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Mongols
Монголчууд
ᠮᠣᠩᠭ᠋ᠣᠯᠴᠤᠳ

Genghis Khan Kublai Khan Subutai Mandukhai Zanabazar D. Sükhbaatar D. Yanjmaa B. Rinchen Ts.Damdinsüren Yu. Tsedenbal J. Gürragchaa D. Dagvadorj
Regions with significant populations
Mongolia	2,921,287
China	2,000,000-7,059,000?
Russia	983,000
South Korea	34,000
United States	15,000–18,000
Kyrgyzstan	12,000
Czech Republic	7,515
Japan	5,401
Canada	5,350
Germany	3,852
United Kingdom	3,701
France	2,859
Turkey	2,645
Kazakhstan	2,523
Malaysia	1,500
Languages
Mongolic languages
Religion
Predominantly Tibetan Buddhism, background of Shamanism and Tengriism. Minority Sunni Islam, Orthodox Church, and Protestantism.
Related ethnic groups
Tungusic peoples, Turkic peoples

Mongols, or Mongolic peoples, are an Inner Asian ethno-linguistic group. Although the largest Mongolic group are those of Mongolia, they also live as minorities across Northern Asia, including Russia, China, and many of the former Soviet Union states. Mongolic peoples belonging to the Buryat ethnic group live predominantly in what is now the autonomous republic of Buryatia, Russia. In China, they live mainly either in Inner Mongolia or, less commonly, in Xinjiang. Mongolic peoples are bound together by a common culture and language, a group of related tongues known as Mongolic languages.

Definition

Broadly defined, the term includes the Mongols proper (also known as Khalkha Mongols), the Buryats, Oirats, Kalmyks and Southern Mongols.

The designation "Mongol" briefly appeared in 8th century records of the Chinese Tang dynasty, describing a tribe of Shiwei, and resurfaced again in the late 11th century during the rule of Khitan. After the fall of Liao Dynasty in 1125, the Mongols became a leading tribe on the steppe and also had power in Northern China. However, their wars with the Jin Dynasty and Tatars had weakened them. In the thirteenth century, the word Mongol grew into an umbrella term for a large group of Mongolic tribes united under the rule of Genghis Khan.

History of Mongolia
Timeline States Rulers People History Nobility Culture Politics Geography Language Religion
Prehistoric period Afanasievo culture 3300–2500 BC Chemurchek culture 2750–1900 BC Munkhkhairkhan culture 1800–1600 BC Sagsai culture 1500–1000 BC Ulaanzuukh culture 1450–1150 BC Deer stones culture 1400–700 BC Slab-grave culture 1100–300 BC Chandman culture 700–300 BC Pazyryk culture 600–300 BC
Ancient period Xiongnu 209 BC–93 AD Xianbei state 93–234 Rouran Khaganate 330–555 Göktürks (First, Eastern, and Second Turkic Khaganates) 555–630 682–744 Xueyantuo 628–646 Tang protectorate 647–682 Uyghur Khaganate 744–840 Liao dynasty 907–1125
Medieval period Mongol khanates 9th–12th century Khamag Mongol 1130–1206 Mongol Empire 1206–1368 Yuan dynasty 1271–1368 Northern Yuan 1368–1635 Oirat Confederation 1399–1634 Dzungar Khanate 1634–1757 Qing dynasty 1691–1911
Modern period National Revolution 1911 Bogd Khaganate 1911–1919 Chinese occupation 1919–1921 People's Revolution (Soviet intervention in Bogd Khanate) 1921 1921–1924 People's Republic 1924–1992 Democratic Revolution 1990 Modern Mongolia 1990–present
v t e

History

Ancient period

In various times Mongolic peoples have been equated with the Scythians, the Magog and the Tungusic peoples. Based on Chinese historical texts the ancestry of the Mongolic peoples can be traced back to the Donghu, a nomadic confederation occupying eastern Mongolia and Manchuria. The identity of the Xiongnu is still debated today. Although some scholars maintain that they were proto-Mongols, the fact that Chinese histories trace certain Turkic tribes from the Xiongnu complicates the issue. The Donghu, however, can be much more easily labeled proto-Mongol since the Chinese histories trace only Mongolic tribes and kingdoms (Xianbei and Wuhuan peoples) from them, although some historical texts claim a mixed Xiongnu-Donghu ancestry for some tribes (e.g. the Khitan).

The Donghu are mentioned by Sima Qian as already existing in Inner Mongolia north of the state of Yan in 699–632 BC along with the Shanrong people. Mentions in the Lost Book of Zhou (Yizhoushu) and the Shanhaijing indicate the Donghu were also active during the Shang dynasty (1600–1046 BC). The Mongolic-speaking Xianbei formed part of the Donghu confederation, but had earlier times of independence, as evidenced by a mention in the Guoyu ("晉語八" section) which states that during the reign of King Cheng of Zhou (reigned 1042–1021 BC) the Xianbei came to participate at a meeting of Zhou subject-lords at Qiyang (岐阳) (now Qishan County) but were only allowed to perform the fire ceremony under the supervision of Chu (楚), since they were not vassals by covenant (诸侯). The Xianbei chieftain was appointed joint guardian of the ritual torch along with Xiong Yi. These early Xianbei came from the nearby Zhukaigou culture (2200–1500 BC) in the Ordos Desert where maternal DNA corresponds to Mongolic Daurs and Tungusic Evenks. The Zhukaigou Xianbei (part of the Ordos culture of Inner Mongolia and northern Shaanxi) had trade relations with the Shang dynasty (1600–1046 BC). In the late 2nd century the Han Dynasty scholar Fu Qian (服虔) wrote in his commentary "Jixie" (集解) that "Shanrong and Beidi are ancestors of the present-day Xianbei". Again in Inner Mongolia another closely connected core Mongolic Xianbei region was the Upper Xiajiadian culture (1000–600 BC) where the Donghu confederation was centered.

After the Donghu were defeated by Xiongnu king Modu Chanyu the Xianbei and Wuhuan survived as the main remnants of the confederation. Tadun Khan of the Wuhuan (died 207 AD) was the ancestor of the proto-Mongolic Kumo Xi. The Wuhuan are of the direct Donghu royal line and the Xin Tangshu directly says that in 209 BC Modu Chanyu defeated the Wuhuan instead of using the word Donghu. The Xianbei however were of the lateral Donghu line and had a somewhat separate identity, although they shared the same language with the Wuhuan. In 49 AD the Mongolic Xianbei ruler Bianhe (Bayan Khan?) raided and defeated the Xiongnu, killing 2000, after having received generous gifts from Emperor Guangwu of Han. The Xianbei reached their peak under Tanshihuai Khan (reigned 156–181) who expanded the vast, but short lived, Xianbei state.

Three prominent proto-Mongolic groups split from the Xianbei, as recorded by the Chinese histories: the Nirun (claimed by some to be the Avars), the Khitan and the Shiwei (a sub-tribe called the "Shiwei Menggu" is held to be the origin of the Genghisid Mongols). Besides these three Xianbei groups, there were other Xianbei groups with Mongolic affiliation such as the Murong, Duan and Tuoba. Their culture was nomadic, their religion Shamanism or Buddhism and their military strength formidable. There is still no direct evidence that the Nirun spoke a Mongolic language, although most scholars agree that they were proto-Mongolic. The Khitan, however, had two scripts of their own and many Mongolic words are found in their half-deciphered writings that are usually found with a parallel Chinese text (for example, nair = sun, sair = moon, tau = five, jau = hundred, m.r = horse, im.a = goat, n.q = dog, m.ng = silver, ju.un = summer, n.am.ur = autumn, u.ul = winter, heu.ur = spring, tau.l.a = rabbit, t.q.a = hen and m.g.o = snake). There is no doubt regarding the Khitan being proto-Mongolic.

Geographically the Tuoba Xianbei ruled southern part of Southern Mongolia and northern China, the Nirun (Yujiulu Shelun was the first to use the title Khagan in 402) ruled Eastern Mongolia, Western Mongolia, northern part of Southern Mongolia and Northern Mongolia, the Khitan were concentrated in eastern part of Southern Mongolia north of Korea and the Shiwei were located to the north of the Khitan. These tribes and kingdoms were soon overshadowed by the rise of foreign Gok-Turk in 555, the Uyghurs in 745 and the Yenisei Kirghiz states in 840. The Tuoba were eventually absorbed into China. The Rouran fled west from the Gok-Turks and either disappeared into obscurity or, as some say, invaded Europe as the Avars under their Khan Bayan I. Some Rouran under Tatar Khan migrated east founding the Tatar tribes, who became part of the Shiwei. The Khitan, who were independent after their separation from the proto-Mongolic Kumo Xi (of Wuhuan origin) in 388 AD, continued as a minor power in Manchuria until one of them, Abaoji (872–926), established the Khitan Empire (907–1125). The Khitan fled west after their defeat by the Tungusic Jurchens (later known as Manchu) and founded the Kara-Khitan (Black Khitan) or Western Liao (Western Iron) Empire (1125–1218) in eastern Kazakhstan. In 1218 Genghis Khan destroyed the Kara-Khitan Kingdom after which the Khitan passed into obscurity. The modern-day minority of Mongolic-speaking Daurs in China are their direct descendants based on DNA evidence. and other Khitans assimilated into the Mongols, Turkic peoples and Han Chinese.Some Khitans become a part of the Hazara people under the name "Dai Khitai".

Medieval period

The Shiwei included a tribe called the Shiwei Menggu. Bodonchar Munkhag (Chagatai tradition dates 'Buzanjar Munqaq' to the rebellion of Abu Muslim or 747 AD.) the founder of the House of Borjigin and the ancestor of Genghis Khan is held to be descended from the Shiwei Menggu. The early Shiwei paid tribute to the Tuoba Wei (386–534) and submitted to the Khitans. After the Khitans left Mongolia the Mongols rose to prominence, when from the 1130s there were reciprocally hostile relations between the successive khans of the Khamag Mongol confederation (Khaidu, Khabul Khan and Ambaghai Khan) and the emperors of the Jin dynasty.

With the expansion of the Mongol Empire, the Mongolic peoples settled over almost all Eurasia and carried on military campaigns from the Adriatic Sea to Java and from Japan to Palestine (Gaza). They simultaneously became Padishahs of Persia, Emperors of China, Great Khans of Mongolia and one even became Sultan of Egypt (Al-Adil Kitbugha). The Mongolic peoples of the Golden Horde established themselves to govern Russia by 1240. By 1279, they conquered the Song Dynasty and brought all of China under control of the Yuan Dynasty.

With the expansion of the Mongol Empire, the Mongolic peoples settled over almost all Eurasia and carried on military campaigns from the Adriatic Sea to Java and from Japan to Palestine (Gaza). They simultaneously became Padishahs of Persia, Emperors of China, Great Khans of Mongolia and one even became Sultan of Egypt (Al-Adil Kitbugha). The Mongolic peoples of the Golden Horde established themselves to govern Russia by 1240. By 1279, they conquered the Song Dynasty and brought all of China under control of the Yuan Dynasty.

With the breakup of the Empire, the dispersed Mongolic peoples quickly adopted the mostly Turkic cultures surrounding them and were assimilated, forming parts of Uzbeks, Tatars, Yugurs, Bashkirs, Uyghurs, Kyrgyzs, Kazakhs and Moghuls; linguistic and cultural Persianization also began to be prominent in these territories. However, most of the Mongolic peoples returned to Mongolia in 1368, retaining their language and culture.There were hundred thousands Mongols in southern Yuan (China) and many Mongols were massacred by Chinese king's order and China forbidded the Mongols to return.Dongxiangs, Bonans, Yugur and Monguor people were invaded by Chinese Ming Dynasty.

After the fall of the Yuan Dynasty in 1368 the established their independent state as Northern Yuan or Mongol State. However, the Oirads began to challenge the Eastern Mongolic peoples under the Borjigin monarchs in the late 14th century and Mongolia divided into two parts: Western Mongolia (Oirats) and Eastern Mongolia (Khalkha, Southern Mongols, Barga, Buryats).

Oirat's Esen Tayishi reunited the Mongols in the 15th century.

The Khalka emerged during the reign of Dayan Khan (1464–1543) as one of the six tumens of the Eastern Mongolic peoples. They quickly became the dominant Mongolic clan in Mongolia proper. He reunited the Mongols again.Tumen Zasagt Khan of Khalkha reunited all Mongols in the late 16th century for last time.

Eastern Mongolia divided into three parts in the 17th century: Eastern Mongolia (Khalkha), Southern Mongolia (Southern Mongols), Northern Mongolia (Buryats).Southern Mongolian nobles battled against Khalkha but the Buryats didn't battle against other Mongols and Khalkha ruled Buryatian land until 1688 or Khalkha-Oirat War.

The last Mongol Khan was Ligden Khan in the early 17th century. He got into conflicts with the Manchus over the looting of Chinese cities, and managed to alienate most Mongol tribes.In 1618, Ligden signed a treaty with the Ming Dynasty to protect their northern border from the Manchus attack in exchange for thousands of taels of silver.Chinese Ming Empire attacked to conquer the Manchus but couldn't invade.Ligden Khan died in 1634 on his way to Tibet. By 1636, most Southern Mongolian nobles had submitted to the Manchu-Qing Empire.Southern Mongolian Sunuds' leader Tengis revolted against the Qing in the 1640s and Khalkha khans battled against the Qing to protect Sunud.

Western Mongolian Oirats and Eastern Mongolian Khalkhas vied for domination in Mongolia since 15th century and this conflict weakened Mongolian strength.Western Mongolian Zunghar Khanate's king Galdan Boshugtu attacked Khalkha after murder of his younger brother by Tusheet Khan (main leader of Khalkha) in 1688 and many Khalkha nobles fled to Southern Mongolia and Northern Mongolia.Russia threated to kill the Mongols who fled to Northern Mongolia if they don't submit to Russia but many of them submitted to Galdan Boshugtu.

The Khalkha (Eastern Mongolia) eventually submitted to Qing rule in 1691, thus bringing all of today's Mongolia under the Manchu's rule but Khalkha de facto remained under the rule of Galdan Boshugtu Khaan until 1696.Galdan's purpose was to protect Mongolia from foreign enemies and Khalkha leaders' purpose was same but they couldn't unite against Manchu and Russian invasions.Galdan Boshugtu sent his army to liberate Southern Mongolia from the Manchu. Southern Mongols and Turkic Uyghurs supported his war against the Manchu.

There were three khans in Khalkha and Zasagt Khan (Western Khalkha leader) was Galdan's ally.Tsetsen Khan (Eastern Khalkha leader) didn't engage in conflict.Galdan Boshugtu's army were defeated by the outnumbering enemy and he died in 1696.

Russia invaded Northern Mongolia (Buryats) in the late 17th century and Western Mongolian Zunghar Khanate were invaded by the Manchus in 1755-1758.Some scholars estimate that about 80% of the Dzungar population were destroyed by a combination of warfare and disease during the Qing conquest of the Zunghar Khanate in 1755–1758. Mark Levene, a historian whose recent research interests focus on genocide, has stated that the extermination of the Dzungars was "arguably the eighteenth century genocide par excellence."

Eastern, Southern and Western Mongolia had been incorporated into the area ruled by the Qing Dynasty along with China in the 17-18th centuries and the Manchu's conquest of China was second and last full conquest of China by foreign state.Treaty of alliance against foreign invasion between the Oirats and Khalkhas was signed in 1640, however, the Mongols couldn't unite against foreign invasion.Political disunion was the main reason to lose Mongolian independence since antiquity.

About 200,000 Oirats (mainly Torghuts) migrated from Western Mongolia to Volga River in the early 16th century and established the Kalmyk Khanate.Russia was concerned about their attack but the Kalmyks became an ally and protected their southern borders.They came under control of Russia due to their small population in the 18th century.There were about 300-350,000 Kalmyks and ten millions Russians in the 18th century.

In the winter of 1770–1771, approximately 200,000 Kalmyks began the journey from their pastures on the left bank of the Volga River to Dzungaria, through the territories of their Russian, Bashkirs, Kazakh and Kyrgyz enemies. After several months of travel, only one-third of the original group reached Dzungaria.

Modern period

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With the fall of the Manchu's Qing Dynasty, Mongolia declared independence in 1911.Mongolian army liberated Eastern Mongolia (Khalkha) and Khovd region (Uvs, Khovd, Bayan-Ölgii provincies) but Northern Xinjiang (Altai region and Ili regions of the Qing Empire), Upper Mongolia, Barga and Southern Mongolia came under control of newly formed Republic of China (Taiwan).

On 2 February, 1913 Bogd Khanate sent 10,000 troops to liberate Southern Mongolia from China.Russia refused to sell weapons to the Bogd Khanate and Russian king Nicholas II called it as "Mongolian imperialism".Mongolian army and Southern Mongolian soldiers liberated almost whole Southern Mongolia, however, Mongolian army retreated due to lack of weapon in 1914.Khalkhas, Khovd Oirats, Buryats, Dzungarian Oirats, Upper Mongols, Barga Mongols almost all Southern Mongolian leaders and some Tuvan leaders supported Mongolian reunification.Mongolia lost Barga, Dzungaria, Tuva, Upper Mongolia and Southern Mongolia in 1915.

The Buryats started to migrate to Mongolia in the 1900s. Joseph Stalin's regime stopped the migration in 1930 and started genocide action against newcomers. During the Stalinist repressions in Mongolia almost all adult Buryat men were executed. Around one-third of Buryat population in Russia died in the 1910s-1950s.

Mongolia proposed to return back the Kalmyks during the Kalmykian Famine in 22 January 1922 but Russia refused.71-72,000 (93,000?; around half of the population) Kalmyks died during the famine. Since 2006, Ukrainian Famine (Holodomor) in 1932-1933 has been recognized in Ukraine and some other countries as genocide of Ukrainians.The Kalmyks revolted against Russia in 1926, 1930 and 1942-1943.Kalmyk nationalists tried to return the Kalmyks to Mongolia in the 1920s.Also Mongolia suggested to migrate all Mongols in Soviet Union to Mongolia.Russia refused the suggest and Soviet scientists tried to convince the Kalmyks and Buryats that they're not the Mongols.Another Russian propaganda is the Buryats voluntarly accepted Russian rule but they battled against Russia in the 1650s and 1696.Also Russians are trying to convince them that the Mongols are enemies of the Buryats but Khalkha's army battled to protect Buryatian land from Russia in the 17th century.Many thousands Buryats were massacred by Russian soldiers during the invasion.

There are almost no any nation that voluntarly accepted Russian rule except Georgia.In January 1771 200,000 Kalmyks migrated to Dzungaria and the Russians, Bashkirs and Kazakhs attacked to exterminate all migrants by Catherine the Great's order.Also the Kyrgyzs attacked them to revenge and pillage.About 100,000 Kalmyks who settled on the west bank of the Volga River couldn't cross the river because the river didn't freeze in the winter of 1771.

Russia deported all Kalmyks to Siberia in 1943 and around half of (97-98,000) Kalmyk people deported to Siberia died before being allowed to return home in 1957. The Kalmyks' main goal was to return to Mongolia and many Kalmyks joined the German Army.Marshal Choibalsan attempted to return deported Kalmyks to Mongolia and he met with deported people in Siberia during his visit to Russia.On November 14, 1989 the Supreme Council of the Soviet Union (the supreme legislative body) declared that deportation of Kalmyks and other Soviet minorities was a "barbaric action of Stalin's regime" and a very serious crime.Under the Law of the Russian Federation of April 26, 1991 "On Rehabilitation of Exiled Peoples" repressions against Kalmyks and other peoples were qualified as an act of genocide.

Marshal Khorloogiin Choibalsan called Southern Mongols and Xinjiang Oirats to migrate to Mongolia during the Soviet–Japanese War of 1945 (Mongolian name:Liberation War of 1945) but Soviet Army blocked Southern Mongolian migrants way.It was a part of Pan-Mongolian plan and only few Oirats and Southern Mongols (about 800 Uzemchins, Huuchids and Tümeds) arrived. Mongolian People's Republic army advanced to the Great Wall of China.Southern Mongolian leaders attempted to merge Southern Mongolia with Mongolia in the 1930-1940s.

Both capitalist and communist China performed many genocide actions against the Mongols in China and they are the most supressed ethnic minority in China.Hundred thousands Southern Mongols were massacred during the Cultural Revolution in the 1960s.Also Tsardom of Russia, Russian Empire and communist Russia performed many genocide actions against the Mongols in Russia.Peter the Great said "The headwaters of the Yenisei River must be Russian land".Russian Empire sent the Kalmyks and Buryats to war to reduce the population (World War I and other wars).Agin-Buryat Okrug and Ust-Orda Buryat Okrugs "voluntarly" merged with Irkutsk Oblast and Chita Oblast in 2008.Both Russia and China are carring out economic boycott policies against Mongolia since Mongolian Democratic Revolution of 1991.

All-Buryat Association for the Development of Culture was member of Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization from 3 February 1996 to 13 February 2010.Southern Mongols revolted against China in 2011 and Southern Mongolian leaders are trying to establish sovereign state or merge Southern Mongolia with Mongolia.

Language

The specific origin of the Mongolic languages and associated tribes is unclear. On rare occasions researchers have proposed a link to the Tungusic and Turkic language families, which are included alongside Mongolic in the proposed broader group of Altaic languages, though this is highly controversial. Today the Mongoloian peoples speak at least one of several Mongolic languages including Mongolian, Buryat, Oirat, Dongxiang, Tu, Bonan, Hazaragi, and Aimaq as well as either Russian or Mandarin Chinese as inter-ethnic languages.

Religion

The original religion of the Mongolic peoples from the time of the Donghu was Shamanism. The Xianbei came in contact with Confucianism and Daoism but eventually adopted Buddhism. In the 5th century the Buddhist monk Dharmapriya was proclaimed State Teacher of the Rouran Khaganate and given 3000 families. In 511 the Rouran Douluofubadoufa Khan sent Hong Xuan to the Tuoba court with a pearl-encrusted statue of the Buddha as a gift. The Tuoba Xianbei and Khitans were mostly Buddhists, although they still retained their original Shamanism. The Tuoba had a "sacrificial castle" to the west of their capital where ceremonies to spirits took place. Wooden statues of the spirits were erected on top of this sacrificial castle. One ritual involved seven princes with milk offerings who ascended the stairs with 20 female shamans and offered prayers, sprinkling the statues with the sacred milk. The Khitan had their holiest shrine on Mount Muye where portraits of their earliest ancestor Qishou Khagan, his wife Kedun and eight sons were kept in two temples. Mongolic peoples were also exposed to Zoroastrianism, Manicheism, Nestorianism, Orthodox Christianity and Islam from the west. The Mongolic peoples, in particular the Borjigin, had their holiest shrine on Mount Burkhan Khaldun where their ancestor Börte Chono(Blue Wolf) and Goo Maral (Beautiful Doe) had given birth to them. Genghis Khan usually fasted, prayed and meditated on this mountain before his campaigns. As a young man he had thanked the mountain for saving his life and prayed at the foot of the mountain sprinkling offerings and bowing nine times to the east with his belt around his neck and his hat held at his chest. Genghis Khan kept a close watch on the Mongolic supreme shaman Kokochu Teb who sometimes conflicted with his authority. Later the imperial cult of Genghis Khan (centered on the eight white gers and nine white banners in Ordos) grew into a highly organized indigenous religion with scriptures in the Mongolian script. Indigenous moral precepts of the Mongolic peoples were enshrined in oral wisdom sayings (now collected in several volumes), the anda (blood-brother) system and ancient texts such as the Chinggis-un Bilig (Wisdom of Genghis) and Oyun Tulkhuur (Key of Intelligence). These moral precepts were expressed in poetic form and mainly involved truthfulness, fidelity, help in hardship, unity, self-control, fortitude, veneration of nature, veneration of the state and veneration of parents.

In 1254 Möngke Khan organized a formal religious debate (in which William of Rubruck took part) between Christians, Muslims and Buddhists in Karakorum, a cosmopolitan city of many religions. The Mongolic Empire was known for its religious tolerance, but had a special leaning towards Buddhism and was sympathetic towards Christianity while still worshipping Tengri. The Mongolic leader Abaqa Khan sent a delegation of 13–16 to the Second Council of Lyon (1274), which created a great stir, particularly when their leader 'Zaganus' underwent a public baptism. Yahballaha III (1245–1317) and Rabban Bar Sauma (c. 1220–1294) were famous Mongolic Nestorian Christians. The Kerait tribe in central Mongolia was Christian and Shamanistic.The western Khanates, however, eventually adopted Islam (under Berke and Ghazan) and the Turkic languages (because of its commercial importance), although allegiance to the Great Khan and limited use of the Mongolic languages can be seen even in 1330's. The Mongolic nobility during the Yuan dynasty studied Confucianism, built Confucian temples (including Beijing Confucius Temple) and translated Confucian works into Mongolic but mainly followed the Sakya school of Tibetan Buddhism under Phags-pa Lama. The general populace still practised Shamanism. Dongxiang and Bonan Mongols adopted Islam, as did Moghol-speaking peoples in Afghanistan. In the 1576 the Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism became the state religion of the Mongolia. The Red Hat sect of Tibetan Buddhism coexisted with the Gelug Yellow Hat sect. Shamanism was absorbed into the state religion while being marginalized in its purer forms, later only surviving in far northern Mongolia. Monks were some of the leading intellectuals in Mongolia, responsible for much of the literature and art of the pre-modern period. Many Buddhist philosophical works lost in Tibet and elsewhere are preserved in older and purer form in Mongolian ancient texts (e.g. the Mongol Kanjur). Zanabazar (1635–1723), Zaya Pandita (1599–1662) and Danzanravjaa (1803–1856) are among the most famous Mongol holy men. The 4th Dalai Lama Yonten Gyatso (1589–1617), a Mongol himself, was the only non-Tibetan Dalai Lama. Many Buryats became Orthodox Christians due to the Russian expansion. During the socialist period religion was officially banned, although it was practiced in clandestine circles. Today, a sizable proportion of Mongolic peoples are atheist or agnostic. In the most recent census in Mongolia, almost forty percent of the population reported as being atheist, while the majority religion was Tibetan Buddhism, with 53%.

Military

They battled against the most powerful armies and warriors in Eurasia. The beating of the kettle and smoke signals were signs for the start of battle. One battle formation that they used consisted of five squadrons or units. The typical squadrons were divided by ranks. The first two ranks were in the front. These warriors had the heaviest armor and weapons. The back three ranks broke out between the front ranks and attacked first with their arrows. The forces simply kept their space from the enemy and killed them with arrow fire, during which time "archers did not aim at a specific target, but shot their arrows at a high path into a set 'killing zone' or target area." Mongolics also took hold of engineers from the defeated armies. They made engineers a permanent part of their army, so that their weapons and machinery were complex and efficient.

Kinship and Family Life

The traditional Mongol family was patriarchal, patrilineal and patrilocal. Wives were brought for each of the sons, while daughters were married off to other clans. Wife-taking clans stood in a relation of inferiority to wife-giving clans. Thus wife-giving clans were considered "elder" or "bigger" in relation to wife-taking clans, who were considered "younger" or "smaller". This distinction, symbolized in terms of "elder" and "younger" or "bigger" and "smaller", was carried into the clan and family as well, and all members of a lineage were terminologically distinguished by generation and age, with senior superior to junior.

In the traditional Mongolian family, each son received a part of the family herd as he married, with the elder son receiving more than the younger son. The youngest son would remain in the parental tent caring for his parents, and after their death he would inherit the parental tent in addition to his own part of the herd. This inheritance system was mandated by law codes such as the Yassa, created by Genghis Khan. Likewise, each son inherited a part of the family's camping lands and pastures, with the elder son receiving more than the younger son. The eldest son inherited the farthest camping lands and pastures, and each son in turn inherited camping lands and pastures closer to the family tent until the youngest son inherited the camping lands and pastures immediately surrounding the family tent. Family units would often remain near each other and in close cooperation, though extended families would inevitably break up after a few generations.

After the family, the next largest social units were the subclan and clan. These units were derived from groups claiming patrilineal descent from a common ancestor, ranked in order of seniority (the "conical clan"). By the Chingissid era this ranking was symbolically expressed at formal feasts, in which tribal chieftains were seated and received particular portions of the slaughtered animal according to their status. The lineage structure of Central Asia had three different modes. It was organized on the basis of genealogical distance, or the proximity of individuals to one another on a graph of kinship; generational distance, or the rank of generation in relation to a common ancestor, and birth order, the rank of brothers in relation to each another. The paternal descent lines were collaterally ranked according to the birth of their founders, and were thus considered senior and junior to each other. Of the various collateral patrilines, the senior in order of descent from the founding ancestor, the line of eldest sons, was the most noble. In the steppe, no one had his exact equal; everyone found his place in a system of collaterally ranked lines of descent from a common ancestor. It was according to this idiom of superiority and inferiority of lineages derived from birth order that legal claims to superior rank were couched.

The Mongol kinship is one of a particular patrilineal type classed as Omaha, in which relatives are grouped together under separate terms that crosscut generations, age, and even sexual difference. Thus, a man's father's sister's children, his sister's children, and his daughter's children are all called by another term. A further attribute is strict terminological differentiation of siblings according to seniority.

The division of Mongolian society into senior elite lineages and subordinate junior lineages was waning by the twentieth century. During the 1920s the Communist regime was established. The remnants of the Mongolian aristocracy fought alongside the Japanese and against Chinese, Soviets and Communist Mongols during World War II, but were defeated.

The anthropologist Herbert Harold Vreeland visited three Mongol communities in 1920 and published a highly detailed book with the results of his field work, "Mongol community and kinship structure", now publicly available.

Historical population

Geographic distribution

Today, Mongolic ethnic groups live in modern state of Mongolia, China (mainly Inner Mongolia and Xinjiang), Russia, Kyrgyzstan and Afghanistan.

The differentiation between tribes and peoples (ethnic groups) is handled differently depending on the country. The Tümed, Chahar, Ordos, Bargut (or Barga), Altai Uriankhai, Buryats, Dörböd (Dörvöd, Dörbed), Torguud, Dariganga, Üzemchin (or Üzümchin), Bayid, Khoton, Myangad (Mingad), Eljigin, Zakhchin, Darkhad, and Oirats (or Öölds or Ölöts) are all counted as tribes of the Mongols.

Eastern Mongols

• Khalkha
• Eljigin Khalkha
• Darkhad (Khalkha)
• Sartuul Khalkha
• Dariganga (Khalkha)

Northern Mongols

• Barga
• Buryats
• Hamnigan

Southern Mongols

Abaga Mongols, Abaganar, Aohan, Asud, Baarins, Chahar, Dörbet (Borjigin clan), Durvun huuhed, Gorlos, Kharchin, Hishigten, Khorchin, Huuchid, Jalaid, Jaruud, Muumyangan, Naiman (Southern Mongols), Onnigud, Ordos, Sunud, Tümed, Urad, Uzemchin

Western Mongols

Altai Uriankhai, Baatud, Bayad, Chantuu, Choros, Durvud, Kalmyks (Baatud, Buzava, Choros, Durvud, Khoid, Olots, Torghut), Khoshut, Khoid, Khoton, Myangad, Olots, Sart Kalmyks (mainly Olots), Torghut, Zakhchin.

Mongolia

In modern-day Mongolia, Mongolic ethnic groups make up approximately 90% of the population, with the largest ethnic group being Mongols, followed by Buryats, both belonging to the Eastern Mongolic peoples. They are followed by Oyrats, who belong to Western Mongolic peoples.

Mongolian ethnic groups: Baarin, Baatud, Barga, Bayad, Buryat, Selenge Chahar, Chantuu, Darkhad, Dariganga Dörbet, Eljigin, Khalkha, Hamnigan, Kharchin, Khoid, Khorchin, Hotogoid, Khoton, Huuchid, Myangad, Olots, Sartuul, Torgut, Altai Uriankhai, Tümed, Tuva (disputed), Üzemchin, Zakhchin.

China

The 2010 census of People's Republic of China counted 7.06 million various Mongol groups, according to the narrow definition above. It should be noted that 1992 census of China counted only 3.6 million Mongols.And 2010 census of counted 5,982 thousand Mongols, and 621,500 Dongxiangs, 289,565 Mongours, 132,000 Daurs, 20,074 Baoans, 14,370 Yugurs. Most of them live in the Inner Mongolia autonomous region, followed by Liaoning province. Small numbers can also be found in provinces near those two.

There were 669,972 Mongols in Liaoning in 2011, making up 11.52% of Mongols in China. The closest Mongol area to the sea is the Dabao Mongol Ethnic Township (大堡蒙古族镇) in Fengcheng, Liaoning. With 8,460 Mongols (37.4% of the township population) it is located 40 km from the North Korean border and 65 km from Korea Bay of the Yellow Sea. Another contender for closest Mongol area to the sea would be Erdaowanzi Mongol Ethnic Township (二道湾子蒙古族乡) in Jianchang, Liaoning. With 5,011 Mongols (20.7% of the township population) it is located around 65 km from the Bohai Sea.

Other peoples speaking Mongolic languages are the Daur, Monguor, Dongxiang, Bonan, and eastern part of the Yugur. Those do not officially count as part of the Mongol ethnicity, but are recognized as ethnic groups of their own.

Although the Mongols sought to govern China through traditional institutions, using Chinese (Han) bureaucrats, they were not up to the task. The Han were discriminated against socially and politically. All important central and regional posts were monopolized by Mongols, who also preferred employing non-Chinese from other parts of the Mongol domain—Central Asia, the Middle East, and even Europe—in those positions for which no Mongol could be found. Chinese were more often employed in non-Chinese regions of the empire.

Southern Mongolians: Abags, Abagnar, Aohans, Asud, Baarin, Barga, Buryat, Chahar, Do'rbet (Descendant of Hasar), Alxa Dörbet Ööled, Durvun huuhed, Gorlos, Khalkha, Kharchin, Hishigten, Hongirad, Khorchin, Huuchid, Jalaids, Jaruud, Mongolkure and Alxa Zungar Ööled, Muumyangan, Naiman (Southern Mongols), Onnigud, Ordos, Sunud, Eznee Torgut, Tümed, Urad, Üzemchin,

Xinjiang region: Altai Uriankhai, Chahar, Khoshut, Olots, Torgut, Tuva, Zakhchin

Qinghai region: Upper Mongols: Choros, Khalkha, Khoshut, Torghut

Other ethnic groups: Daur (disputed), Monguor (disputed), Bonan (disputed), Dongxiang (disputed), Khatso (Yunnan Mongols) (disputed), Sichuan Mongols (disputed), Sogwo Arig (disputed), Yugur (disputed).

Russia

In Russia, the largest Mongolic ethnic group are the Buryats of 2010 census of 461.410, with the sole other representative being the Kalmyks of 183.400 and Tuvas 264.004,Altyas 74.238 of 2010 census. The Tuva are culturally close to Mongols, but speak a Turkic language.

Kyrgyzstan

The Sart Kalmyks of Kyrgyzstan are descendants of the Zunghar Khanate.

Elsewhere

Smaller numbers of Mongolic peoples exist in Western Europe and North America. Some of the more notable communities exist in South Korea, the United States, the Czech Republic and the United Kingdom.

In Central Asia and South Asia:

• Aimaq Hazara (disputed)
• Hazara (disputed)
• Mogol
• Taimuri (disputed)
• Changezi - a surname (disputed)

Gallery

• A Mongol musician.
• A Mongol Wrangler.
• Mongol girl performing Bayad dance.
• Mongol soldiers by Rashid al-Din in 1305.
• 4th century Mongolic Xianbei archer.
• Khitan horseman. Khitan horseman.
• Khitan people in "Rest Stop for the Khan" painting (ca. 10th century).
• Mongolic Khitan guard in Liao Dynasty (907-1125) fresco.
• 13th century Ilkhanid Mongol archer.
• Alexander I presenting the Kalmyks and Cossacks to Napoleon at Tilsit in July 1807.
• A 20th-century Mongol Khan, Navaanneren.
• The 4th Dalai Lama Yonten Gyatso.
• Mongol women archers during Naadam festival.
• Mongolian (ethnic Tuvan) boy and girl with mother.
• Mongolian Family, Western Region.
• Kalmyk Mongol girl Annushka (painted in 1767).
• Self-portrait of Kalmyk Mongol painter (done in 1805).
• Buryat Mongols (painted in 1840).
• Buryat Mongol boy during shamanic rite.
• Buryat Mongol shaman.
• Mongol Empress Zayaat (Jiyatu), wife of Kulug Khan (1281–1311).
• Mongol Empress Radnashiri, wife of Ayurbarvada Buyant Khan (1285–1320).
• Smiling Mongol Empress, wife of Shidval Gegeen Khan (1303–1323).
• Borjigin Budashiri (?-1365), Mongol Queen of Korea, with Korean King Gongmin (Buyantumur).
• Mongol Empress Xiaohuizhang (1641–1717).
• Mongol Empress Xiaojingcheng(1812–1855).
• Mongol Empress Bumbutai (1613–1688).
• Dawachi (reigned 1752–1759), the last Dzunghar Khan.
• Saaral (died 1759), a distinguished Oirad Mongol officer.
• Mongol nobleman Sengge Rinchen (1811–1865).
• Daur Mongol Empress Wanrong (1906-1946), also had Borjigin blood on maternal side.

See also

• Altan Telgey
• Aimaq people
• List of medieval Mongolian tribes and clans
• List of modern Mongolian clans
• List of Mongolians
• List of Mongolian monarchs
• Mongolian name
• Misplaced Pages:Naming conventions (Mongolian)
• Mughal tribe
• Kaitag - an ethnic group of mixed origin, See:Kaitag textiles
• Qara'unas

History of the Mongols
Timeline History Rulers Nobility Culture Language Mongols Proto-Mongols
States Mongol khanates IX-X Khereid Khanate X-1203 Merkit Khanate XI–XII Tatar Khanate IX – XII Naiman Khanate -1204 Khamag Mongol Khanate X-1206 Mongol Empire 1206-1368 Yuan dynasty 1271-1368 Chagatai Khanate 1225-1340s Moghulistan 1346-1462 Turpan Khanate 1487-1660? Yarkent Khanate 1514-1705 Golden Horde 1240-1502 Ilkhanate 1256-1335 Chobanids 1335-1357 Jalairid Sultanate 1335-1432 Injuids 1335-1357 Northern Yuan dynasty 1368-1691 Timurid Empire 1370–1507 Kara Del 1383-1513 Four Oirat 1399-1634 Arghun dynasty 1479-1599 Mughal Empire (in India)1526–1857 Kalmyk Khanate 1630-1731 Khoshut Khanate 1640s-1717 Dzungar Khanate 1634-1758 Bogd Khaganate 1911-1924 Mongolian People's Republic 1924–1992 Mongolia 1992-present
v t e

References and notes

1. "Монголын үндэсний статистикийн хороо". National Statistical Office of Mongolia. Retrieved 2013-11-14.
2. ^ National Bureau of Statistics of the People's Republic of China (April 2012). Tabulation of the 2010 Population Census of the People's Republic of China. China Statistics Press. ISBN 978-7-5037-6507-0. Retrieved 2013-02-19.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
3. 2,656 Mongols proper, 461,389 Buryats, 183,372 Kalmyks, 263,934 Tuvans, 74,238 Altay (Russian Census (2010))
4. "'Korean Dream' fills Korean classrooms in Mongolia", The Chosun Ilbo, 2008-04-24, retrieved 2009-02-06
5. Bahrampour, Tara (2006-07-03). "Mongolians Meld Old, New In Making Arlington Home". The Washington Post. Retrieved 2007-09-05.
6. President of Mongoli Received the Kalmyk Citizens of the Kyrgyz. 2012
7. "Latest numbers show 7,500 Mongolians working in Czech Republic", Mongolia Web, 2008-02-19, retrieved 2008-10-04
8. ^ Mongolia National Census 2010 Provision Results. National Statistical Office of Mongolia (Mongolian)
9. NHS Profile, Canada, 2011
10. China Mongolian, Mongol Ethnic Minority, Mongols History, Food
11. China.org.cn - The Mongolian ethnic minority
12. China.org.cn - The Mongolian Ethnic Group
13. "Mongolia: Ethnography of Mongolia". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2007-07-22.. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
14. John Man Attila: the barbarian king who challenged Rome, p.38
15. Frances Wood, The Silk Road: two thousand years in the heart of Asia, p.48
16. Xin Tangshu 219. 6173.
17. University of California, Berkeley. Project on Linguistic Analysis, Journal of Chinese linguistics, p.154
18. Thomas Hoppe, Die ethnischen Gruppen Xinjiangs: Kulturunterschiede und interethnische, p.66
19. Frederick W. Mote, Imperial China 900–1800, p.405
20. Herbert Franke, John King Fairbank, Denis Crispin Twitchett, Roderick MacFarquhar, Denis Twitchett, Albert Feuerwerker. The Cambridge History of China, Vol. 3: Sui and T'ang China, 589–906. Part 1, p.364
21. Uradyn Erden Bulag The Mongols at China's edge: history and the politics of national unity, p.167
22. Ruofu Du, Vincent F. Yip, Ethnic groups in China, p.27
23. Paul Ratchnevsky, Thomas Nivison Haining Genghis Khan: his life and legacy, p.7
24. Munis, M.R.M.Agahi, Firdaws al-iqbal, p.15
25. ^ Jerry Bentley, "Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchange in Pre-Modern Times (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 136.
26. Janhunen, Juha The Mongolic languages, p.177
27. Elizabeth E. Bacon Obok: A Study of Social Structure in Eurasia, p.82
28. Michael Edmund Clarke, In the Eye of Power (doctoral thesis), Brisbane 2004, p37 Template:WebCite
29. Dr. Mark Levene, Southampton University, see "Areas where I can offer Postgraduate Supervision". Retrieved 2009-02-09.
30. A. Dirk Moses (2008). "Empire, Colony, Genocide: Conquest, Occupation, and Subaltern Resistance in World History". Berghahn Books. p.188. ISBN 1845454529
31. Michael Khodarkovsky (2002)."Russia's Steppe Frontier: The Making Of A Colonial Empire, 1500–1800". Indiana University Press. p.142. ISBN 0253217709
32. ^ XX зууны 20, 30-аад онд халимагуудын 98 хувь аймшигт өлсгөлөнд автсан (Mongolian) Cite error: The named reference "Munkhbayar" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
33. Regions and territories: Kalmykia
34. Demographics of Mongolia:Ethnic groups
35. L.Jamsran, Mongol states in Russia, 1995
36. National Census 2010 Preliminary results (Mongolian)
37. Per Inge Oestmoen. "The Mongo Military Might." Cold Siberia. N.p., 18 Jan. 2002. Retrieved on 12 November 2012
38. Matthew Barnes. "The Mongol War Machine: How Were the Mongols Able to Forge the Largest Contiguous Land Empire in History? |." The Pica A Global Research Organization. Pica, n.d. 14 November 2012
39. Jack Weatherford , Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World. (New York: Crown, 2004.), 94.
40. Vreeland 1962:160
41. Aberle 1953:23-24
42. THE INFLUENCE OF THE GREAT CODE “YASA” ON THE MONGOLIAN EMPIRE
43. Agricultural and pastoral societies in ancient and classical history edited by Adas
44. Cuisenier (1975:67)
45. Krader (1963:322, 269)
46. Kinship Structure and Political Authority: The Middle East and Central Asia, Charles Lindholm
47. Mongol community and kinship structure. Vreeland, Herbert Harold, 1920
48. ТИВ ДАМНАСАН НҮҮДЭЛ (Mongolian)
49. ^ БУЦАЖ ИРЭЭГҮЙ МОНГОЛ АЙМГУУД (Mongolian) 80,000 people were killed by the Manchus in the 1720s
50. Б.З. Нанзатов,ПЛЕМЕННОЙ СОСТАВ БУРЯТ В XIX ВЕКЕ (Russian)
51. ^ Түмэдхүү, ӨМӨЗО-НЫ ХҮН АМЫН ХУВИРАЛТЫН ЗУРГИЙГ ҮЗЭЭД (Southern) Mongolian Liberal Union Party (Mongolian) 300,000 Southern Mongols were killed by the Han Chinese during the Jindandao Incident
52. ^ Өвөр Монголын хүн ам (Mongolian)
53. ИРГЭНИЙ БҮРТГЭЛИЙН ТҮҮХЭН ТОЙМ (Mongolian)
54. Around one-third of Russian Buryats died in the 1910s-1950s due to massacre by Russian Empire and communist Russian army soldiers.
55. ethnologue.com information
56. Many (hundred thousands or millions) Han Chinese people registered as "Mongol" and "Manchu" according to Chinese policy.There is no enough information about Chinese ethnic minorities due to the government policy.
57. "Tianya" network: General situation of Mongols in Liaoning (in Chinese)
58. "Baidu" network: Dabao Mongol Ethnic Township (in Chinese)
59. "Baidu" network: Erdaowanzi Mongol Ethnic Township (in Chinese)
60. "Kalmyks". World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples. 2005. Retrieved 2008-05-18.

External links

• Downloadable article: "Evidence that a West-East admixed population lived in the Tarim Basin as early as the early Bronze Age" Li et al. BMC Biology 2010, 8:15.
• Ethnic map of Mongolia
• Map share of ethnic by county of China

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