens rose in Mongolia. Their leader, Genghis Khan, led the Mongol troops to fight against Jurchens. Jin dynasty could not withstand Mongols' attack and was finally perished by Ögedei Khan in 1234. Under the Mongols' control, Jurchens were mainly divided in two groups and treated differently: the ones who were born and raised in North China and fluent in Chinese were considered as Chinese people (Han) ; but the people who were born and raised in Jurchen's homeland without a Chinese-speaking abilities were treated as Mongols politically. Since then, the Jurchens of North China increasingly merged with Han Chinese and the ones living in their homeland started to be Mongolized. They adopted Mongolian customs, names and learning Mongolian language. Less Jurchens could recognize their own scripts since then.

The Mongol domination of China was replaced by Ming Dynasty in 1368. In 1387, Ming defeated Nahacu's Mongol resisting forces who settled in Haixi area and began to summon the Jurchen tribes to pay tribute At the time, some Jurchen tribes were vassal to Joseon dynasty of Korea such as Odoli and Huligai. Their elites served in Korean royal bodyguard. However, their relationship discontinued by Ming, because Ming was planning to make Jurchens their protection of border. Korea had to allow it since itself was in Ming's tribute system. In 1403, Ahacu, cheiftain of Huligai, paid tribute to Yongle Emperor of Ming. Soon after that, Möngke Temür, cheiftain of Odoli, went to tribute from Korea, too. Yi Seong-gye, the Taejo of Joseon requested Ming to send Möngke Temür back but rejected. Since then, more and more Jurchen tribes presented tribute to Ming in succession. They were divided in 384 guards by Ming.

Founding of the Qing Dynasty

In 1616, Nurhaci broke away from the power of the decaying Ming Dynasty and established the Later Jin Dynasty (後金 Hòu Jīn)/Amaga Aisin Gurun (), domestically called the State of Manchu (manju gurun) (), and unified Manchu tribes, establishing (or at least expanding) the Manchu Banner system, a military structure which made their forces quite resilient in the face of superior Ming Dynasty numbers in the field. Nurhaci later conquered Mukden (modern-day Shenyang) and built it into the new capital in 1621.

In 1636, Nurhaci's son Hong Taiji, reorganized the Manchus, including those other groups (such as Hans and Mongols) who had joined them, changed the nation's name to Qing Empire, and formally changed the name of the ethnic designation to Manchu, outlawing use of the name Jurchen. According to legend, the name was chosen because Hong Taiji's father, Nurhaci, had believed himself to be a reincarnation of the bodhisattva Manjusri.

When Beijing was captured by Li Zicheng's peasant rebels in 1644, the last Ming Emperor Chongzhen committed suicide. The Manchu then allied with Ming Dynasty general Wu Sangui and seized control of Beijing, which became the new capital of the Qing dynasty. Over the next two decades, the Manchu took command of all of China and defended against Russian hostilities in Russian–Manchu border conflicts.

For political purposes, the early Manchu emperors took wives descended from the Mongol Great Khans, so that their descendants (such as the Kangxi Emperor) would also be seen as legitimate heirs of the Mongol-ruled Yuan dynasty. During the Qing Dynasty, the Manchu government made efforts to preserve Manchu culture and language. These efforts were largely unsuccessful in that Manchus gradually adopted the customs and language of the surrounding Han Chinese and, by the 19th century, spoken Manchu was rarely used even in the Imperial court. Written Manchu, however, was still used for the keeping of records and communication between the emperor and the Banner officials until the collapse of the dynasty. The Qing dynasty also maintained a system of dual appointments in which all major imperial offices would have a Manchu and a Han Chinese member. Because of the small number of Manchus, this ensured that a large fraction of them would be government officials.

Decline of the Manchu power

While the Manchu ruling elite at the Beijing imperial court and posts of authority throughout China was increasingly sinicized, the Qing imperial government viewed the Manchu communities (as well as those of various tribal people) in Manchuria as a place where traditional Manchu virtues could be preserved, and as a reservoir of military manpower fully dedicated to the regime. The emperors tried to protect the traditional way of life of the Manchus (as well as various tribal people) in the central and northern Manchuria by a variety of means, in particular, restricting the migration of Chinese colonists to the region. This ideal, however, had to be balanced with practical needs, such as maintaining the defense against the Russians and the Mongols, supplying government farms with skilled work force, and running trade in the region's products, which resulted in a continuous trickle of Chinese convicts, workers, and merchants to the north-east.

However, this policy of artificially isolating the Manchus of the north-east from the rest of China could not last forever. In the 1850s, large numbers of the Manchu bannermen were sent to central China to fight the Taiping rebels. (For example, just the Heilongjiang province - which at the time included only the northern part of today's Heilongjiang - contributed 67,730 bannermen to the campaign, of which merely 10-20% survived). Those few who returned were demoralized and often exposed to opium addiction. In 1860, in the aftermath of the loss of the "Outer Manchuria", and with the imperial and provincial governments in deep financial trouble, parts of Manchuria became officially open to Chinese settlement; within a few decades, the Manchus became a minority in most of Manchuria's districts.

During the Russian Invasion of Northern and Central Manchuria (1900), the Russian Empire annihilated many bannermen, each falling one at a time against a five pronged Russian invasion. Thousands fled south. In many areas, such as the Aigun District on the Amur, the Russian Cossacks looted their villages and property and then razed them.

As the end of the Qing Dynasty approached, Manchus were portrayed as outside colonizers by Chinese nationalists such as Sun Yat-Sen, even though the Republican revolution he brought about was supported by many reform-minded Manchu officials and military officers. This portrayal dissipated somewhat after the 1911 revolution as the new Republic of China now sought to include Manchus within its national identity.

By the early years of the Republic of China, very few areas of China still had "traditional" (not heavily Sinicized) Manchu populations. Among the few regions where such comparatively traditional communities could be found, and the Manchu language was still widely spoken, were the Aigun District (whose folkways the Russian ethnographer S. M. Shirokogoroff studied in 1915-1916) and the Tsitsihar District of Heilongjiang Province. The Xibo also maintained their identity at their Xinjiang outpost.

Until 1924, the government continued to pay stipends to Manchu bannermen; however, many cut their links with their banners and took on Han-style names in shame and to avoid persecution. The official total of Manchu fell by more than half during this period, as they refused to admit to their ethnicity when asked by government officials or other outsiders.

Modern history

In 1931, the Empire of Japan created a puppet state in Northeast China called Manchukuo. The new state was nominally ruled by the deposed Emperor Puyi. By this time the population of historical Manchuria was overwhelmingly Han Chinese, so while Manchukuo was intended to be a state for Manchus (though many were murdered by the Japanese), Manchukuo had a majority Han population, largely due to internal migration from China. Manchukuo was abolished at the end of World War II after the Soviet invasion of Manchuria, with its territory incorporated again into China.

The People's Republic of China recognised the Manchu as one of the country's official minorities in 1952. In the 1953 census, 2.5 million people identified themselves as Manchu. The Communist government also attempted to improve the treatment of Manchu people; some Manchu people who had hidden their ancestry during the period of KMT rule thus became more comfortable to reveal their ancestry, such as the writer Lao She, who began to include Manchu characters in his fictional works in the 1950s (in contrast to his earlier works which had none). Between 1982 and 1990, the official count of Manchu people more than doubled from 4,299,159 to 9,821,180, making them China's fastest-growing ethnic minority. In fact, however, this growth was not due to natural increase, but instead people formerly registered as Han applying for official recognition as Manchu.

Population

Mainland China

Most Manchu people now live in Mainland China with a population of 10,410,585 Which is 9.28% of ethnic minorities and 0.77% of China's total population. Among the provincial regions, there are 3 provinces, Liaoning and Hebei, which have over 1,000,000 Manchu residents. Liaoning has 5,336,895 Manchu residents which is 51.26% of Manchu population and 12.20% provincial population; Hebei has 2,118,711 which is 20.35% of Manchu people and 70.80% of provincial ethnic minorites. Manchu is the largest ethnic minority in Liaoning, Hebei, Heilongjiang and Beijing; 2nd largest in Jilin, Inner Mongolia, Tianjin, Tianjin, Ningxia, Shaanxi and Shanxi and 3rd largest in Henan, Shandong and Anhui,.

Distribution

Manchu Autonomous Regions

Other Areas

Manchu people can be found living outside mainland China. There are approximately 12,000 Manchus now in Taiwan. Most of them moved to Taiwan with the ROC government in 1949. Puru was a famous painter, calligrapher and also the founder of the Manchu Association of Republic of China. There are also Manchus who settled in the United States and Japan, such as John Fugh, Garry Guan and Fukunaga Kosē.

Culture

Name

Family Names

The history of Manchu family names is quite long. Fundamentally, it succeeds the Jurchen family name of the Jin Dynasty. However, after the Mongols extinguished the Jurchen empire, Manchus started to adopt Mongol culture, including their custom of using only their given name till the end of the Qing Dynasty, a practice confounding non-Manchus, leading them to conclude, erroneously, that they simply don't have family names.

A Manchu family name usually has two portions: the first is "Mukūn" which literally means "branch name"; the second, "Hala", represents the name of a person's clan. According to the Book of the Eight Manchu Banners' Surname-Clans, there are 1,114 Manchu family names. Gioro, Nara, Gūwalgiya, Niohuru, Fuca, Tunggiya, Magiya, Donggo, Šumulu, Wanggiyan, Hešeri are considered "famous clans" among Manchus.

Given Names

Manchus given names are distinctive. Generally, there are several forms, as below:

• bearing suffixes such as "-ngga", "-ngge" or "-nggo", meaning "having the quality of"
• bearing the suffixes "-tai" or "-tu", meaning "having".
• bearing the suffix, "-ju", "-boo".；
• numerals, such as Nadanju, Susai, Liošici and Bašinu。
• animal names, e.g. Dorgon.；

Current Situation

Nowadays, Manchus primarily use Chinese family and given names, but some still use a Manchu family name and Chinese given name, a Chinese family name and Manchu given name or both Manchu family and given names.

Language & Script

Language

Manchu is a branch of the Tungusic languages and has many dialects：

• Standard Manchu： Standard Manchu originates from the accent of Jianzhou Jurchens. It was standardized by the Qianlong Emperor under his reign. During the Qing period, Manchus at court were required to speak Standard Manchu or face the emperor's reprimand. This applied equally to the palace presbyter of shamanic fete when performing sacrifice.。
• Beijing dialect： The Manchus who lived in Beijing were not only Jianzhou Jurchens, but also Haixi Jurchens and Yeren Jurchens. Over time, the mingling of their accents produced Beijing dialect. Beijing dialect is really close to Standard Manchu。
• Mukden-South Manchurian dialect：Mukden-South Manchurian dialect, aka, "Mukden-Girin dialect", was originally spoken by the Manchus who lived in Liaoning and the western and southern areas of Jilin, having an accent very close to the Xibe language spoken by the Xibes living in Qapqal.

There are also Ningguta, Alcuka dialects, etc., of Manchu which have their own particular characteristics.

Script

Jurchens, ancestors of the Manchu, had created Jurchen script in the Jin Dynasty. After Jin collapsed, Jurchen script was gradually lost. In the Ming period, 60%-70% of Jurchens used Mongolian script to write letters and 30%-40% of Jurchens used Chinese characters. This persisted until Nurhaci revolted against the Ming reign. Nurhaci considered it a major impediment that his people lacked a script of their own, so he commanded his scholars, Gagai and Eldeni, to create Manchu characters by reference to Mongolian scripts. They dutifully complied with the Khan's order and created Manchu script, which is called "script without dots and circles" or "old Manchu script". Due to its hurried creation, the script has its defects. Some vowels and consonants were difficult to distinguish. Shortly afterwards, their successor Dahai used dots and circles to distinguish vowels, aspirated and non-aspirated consonants and thus completed the script. His achievement is called "script with dots and circles" or "new Manchu script". Since then, Manchu scripts were successfully created.

Current Situation

After the 1800s, most Manchus had perfected Standard Chinese and the number who knew Manchu was dwindling. Although the Qing emperors emphasized the importance of Manchu language again and again, the tide could not be turned. After the Qing collapsed, the Manchu language lost its status as a national language and its use officially in education ended. Manchus today generally speak Standard Chinese. The remaining skilled native Manchu speakers number less than 100, most of whom are to be found in Sanjiazi, Heilongjiang Province. In recent years, with the help of the governments in Liaoning, Jilin and Heilongjiang, many schools of northeastern China have classes in Manchu. There are also Manchu volunteers in many places of China who freely teach Manchu in the desire to rescue of the language.

Traditional Clothes & Accessories

Manchus traditionally coiled their hair in high tufts on top of their heads and wore earrings, long gowns and embroidered shoes. Women with higher social standing wore silk and satin clothing while cotton clothing was worn by the rest. Variants of such costumes (including qi pao and ma gua, Mandarin dress) are still popular throughout China. The cheongsam is a modern adaptation of aristocratic Manchu female dress. Men's clothing formerly consisted of a short, tailored "horse-jacket" worn over a long belted gown to facilitate an equine lifestyle.

Religion

The religions of the Manchus are diverse. Originally, Manchus, and their predecessors, were principally Shamanists. After the conquest of China in the 17th century, Manchus came into contact with Chinese culture. They were markedly influenced by Chinese folk religion and retained only some Shamanic customs. Buddhism and Christinaity also had their impacts. Manchus are today mostly irreligious.

Shamanism

Shamanism has a long history in Manchu civilization and influenced them tremendously over thousands of years. After the conquest of China in the 17th century, although Manchus widely adopted Chinese folk religion, Shamanic traditions can still be found in the aspects of soul worship, totem worship, belief in nightmares and apotheosis of philanthropists. Since the Qing rulers considered religion as a method of controlling other powers such as Mongolians and Tibetans, there was no privilege for Shamanism, their native religion. Apart from the Shamanic temples in the Qing palace, no temples erected for worship of Manchu gods could be found in Beijing. Thus, the story of competition between Shamanists and Lamaists was oft heard in Manchuria but the Manchu emperor helped Lamaists to persecute Shamanists which led to their considerable frustration and dissatisfaction.

Buddhism

Jurchens, the predecessors of the Manchus, were influenced by the Buddhism of Balhae, Goryeo, Khitan and Song in the 10-13th centuries, so it was not something new to the rising Manchus in the 16-17th centuries. Qing emperors were always entitled "Buddha". They were regarded as Mañjuśrī in Tibetan Buddhism and had high attainments. However, Buddhism was used by rulers to control Mongolians and Tibetans; it was of little relevance to ordinary Manchus in the Qing Dynasty.

Folklore

Manchus were affected by Chinese folk religions for most of the Qing Dynasty. Save for ancestor worship, the gods they consecrated were virtually identical to those of the Han Chinese. Guan Yu worship is a typical example. He was considered as the God Protector of the Nation and was sincerely worshipped by Manchus. They called him "Lord Guan". Uttering his name was taboo. In addition, Manchus worshipped Cai Shen and The Kitchen god just as the Han Chinese did. The worship of Mongolian and Tibetan gods has also been reported.

Christianity

There were Manchu Christians in the Qing Dynasty. In Yongzheng and Qianlong's era, Depei, the Hošo Jiyan Prince, was a Catholic whose baptismal name was "Joseph". His wife was also baptised and named “Maria”. At the same time, the sons of Doro Beile Sunu were devout Catholics, too. In the Jiaqing period, Tong Hengšan and Tong Lan were Catholic Manchu Bannermen. These Manchu Christians were proselytized and persecuted by Qing emperors but they steadfastly refused to convert. There were Manchu Christians in modern times, too, such as Ying Lianzhi, Lao She and Philip Fugh.

Traditional Activities

Riding and Archery

Riding and Archery is significant to the Manchu. They were well-trained horsemen from their teenage years. Hong Taiji, the Qing Taizong emperor, said, "Riding and Archery is the most important martial art of our country". Every generation of the Qing dynasty treasured Riding and Archery the most。 Every spring and fall, from ordinary Manchus to aristocrats, all had to take a riding and archery test. Their test results could even affect their rank in the nobility. The Manchus of the early Qing had excellent shooting skills and their arrows were reputed to be capable of penetrating two people.

From the middle period of Qing, archery became more a form of entertainment, in the form of games such as, hunting swans, shooting fabric or silk target. The most difficult is shooting a candle hanging in the air at night. Gambling was banned in the Qing reign but there was no limitation on Manchus engaging in shooting skill contests. It was common to see Manchus putting signs in front of their houses to invite challenges. After the Qianlong period, Manchus gradually neglected the practice of riding and archery, even though their rulers tried their best to encourage Manchus to continue their riding and archery traditions.

Manchu Wrestling

Manchu Wrestling, aka “buku”, is also an important martial art of the Manchu people. Buku, meaning "wrestling" or "man of unusual strength" in Manchu, was originally from a Mongolian word, “bökh”. The history of Manchu wrestling can be traced back to Jurchen wrestling in the Jin Dynasty which was originally from Khitan wrestling; it was very similar to Mongolian wrestling. In the Yuan Dynasty, the Jurchens who lived in northeast China adopted Mongol culture including wrestling, bökh. In the latter Jin and early Qing period, rulers encouraged the populace, including aristocrats, to practise buku as a feature of military training. At the time, Mongol wrestlers were the most famous and powerful. By the Chongde period, Manchus had developed their own well-trained wrestlers and, a century later, in the Qianlong period, they surpassed Mongol wreslers. The Qing court established the "Shan Pu Battalion" and chose 200 fine wrestlers divided into three levels. Manchu wrestling moves can be found in today's Chinese wrestling, Shuai jiao. Among many branches, Beijing wrestling adopted most Manchu wrestling moves.

Falconry

As a result of their hunting ancestry, Manchus are traditionally interested in falconry. Šongkoro, gyrfalcon in English, is the most highly valued discipline in the Manchu falconry social circle. In the Qing period, giving a gyrfalcon to the royal court in tribute could be met with a considerable reward. There were professional falconers in Ningguta area. It was a big base of falconry. Beijing's Manchus also like falconry. Compared to the falconry of Manchuria, it is more like an entertainment. Imperial Household Department of Beijing had professional falconers, too. They provided outstanding falcons to the emperor when he went to hunt every fall. Even today, Manchu traditional falconry is well practised in some regions.

Ice-Skating

Ice-skating, "nisume efimbi" in Manchu, is another Manchu pastime. Emperor Qianlong called it “national custom”. It is one of the most important winter events of the Qing royal household, performed by "Eight Banner Ice Skating Battalion" which was a special force trained to do battle on icy terrain. The battalion consisted of 1600 soldiers. In the Jiaqing period, it was reduced to 500 soldiers and transferred to the Jing Jie Battalion。

In 1930s-1940s, there was a famous Manchu skater in Beijing whose name was Wu Tongxuan, from the Uya clan and one of the royal household skaters in Empress Dowager Cixi's reign. He frequently appeared in many of Beijing's skating rinks. Nowadays, there are still Manchu figure skaters of which world champions Zhao Hongbo and Tong Jian are the pre-eminent examples.

Traditional holidays

Manchus have many traditional holidays. Some are diverted from Chinese culture, such as "Spring Festival" and Duanwu Festival. Some are Manchu origin:

• Day of running out of food：In every August 26th of lunar calendar. It is said that once Nurhaci and his troops was in a battle with emenies and almost running out of food. The villiagers who lived near the battlefield heard the emergency and came to help. There were no tableware on battlefield. They had to use perilla to wrap the rice. Afterwards, they won the battle. For later generation could memorize this hardship, Nurhaci made this day the "day of running out of food". Traditionally on this day, Manchu people usually eat perilla or cabbage wraps with rice, grambled eggs, beef or pork.。

• Banjin Inenggi：It's the anniversary of the name creation of Manchu in October 13th of lunar calendar.Yan 2008, p. 49 This day in 1635, Qing Taizong Emperor, Hong Taiji, made the change of the ethnic name from "Jušen"(Jurchen) to "Manju"(Manchu).

Literature

The Tale of the Nisan Shaman is the most important literature of Manchus. It primarily tells the process of how Nisan Shaman helps a young hunter revives. The story spreads not long among Manchus, but also in Xibe, Nanai, Daur, Oroqen, Evenk and other Tungusic peoples. It basically has for versions: the handwriting version from Qiqihar; two different handwriting versions from Aihui; the one which was wrote by a Manchu writer Dekdengge in Kijimi Wai. The pilot of four versions are similar, but the version of Kijimi Wai has the most complete content. It is already translated in Russian, Chinese, English and other languages.

There are also literature wrotten in Chinese by Manchu writers, such as the Tale of Heroic Sons and Daughters, Song Of Drink Water and The collection of Tianyouge.

Folk art

Eight-corner drum

Eight-corner drum is a folk art of Manchu culture and was very popular among bannermen, especially in Beijing.. It is said that Eight-corner drum was originally from the snare drum of Eight-banner military and the melody was made by the banner soldiers who was on the way back home from winng the battle of Jinchuan. The drum is composed by woods with bells around. And the drumhead is made by wyrmhide with tassels at the bottom. The colors of tassels is yellow, white, red and blue which represent the four colors of Eight Banners. When artists perform, they use fingers to hit the drumhead and also shake the drum to ring the bells. Traditionally, Eight-corner drum is performed by three people. One is the harpist; one is the clown who is responsible for harlequinade; and the rest arstist is the singer.

"Zidishu" is the main libretto of Eight-corner drum which can be traced back to a traditional folk music called "Manchu Rhythm". Although Zidishu was not created by Chinese people, it still contains many themes of Chinese historical stories. Such as Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Dream of the Red Chamber, Romance of the West Chamber, Legend of the White Snake and Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio. Otherwise, there are many works which talks about the life of Bannermen. Aisin Gioro Yigeng, who was pen named "Helü" and wrote the sigh of old imperial bodyguard, is the representative author. Zidishu have two kinds of acts of singing which is dongcheng and xicheng.

After the fall of Qing, the influence of Eight-corner drum gradually reduced. However, the Chinese monochordJin 2009, p. 149 and crosstalk which derived from Eight-corner are still popular in Chinese society. Many famous Chinese monochord performers and crosstalkers were the artists of Eight-corner drum. Such as De shoushan and Zhang Sanlu.

Uleben

Uleben is a Manchu storytelling entertainment which is performed in Manchu language. Different from Eight-corner drum, uleben is popular among the Manchu people who lives in Manchuria. It has two main categories. One is popular folk literature such as the Tale of the Nisan Shaman; Another classification is from folk music which is informative and has independent pilot, complete structure. Song Xidong aka. Akšan is a famous artist in performing uleben.

See also

• Qing Dynasty
• Eight Banners
• List of Manchu clans
• Manchu people in Taiwan

Notes

1. Chinese abbreviation, see Manchus on Chinese Misplaced Pages. Vietnamese also adopted the name from Chinese, See Manchus on Vietnamese Misplaced Pages
2. Manchu people was the most important member of Eight Banner system, so they are still called "Bannermen" (旗人 in Chinese) by others. See Manchus on Chinese Misplaced Pages
3. "Red tasseled Mongols" (红缨蒙古 in original), as one of the alternative names of Manchus, was recorded in Veritable Records of Qing's Shizu Emperor. It was originally mentioned in the letter from Jasaktu Khan of Khalka Right Banner of Outer Mongolia to Shunzhi Emperor. See citation 7
4. northeastern China and Russia's Primorsky Krai nowadays
5. aka. Manchuria in 17th century
6. e.g. Möngke Temür, Qing's emperors' ancestor
7. 《八旗滿洲氏族通譜》 in Chinese
8. “著姓” in original
9. e.g. Aisin-Gioro Yuzhan
10. e.g. Ying Batu, Ying Bayan, the sons of famous Manchu-Chinese director, Ying Da
11. e.g. Aisin-Gioro Ulhicun
12. “京语” in original
13. “盛京南满语”
14. “盛京吉林语” in original
15. “无圈点满文” 、“老满文” in Chinese; "tongki fuka akū hergen" in Manchu
16. “关老爷” originally
17. “和硕简亲王” originally, Heshuo Jian Qinwang in Pinyin
18. “多罗贝勒” originally, Duoluo Beile in Pinyin
19. see Shuai Jiao (Chinese Misplaced Pages)
20. Heilongjiang province and the northern part of today's Jilin province
21. “八旗冰鞋营” originally
22. “精捷营” originally, literally meaning "chosen agile battalion"

Citations

1. ^ 中国2010年人口普查资料(the Data of 2010 China Population Census). China Statistics Press. 2012. ISBN 9787503765070. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help), or simply see Manchu population on Chinese Misplaced Pages if has a Chinese reading ability
2. 《我所认识的香港民族问题》，刊载于《民族团结》1996年第8期(Wo Suo Ren Shi De Xiang Gang Min Zu Wen Ti, The problem of the ethnicities of Hong Kong I know, Min Zu Tuan Jie magazine, the 8 edition, 1996)
3. ^ Manchusoc：The Origins of Manchu People in Taiwan (Chinese traditional)
4. ^ the gospel need of Manchu people(Chinese traditional)
5. Manchu (people) on Encyclopædia Britannica
6. Martinius, Martin (1655). Bellum Tartaricumor, or, The conquest of the great and most renowned empire of China, by the invasion of the Tartars. E. Tyler for I. Crook in London. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
7. Various authors 2008, p. 262: "汉人八十万众，原系我攻城敌也，今闻尔已收服，念总属我红缨蒙古所得，甚为喜悦，故去年我曾遣使朝贺。"(Literally: Chinese who have 800,000 soldiers were my enemies. I heard you have conquered them. At least it belongs to our red tasseled Mongols, so I feel very happy and that was the reason I sent envoy to pay homage to you last year) harvnb error: no target: harv (help)
8. 《顺治帝为敦促政体归一颁给玛喀萨玛迪车臣汗之敕谕》，顺治二年正月十五日，《清内秘书院蒙古文档案汇编》第2辑，第61页；《顺治帝为敦促政体归一颁给土谢图汗之敕谕》，顺治元年十二月初五日，《清内秘书院蒙古文档案汇编》第2辑，P56
9. Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary. Springfield, MA: Merriam Webster. 2003. p. 754. ISBN 978-0-87779-807-1. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
10. "Eras Journal - Tighe, J: Review of "The Manchus", Pamela Kyle Crossley". Retrieved 2011-04-27.
11. Association for Asian Studies (1987). The Journal of Asian studies, Volume 46, Issues 3-4. Cambridge University Press on behalf of the Association for Asian Studies. p. 767.
12. ^ Meng 2006, p. 7
13. Meng 2006, pp. 7, 9
14. Meng 2006, p. 8
15. Huang, P.: "New Light on the origins of the Manchu," Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, vol. 50, no.1 (1990): 239-82. Retrieved from JSTOR database July 18, 2006
16. ^ Toqto'a 1975, p. 19-46
17. Toqto'a 1975, p. 47-67
18. Zheng 2009, pp. 18
19. Zheng 2009, pp. 39
20. Jin 2006, p. 107
21. Peterson 2006, p. 11 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFPeterson2006 (help)
22. ^ Meng 2006, p. 21
23. Meng 2006, pp. 97, 120
24. ^ Peterson 2006, p. 15 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFPeterson2006 (help)
25. Meng 2006, p. 120
26. Peterson 2006, p. 15 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFPeterson2006 (help)
27. Lee 1970, pp. 182–184
28. Lee 1970, pp. 20–23, 78–90, 112–115
29. Lee 1970, p. 117
30. Lee 1970, pp. 124–125
31. Lee 1970, p. 103,sq
32. Sergeĭ Mikhaĭlovich Shirokogorov (1924). Social organization of the Manchus: A study of the Manchu clan organization. Royal Asiatic Society. p. 4. Retrieved 2011-06-01.
33. Edward J. M. Rhoads (2001). Manchus & Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861-1928. University of Washington Press. p. 72. ISBN 0-295-98040-0. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
34. Rhoads 2000, p. 265
35. Rhoads 2000, p. 275
36. Shirokogorov 1924, p. i,3-4
37. Rhoads 2000, p. 270
38. Rhoads 2000, pp. 270, 283
39. Rhoads 2000, p. 277
40. Rhoads 2000, p. 276
41. Rhoads 2000, p. 280
42. Rhoads 2000, p. 282
43. Rhoads 2000, p. 283
44. Jin 2009, p. 109
45. Jin 2009, p. 107
46. Aisin Gioro 2004, p. 969
47. Aisin Gioro 2004, p. 973
48. Hungjeo 2002, p. 29-382
49. ^ Aisin Gioro 2004, p. 979
50. ^ Elliott 2001, p. 243
51. ^ Aisin Gioro 2004, p. 978
52. Aisin Gioro 2004, p. 246
53. Tong 2009, p. 40
54. ^ Aisin Gioro 2004, p. 247
55. Aisin Gioro 2004, p. 248
56. Aisin Gioro 2004, p. 319
57. Aisin Gioro 2004, p. 264
58. Fuge 1984, p. 152
59. Jiang 1980, p. 4
60. 《无圈点字书》，鄂尔泰、徐元梦等撰
61. Ortai 1985, p. 5324-5327
62. Tong 2009, pp. 11–17
63. 满文老档. Zhonghua Book Company. 1980. pp. 1196–1197. ISBN 710100587X. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
64. Zhao 2009, p. 9256-9258
65. Tong 2009, p. 33
66. 人民网：全国现有满族人口1000多万 会说满语者已不足百人
67. 人民日报：满语“活化石”――“伊兰孛”
68. 辽宁新闻网：本溪桓仁29名满语教师上岗
69. 中国新闻网：辽宁一高中开设满语课 满族文化传承引关注
70. 新浪教育：满语课首次进入吉林一中学课堂
71. 中国民族报：四合院中读书声 “逆流而上”救满文
72. 中国吉林网：金标的十年“满语梦”
73. 沈阳日报：抢救满语，沈阳小伙自费办班教满语
74. 北京晚報：滿文之憂
75. Jin 2009, pp. 98–106
76. ^ Jin 2009, p. 95
77. ^ 满族帝王与佛教的渊源(in Chinese simplified)
78. Meng 2006, p. 5
79. 《雍乾間奉天主教之宗室·下編·德沛》，陳垣作，1932年《輔仁學誌》三卷二期
80. ^ Liu 2008, p. 184
81. 《雍乾間奉天主教之宗室·上編·蘇努諸子》，陳垣作，1932年《輔仁學誌》三卷二期
82. 国家清史编委会：苏努研究(in Chinese simplified)
83. 《建州见闻录》，李民寏著
84. Jiang 1980, p. 46
85. Various authors 2008, p. 太宗实录卷三十四，崇德二年三月丁酉，P446
86. ^ Liu 2008, p. 92
87. Liu 2008, p. 93
88. ^ Liu 2008, p. 94
89. ^ Liu 2008, p. 95
90. ^ Jin 2006, p. 118
91. Jin 2006, p. 142
92. Jin 2006, p. 120
93. Jin 2006, p. 119
94. Jin 2006, p. 121
95. Jin 2006, p. 123
96. Jin 2006, p. 137
97. Jin 2006, p. 153
98. ^ Liu 2008, p. 106
99. ^ Liu 2008, p. 107
100. 新华网吉林频道：“中国鹰屯”吉林渔楼村将举办首届鹰猎文化节
101. 《御制冰嬉赋·序》，高宗（清）撰
102. 《日下旧闻考·宫室·西苑一》，窦光鼐、朱筠等撰
103. ^ 中国新闻网：“冰嬉”被乾隆定为“国俗” 清军有八旗冰鞋营
104. ^ 李敖记起的北京滑冰老人吴雅氏
105. 吉祥满族：满族的春节
106. 吉祥满族：滿族的端午節
107. 满族特色资源：绝粮日
108. Various authors 2008, p. 太宗实录卷二十五，天聪九年年十月庚寅，P330-331
109. 吉祥满族：“颁金节”的由来
110. Durrant, Stephen W. (1979). "The Nišan Shaman Caught in Cultural Contradiction". Signs. 5 (2). The University of Chicago Press: 338–347. doi:10.1086/493712. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); More than one of |number= and |issue= specified (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
111. Gu, Changchun (2007). 尼山萨满传[上中下] (Tale of the Nisan Shaman). Jilin people's publishing house. ISBN 9787206054389. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
112. ^ Jin 2009, p. 147
113. Liu 2008, p. 124
114. Liu 2008, p. 112
115. ^ Jin 2009, p. 148
116. Liu 2008, p. 116
117. Jin 2009, p. 149
118. 遼寧電視台《有話好好說2011年12月4日》，郭德綱與德雲社眾演員，1分30秒—1分45秒處
119. Liu 2008, p. 113
120. ^ 富育光：《满族传统说部艺术——“乌勒本”研考》，中國社會科學院民族文化研究所
121. 文汇报：满语濒危 歌者唱作品传承

References

In English

• Elliott, Mark C. (2001). The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China. Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-4684-2. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Peterson, Willard J. (2002). the Cambridge History of China, the Ch'ing dynasty to 1800. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-24334-3. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Lee, Robert H. G. (1970), The Manchurian frontier in Chʼing history, Volume 43 of Harvard East Asian series, Center for East Asian Studies, Harvard University, ISBN 674-54775-6 {{citation}}: Check |isbn= value: length (help)
• Rhoads, Edward J. M. (2000). Manchus & Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861-1928. University of Washington Press. ISBN 0-295-98040-0. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Shirokogorov, Sergei Mikhailovich (1924), Social organization of the Manchus. A study of the Manchu clan organization, Royal Asiatic society. North China branch {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |city= ignored (|location= suggested) (help)

In Chinese

• Aisin Gioro, Yingsheng (2004). 满语杂识 (Divers Knowledges of Manchu language). Wenyuan Publishing House. ISBN 7-80060-008-4. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Anonymous (1990). 满文老档 (Old Manchu Archive). Zhonghua Book Company. ISBN 9787101005875. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Fuge (1984). 听雨丛谈 (Miscellaneous Discussions Whilst Listening To The Rain). Zhonghua Book Company. ISBN 978-7-101-01698-7. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Hungjeo (2002). 八旗满洲氏族通谱 (Eight Manchu Banners' Surname-Clans' Book). Liaohai Publishing House. ISBN 9787806691892. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Jiang, Liangqi (1980). 东华录. Zhonghua Book Compary. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Jin, Qicong (2009). 金启孮谈北京的满族 (Jin Qicong talks about the Manchu people of Beijing). Zhonghua Book Company. ISBN 7101068561. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Jin, Qicong (2006). 中国摔跤史 (the wrestling history of China). Inner Mongolia People's Publishing House. ISBN 7204088093. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Jooliyan (1980). 啸亭杂录. Zhonghua Book Company. ISBN 9787101017519. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Liu, Xiaomeng (2008). 清代八旗子弟 (the Bannermen in Qing Dynasty). Liaoning Nationality Publishing House. ISBN 978-7-80722-563-8. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Meng, Sen (2006). 满洲开国史讲义 (the Lectrue Note of Early Manchu History). Zhonghua Book Company. ISBN 7101050301. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Ortai (1985). 八旗通志初集 (First Edition of Comprehensive statutes of the Eight Banners). Northeast Normal University Press. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Song, Lian (1976). 元史 (History of Yuan). Zhonghua Book Company. ISBN 9787101003260. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Tong, Yonggong (2009). 满语文与满文档案研究 (the Research of Manchu language and files). Liaoning Nationality Publishing House. ISBN 7805070431. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Toqto'a (1975). 金史 (History of Jin). Zhonghua Book Company. ISBN 9787101003253. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Various authors (2008). 清实录 (Veritable records of the Qing dynasty). Zhonghua Book Compary. ISBN 9787101056266. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Yan, Chongnian (2008). 明亡清兴六十年(彩图珍藏版). Zhonghua Book Compary. ISBN 9787101059472. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Zhao, Erxun (2009). 清史稿 (Draft History of Qing). Zhonghua Book Compary. ISBN 9787101007503. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Zhang, Tingyu (1974). 明史 (History of Ming). Zhonghua Book Compary. ISBN 9787101003277. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Zheng, Tianting (2009). 郑天挺元史讲义 (Zheng Tianting's Lectrue Note of Yuan Dynasty History). Zhonghua Book Compary. ISBN 9787101070132. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Further reading

• Evelyn Sakakida Rawski (2001). The Last Emperors: A Social History of Qing Imperial Institutions. California: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-22837-5.
• Pamela Kyle Crossley (2002). A Translucent Mirror: History and Identity in Qing Imperial Ideology. California: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-23424-3.
• Pamela Kyle Crossley (2002). The Manchus (The People of Asia series). Boston, MA: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-631-23591-4.
• Pamela Kyle Crossley (1991). Orphan Warriors: Three Manchu Generations and the End of the Qing World. New Jersy: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-00877-9.
• Meng Sen (2006). 满洲开国史讲义(Man Zhou Kai Guo Shi Jiang Yi, the Lectrue Note of Early Manchu History). Beijing, China: Zhonghua Book Company. ISBN 7101050301.

External links

• Tungusic peoples
• Manchuria
• Manchu people