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| ===Myth and Cosmology=== | ===Myth and Cosmology=== | ||
| ] drawn by Johannes Hevelius in 1690.]]Another motive for studying the ] is to understand and explain the ]. In pre-scientific times ] was a tool for achieving this and the explanations, while not ], are ]. | ] drawn by Johannes Hevelius in 1690.]]Another motive for studying the ] is to understand and explain the ]. In pre-scientific times ] was a tool for achieving this and the explanations, while not ], are ]. | ||
| The ]s arranged their empire to demonstrate their cosmology. The capital, ], was at the centre of the empire and connected to it by means of ceques, conceptually straight lines radiating out from the centre<ref>B. Bauer and D. Dearborn, ''Astronomy and empire in the ancient Andes: the cultural origins of Inca sky watching'', University of Texas, ], ISBN 0292708378</ref>. These ceques connected the centre of the empire to the four ''suyus'', which were regions defined by their direction from Cusco. The notion of a quartered cosmos is common across the ]. Gary Urton, who has conducted fieldwork in the Andean villagers of Misminay, has connected this quartering with the appearance of the ] in the night sky<ref>G. Urton, ''At the crossroads of the earth and the sky: an Andean cosmology'', University of Texas. ], ISBN 029270349X</ref>. In one season it will bisect the sky and in another bisect it in a ] fashion. | The ]s arranged their empire to demonstrate their cosmology. The capital, ], was at the centre of the empire and connected to it by means of ceques, conceptually straight lines radiating out from the centre<ref>B. Bauer and D. Dearborn, ''Astronomy and empire in the ancient Andes: the cultural origins of Inca sky watching'', University of Texas, ], ISBN 0292708378</ref>. These ceques connected the centre of the empire to the four ''suyus'', which were regions defined by their direction from Cusco. The notion of a quartered cosmos is common across the ]. Gary Urton, who has conducted fieldwork in the Andean villagers of Misminay, has connected this quartering with the appearance of the ] in the night sky<ref>G. Urton, ''At the crossroads of the earth and the sky: an Andean cosmology'', University of Texas. ], ISBN 029270349X</ref>. In one season it will bisect the sky and in another bisect it in a ] fashion. | ||
| The importance of observing cosmological factors is also seen on the other side of the world. The ] in ] is laid out to follow cosmic order though rather than observing four directions the Chinese saw five, ], ], ], ] and ]. The Forbidden City occupied the centre of ancient Beijing<ref>], ''Skywatchers, Shamans and Kings'', John Wiley and Sons, ], 196-9, ISBN 0471329754</ref>. One approaches the Emperor from the south, thus placing him in front of the ]. This creates the situation of the heavens revolving around the person of the Emperor. The Chinese cosmology is now better known through its export as ]. | The importance of observing cosmological factors is also seen on the other side of the world. The ] in ] is laid out to follow cosmic order though rather than observing four directions the Chinese saw five, ], ], ], ] and ]. The Forbidden City occupied the centre of ancient Beijing<ref>], ''Skywatchers, Shamans and Kings'', John Wiley and Sons, ], 196-9, ISBN 0471329754</ref>. One approaches the Emperor from the south, thus placing him in front of the ]. This creates the situation of the heavens revolving around the person of the Emperor. The Chinese cosmology is now better known through its export as ]. | ||
| There is also much information about how the universe was thought to work stored in the mythology of the ]s. The Barasana of the ] plan part of their annual cycle based on observation of the stars. When their constellation of the Caterpillar-Jaguar falls they prepare to catch the pupating caterpillars of the forest as they fall from the trees<ref>M. Hoskin, ''The Cambridge Concise History of Astronomy'', ], ], 15-6, ISBN 0521576008</ref>. This provides planning for food procurement at a time when hunger could otherwise be a problem. | There is also much information about how the universe was thought to work stored in the mythology of the ]s. The Barasana of the ] plan part of their annual cycle based on observation of the stars. When their constellation of the Caterpillar-Jaguar falls they prepare to catch the pupating caterpillars of the forest as they fall from the trees<ref>M. Hoskin, ''The Cambridge Concise History of Astronomy'', ], ], 15-6, ISBN 0521576008</ref>. This provides planning for food procurement at a time when hunger could otherwise be a problem. | ||
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| ] is believed to have been designed as an astronomic clock by the Incas, while some have speculated about the site's possible ] role]]The most common popular image of archaeoastronomy is the expression of hidden knowledge and power. By using stellar symbolism one can make claims of heavenly power. | ] is believed to have been designed as an astronomic clock by the Incas, while some have speculated about the site's possible ] role]]The most common popular image of archaeoastronomy is the expression of hidden knowledge and power. By using stellar symbolism one can make claims of heavenly power. | ||
| By including celestial motifs in clothing it becomes possible for the wearer to make claims the power on Earth is drawn from above. It has been said that the Shield of ] described by ] is also a catalogue of constellations<ref>R. Hannah, . ''Electronic Antiquity'' II.4, ], 15-6</ref>. In North America shields depicted in ] ] appear to include Venus symbolism<ref>], ''Skywatchers, Shamans and Kings'', John Wiley and Sons, ], 252-3, ISBN 0471329754</ref>. | By including celestial motifs in clothing it becomes possible for the wearer to make claims the power on Earth is drawn from above. It has been said that the Shield of ] described by ] is also a catalogue of constellations<ref>R. Hannah, . ''Electronic Antiquity'' II.4, ], 15-6</ref>. In North America shields depicted in ] ] appear to include Venus symbolism<ref>], ''Skywatchers, Shamans and Kings'', John Wiley and Sons, ], 252-3, ISBN 0471329754</ref>. | ||
| ] alignments also can be seen as displays of power. In Egypt the temple of ] at ] has been the subject of much study. Evaluation of the site, taking into account the change over time of the ] show that the Great Temple was aligned on the rising of the midwinter sun<ref>], Light in the Temples, ''Records in Stone: Papers in Memory of Alexander Thom'', ed. C.L.N. Ruggles, ], 473-499, ISBN 0521333814</ref>. The length of the corridor down which sunlight would travel would have limited illumination at other times of the year. | ] alignments also can be seen as displays of power. In Egypt the temple of ] at ] has been the subject of much study. Evaluation of the site, taking into account the change over time of the ] show that the Great Temple was aligned on the rising of the midwinter sun<ref>], Light in the Temples, ''Records in Stone: Papers in Memory of Alexander Thom'', ed. C.L.N. Ruggles, ], 473-499, ISBN 0521333814</ref>. The length of the corridor down which sunlight would travel would have limited illumination at other times of the year. | ||
| In a later period the ] in ] was also said to have contained a ] alignment so that, on a specific sunrise, a shaft of light would pass across the lips of the statue of ] thus symbolising the ] saluting the god<ref>], </ref>. | In a later period the ] in ] was also said to have contained a ] alignment so that, on a specific sunrise, a shaft of light would pass across the lips of the statue of ] thus symbolising the ] saluting the god<ref>], </ref>. | ||
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| * ] Sites where claims for the use of astronomy have been made. | * ] Sites where claims for the use of astronomy have been made. | ||
| ==External |
==External links== | ||
| * A Thinkquest website surveying archaeoastronomical sites across the world. | * A Thinkquest website surveying archaeoastronomical sites across the world. | ||
| * bibliography and synopsis of his course at ] | * bibliography and synopsis of his course at ] | ||
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| ] | ] | ||
| ] | ] | ||
| ] | ] | ||
| ] | ] | ||
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Archaeoastronomy (also spelled Archeoastronomy) is the study of ancient or traditional astronomies in their cultural context, utilising archaeological and anthropological evidence. It is closely associated with sister disciplines Ethnoastronomy, the study of astronomical practice in contemporary societies and Historical Astronomy, the use of historical records of heavenly events to answer astronomical problems. Another similar discipline is History of Astronomy which uses written records to evaluate prior astronomical traditions.
It is most frequently mentioned with astronomical claims regarding Stonehenge or the pyramids of Egypt.
History of Archaeoastronomy
Archaeoastronomy is arguably almost as old as archaeology itself. Norman Lockyer was arguably the first archaeoastronomer working at the end of the nineteenth century and the start of the twentieth. His studies included an examinations of Egyptian temples in The Dawn of Astronomy in 1894 and of Stonehenge published as Stonehenge and Other British Stone Monuments Astronomically Considered in 1906. Some archaeologists followed. Francis Penrose published extensively in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society on the astronomical alignment of Greek temples in the Mediterranean in the same period. Archaeoastronomy was, for a while, a respectable subject. The first issue of the archaeological journal Antiquity includes an article on archaeoastronomical research.
In the British Isles interest in archaeoastronomy waned until the 1960s when the astronomer Gerald Hawkins proposed that Stonehenge was a Neolithic computer. Around the same time the engineer Alexander Thom published his survey results of megalithic sites also proposed widespread practice of accurate astronomy in the British Isles. The claims of Hawkins were largely dismissed. However, Thom's analysis continued to pose a problem. A re-evaluation of Thom's fieldwork showed that his claims of high accuracy astronomy were not fully supported by the evidence. Nevertheless there was evidence of widespread interest in astronomy associated with megalithic sites. The response from archaeologists was tepid. A few archaeologists such as Euan MacKie accepted Thom’s conclusions and published new prehistories of Britain. Until the early 1980s most archaeoastronomical research in the United Kingdom was concerned with establishing the existence astronomical alignments in prehistoric sites by statistical means rather than the social practice of astronomy in ancient times.
In the New World anthropologists began to more fully consider the role of astronomy in Amerindian societies. This approach had access to sources that the prehistory of Europe lacks such as ethnographies and the historical records of the early colonisers. This allowed New World archaeoastronomers to make claims for motives which in the Old World would have been mere speculation. The concentration on historical data led to some claims of high accuracy comparatively weak when compared to the statistically led investigations in Europe.
This came to a head at an IAU meeting in Oxford in 1981. The methodologies and research questions of the participants were considered so different that the conference proceedings were published as two volumes. Nevertheless the conference was considered a success in bringing researchers together and Oxford conferences continue around four or five years at locations around the world. The subsequent conferences have resulted in a move to more interdisciplinary approaches with researchers aiming to combine the contextuality of archaeological research, which broadly describes the state of archaeoastronomy today. Rather than merely establishing the existence of ancient astronomies archaeoastronomers seek to explain why people would have an interest in the night sky.
Major topics of Archaeoastronomical research
The Use of Calendars
A common justification for the need for astronomy is the need to develop an accurate calendar for agricultural reasons. Ancient texts like Hesiod’s Works and Days, an ancient farming manual, would appear to contradict this. Instead astronomical observations are used in combination with ecological signs, such as bird migrations to determine the seasons. Ethnoastronomical work with the Mursi of Ethiopia shows that haphazard astronomy continued until recent times in some parts of the world. All the same, calendars appear to be an almost universal phenomenon in societies as the provide tools for the regulation of people.
An example of a non-agricultural calendar is the Mayan Tzolkin which is a cycle of 260 days. This count is based on an earlier calendar and is found throughout Mesoamerica. This formed part of a more comprehensive Maya Calendar which combined a series of astronomical observations and ritual cycles.
Other peculiar calendars include ancient Greek calendars. These were nominally lunar, starting with the New Moon. In reality the calendar could paused or days skipped with confused citizens inscribing dates by both the civic calendar and ton theoi, by the moon. The lack of any universal calendar for ancient Greece suggests that coordination of panhellenic events such as games or rituals could be difficult and that astronomical symbolism may have been used as a politically neutral form of timekeeping.
Myth and Cosmology
Another motive for studying the sky is to understand and explain the universe. In pre-scientific times myth was a tool for achieving this and the explanations, while not scientific, are cosmologies.
The Incas arranged their empire to demonstrate their cosmology. The capital, Cusco, was at the centre of the empire and connected to it by means of ceques, conceptually straight lines radiating out from the centre. These ceques connected the centre of the empire to the four suyus, which were regions defined by their direction from Cusco. The notion of a quartered cosmos is common across the Andes. Gary Urton, who has conducted fieldwork in the Andean villagers of Misminay, has connected this quartering with the appearance of the Milky Way in the night sky. In one season it will bisect the sky and in another bisect it in a perpendicular fashion.
The importance of observing cosmological factors is also seen on the other side of the world. The Forbidden City in Beijing is laid out to follow cosmic order though rather than observing four directions the Chinese saw five, North, South, East, West and Centre. The Forbidden City occupied the centre of ancient Beijing. One approaches the Emperor from the south, thus placing him in front of the circumpolar stars. This creates the situation of the heavens revolving around the person of the Emperor. The Chinese cosmology is now better known through its export as Feng Shui.
There is also much information about how the universe was thought to work stored in the mythology of the constellations. The Barasana of the Amazon plan part of their annual cycle based on observation of the stars. When their constellation of the Caterpillar-Jaguar falls they prepare to catch the pupating caterpillars of the forest as they fall from the trees. This provides planning for food procurement at a time when hunger could otherwise be a problem.
A more well-known source of constellation myth are the texts of the Greeks and Romans. The origin of their constellations remains a matter of continuing and occasionally fractious debate.
Displays of Power
The most common popular image of archaeoastronomy is the expression of hidden knowledge and power. By using stellar symbolism one can make claims of heavenly power.
By including celestial motifs in clothing it becomes possible for the wearer to make claims the power on Earth is drawn from above. It has been said that the Shield of Achilles described by Homer is also a catalogue of constellations. In North America shields depicted in Comanche petroglyphs appear to include Venus symbolism.
Solsticial alignments also can be seen as displays of power. In Egypt the temple of Amun-Re at Karnak has been the subject of much study. Evaluation of the site, taking into account the change over time of the obliquity of the ecliptic show that the Great Temple was aligned on the rising of the midwinter sun. The length of the corridor down which sunlight would travel would have limited illumination at other times of the year.
In a later period the Serapeum in Alexandria was also said to have contained a solar alignment so that, on a specific sunrise, a shaft of light would pass across the lips of the statue of Serapis thus symbolising the Sun saluting the god.
The use of astronomy at Stonehenge continues to be a matter of vigorous discussion.
Archaeoastronomical Organisations and publications
There are currently two academic organisations for scholars of archaeoastronomy. ISAAC - the International Society for Archaeoastronomy and Astronomy in Culture was founded in 1996 and is associated with Archaeoastronomy – the Journal of Astronomy in Culture. SEAC - La Société Européenne pour l’Astronomie dans la Culture is slightly older being created in 1992. This holds annual conferences in Europe and published refereed conference proceedings on an annual basis.
Additionally the Journal for the History of Astronomy publishes many archaeoastronomical papers. For twenty-seven volumes it also published an annual supplement Archaeoastronomy.
References
- A.P. Trotter, Stonehenge as an Astronomical Instrument, Antiquity Vol 1:1, 1927, 42-53
- R.J.C. Atkinson, Moonshine on Stonehenge, Antiquity Vol 49:159, 1966, 212-6
- E. MacKie, Science and Society in Prehistoric Britain, St Martin’s Press, 1977, ISBN 023640041X
- C.L.N. Ruggles, Archaeoastronomy in the 1990s, Group D Publications. 1993, ix, ISBN 1874152012
- A.F. Aveni, World Archaeoastronomy, CUP, 1989, xi-xiii, ISBN 0521341809
- D. Turton and C.L.N. Ruggles, Agreeing to Disagree: The Measurement of Duration in a Southwestern Ethiopian Community, Current Anthropology Vol. 19.3, 1978, 585-600
- A.F. Aveni, Empires of Time, Basic Books, 1989, ISBN 0465019501
- S. McCluskey, The Inconstant Moon: Lunar Astronomies in Different Cultures, Archaeoastronomy: The Journal of Astronomy in Culture Vol 15. 2000, 14-31
- A. Salt and E. Boutsikas, Knowing when to consult the oracle at Delphi. Antiquity Vol 79:305, 2005, 562-72
- B. Bauer and D. Dearborn, Astronomy and empire in the ancient Andes: the cultural origins of Inca sky watching, University of Texas, 1995, ISBN 0292708378
- G. Urton, At the crossroads of the earth and the sky: an Andean cosmology, University of Texas. 1981, ISBN 029270349X
- E.C. Krupp, Skywatchers, Shamans and Kings, John Wiley and Sons, 1997, 196-9, ISBN 0471329754
- M. Hoskin, The Cambridge Concise History of Astronomy, CUP, 1999, 15-6, ISBN 0521576008
- R. Hannah, The Constellations on Achilles’ Shield (Iliad 18. 485-489). Electronic Antiquity II.4, 1994, 15-6
- E.C. Krupp, Skywatchers, Shamans and Kings, John Wiley and Sons, 1997, 252-3, ISBN 0471329754
- E.C. Krupp, Light in the Temples, Records in Stone: Papers in Memory of Alexander Thom, ed. C.L.N. Ruggles, 1988, 473-499, ISBN 0521333814
- Rufinus, The destruction of the Serapeum
See also
- List of archaeoastronomical sites sorted by country Sites where claims for the use of astronomy have been made.
External links
- Archaeoastronomy A Thinkquest website surveying archaeoastronomical sites across the world.
- Clives Ruggles webpage: bibliography and synopsis of his course at Leicester University
- ISAAC, The International Society for Archaeoastronomy and Astronomy in Culture.
- SEAC La Société Européenne pour l’Astronomie dans la Culture. Site in English.
- Space Imaging's Ancient Observatories gallery - Satellite pictures of ancient observatories.
- Traditions of the Sun - NASA and others exploring the world's ancient observatories.