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| ===Astrobiology === | ===Astrobiology === | ||
| {{main|Astrobiology}} | {{main|Astrobiology}} | ||
| ] ], launched in March 2009, searches for ]]] | |||
| Astrobiology is the study of the ], ], distribution, and future of life in the universe: ] and ]. This ] field encompasses the search for habitable environments in our ] and ] outside our Solar System, the search for evidence of prebiotic chemistry, laboratory and field research into the origins and early evolution of life on Earth, and studies of the potential for life to adapt to challenges on ] and in ].<ref>{{cite news | first = ] | title = How the search for aliens can help sustain life on Earth | date =4 October 2012 | url = http://edition.cnn.com/2012/10/02/world/europe/astrobiology-aliens-environment-opinion/index.html?hpt=hp_c4 | work = CNN News | accessdate = 2012-10-08}}</ref> Astrobiology addresses the question of whether life exists beyond Earth, and how humans can detect it if it does.<ref name="about">{{cite web|url=http://astrobiology.nasa.gov/about-astrobiology/ |title=About Astrobiology |accessdate=2008-10-20 |date=21 January 2008 |work=NASA Astrobiology Institute |publisher=NASA | archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20081011192341/http://astrobiology.nasa.gov/about-astrobiology/| archivedate= 11 October 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> (The term exobiology is similar but more specific — it covers the search for life beyond Earth, and the effects of extraterrestrial environments on living things.)<ref> (accessed 11 April 2013)</ref> | |||
| Astrobiology makes use of ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ] to investigate the possibility of life on other worlds and help recognize ]s that might be different from the biosphere on Earth.<ref></ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The life and death of planet Earth |last=Ward |first=P. D. |authorlink= |coauthors=Brownlee, D. |year=2004 |publisher=Owl Books |location=New York |isbn=0-8050-7512-7 |pages= }}</ref> Astrobiology concerns itself with interpretation of existing ]; given more detailed and reliable data from other parts of the universe, the roots of astrobiology itself—physics, chemistry and biology—may have their theoretical bases challenged. Although speculation is entertained to give context, astrobiology concerns itself primarily with ] that fit firmly into existing ]. | |||
| Earth is the only place in the universe known to harbor life.<ref>{{Cite journal | first = Robert W. Graham | contribution = Extraterrestrial Life in the Universe | title = NASA Technical Memorandum 102363 | publisher = NASA | place = Lewis Research Center, Ohio | date = February 1990| id = | contribution-url = http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19900013148_1990013148.pdf | format = PDF }}</ref><ref>{{cite book| last=Altermann| first=Wladyslaw| editors=Joseph Seckbach, Maud Walsh| year=2008| title=From Fossils to Astrobiology: Records of Life on Earth and the Search for Extraterrestrial Biosignatures|chapter=From Fossils to Astrobiology - A Roadmap to Fata Morgana?|volume=12|isbn=1-4020-8836-1|page=xvii}}</ref> However, recent advances in planetary science have changed fundamental assumptions about the possibility of life in the universe, raising the estimates of ]s around other stars and the search for extraterrestrial microbial life.<ref>{{cite book|last=Horneck|first=Gerda|coauthor=Petra Rettberg|year=2007|title=Complete Course in Astrobiology|publisher=Wiley-VCH|isbn=3-527-40660-3}}</ref><ref name="NYT-20131118">{{cite news |last=Davies |authorlink=Paul Davies |first=Paul |title=Are We Alone in the Universe? |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/19/opinion/are-we-alone-in-the-universe.html |date=18 November 2013 |work=] |accessdate=20 November 2013 }}</ref> On 4 November 2013, astronomers reported, based on ] data, that there could be as many as 40 billion ] ] orbiting in the ]s of ] and ] within the ].<ref name="NYT-20131104">{{cite news |last=Overbye |first=Dennis|title=Far-Off Planets Like the Earth Dot the Galaxy|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/05/science/cosmic-census-finds-billions-of-planets-that-could-be-like-earth.html |date=4 November 2013 |work=] |accessdate=5 November 2013 }}</ref><ref name="PNAS-20131031">{{cite journal |last1=Petigura |first1=Eric A.|last2=Howard |first2=Andrew W. |last3=Marcy |first3=Geoffrey W. |title=Prevalence of Earth-size planets orbiting Sun-like stars|url=http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2013/10/31/1319909110 |date=31 October 2013 |journal=]|doi=10.1073/pnas.1319909110 |accessdate=5 November 2013 }}</ref> 11 billion of these estimated planets may be orbiting sun-like stars.<ref name="LATimes-20131104">{{cite news |last=Khan |first=Amina |title=Milky Way may host billions of Earth-size planets |url=http://www.latimes.com/science/la-sci-earth-like-planets-20131105,0,2673237.story |date=4 November 2013 |work=] |accessdate=5 November 2013 }}</ref> The nearest such planet may be 12 light-years away, according to the scientists.<ref name="NYT-20131104" /><ref name="PNAS-20131031"/> | |||
| ===Biochemistry === | ===Biochemistry === | ||
| {{main|Biochemistry}} | {{main|Biochemistry}} | ||
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The life sciences comprise the fields of science that involve the scientific study of living organisms – such as microorganisms, plants, animals, and human beings – as well as related considerations like bioethics. While biology remains the centerpiece of the life sciences, technological advances in molecular biology and biotechnology have led to a burgeoning of specializations and interdisciplinary fields.
Some life sciences focus on a specific type of life. For example, zoology is the study of animals, while botany is the study of plants. Other life sciences focus on aspects common to all or many life forms, such as anatomy and genetics. Yet other fields are interested in technological advances involving living things, such as bio-engineering. Another major, though more specific, branch of life sciences involves understanding the mind – neuroscience.
The life sciences are helpful in improving the quality and standard of life. They have applications in health, agriculture, medicine, and the pharmaceutical and food science industries.
The following is an incomplete list of as well as topics of study in the life sciences, in which there is considerable overlap between many entries:
Topics of study
Affective neuroscience
Main article: Affective neuroscienceAffective neuroscience is the study of the neural mechanisms of emotion. This interdisciplinary field combines neuroscience with the psychological study of personality, emotion, and mood.
Anatomy
Anatomy is the study of the body plan of animals. In some of its facets, anatomy is closely related to embryology, comparative anatomy and comparative embryology, through common roots in evolution. Human anatomy is important in medicine.
The discipline of anatomy is subdivided into gross (or macroscopic) anatomy and microscopic anatomy. Gross anatomy is the study of structures that can, when suitably presented or dissected, be seen by unaided vision with the naked eye. Microscopic anatomy is the study of structures on a microscopic scale, including histology (the study of tissues) and cytology (the study of cells).
The history of anatomy is characterized by a continual development in understanding of the functions of the organs and structures of the human body. Methods have also improved dramatically, advancing from examination of animals through dissection of cadavers (dead human bodies) to 20th century techniques including X-ray, ultrasound, and magnetic resonance imaging.
Astrobiology
Main article: Astrobiology
Astrobiology is the study of the origin, evolution, distribution, and future of life in the universe: extraterrestrial life and life on Earth. This interdisciplinary field encompasses the search for habitable environments in our Solar System and habitable planets outside our Solar System, the search for evidence of prebiotic chemistry, laboratory and field research into the origins and early evolution of life on Earth, and studies of the potential for life to adapt to challenges on Earth and in outer space. Astrobiology addresses the question of whether life exists beyond Earth, and how humans can detect it if it does. (The term exobiology is similar but more specific — it covers the search for life beyond Earth, and the effects of extraterrestrial environments on living things.)
Astrobiology makes use of physics, chemistry, astronomy, biology, molecular biology, ecology, planetary science, geography, and geology to investigate the possibility of life on other worlds and help recognize biospheres that might be different from the biosphere on Earth. Astrobiology concerns itself with interpretation of existing scientific data; given more detailed and reliable data from other parts of the universe, the roots of astrobiology itself—physics, chemistry and biology—may have their theoretical bases challenged. Although speculation is entertained to give context, astrobiology concerns itself primarily with hypotheses that fit firmly into existing scientific theories.
Earth is the only place in the universe known to harbor life. However, recent advances in planetary science have changed fundamental assumptions about the possibility of life in the universe, raising the estimates of habitable zones around other stars and the search for extraterrestrial microbial life. On 4 November 2013, astronomers reported, based on Kepler space mission data, that there could be as many as 40 billion Earth-sized planets orbiting in the habitable zones of sun-like stars and red dwarf stars within the Milky Way Galaxy. 11 billion of these estimated planets may be orbiting sun-like stars. The nearest such planet may be 12 light-years away, according to the scientists.
Biochemistry
Main article: BiochemistryBiocomputers
Main article: BiocomputersBiocontrol
Main article: BiocontrolBiodynamics
Main article: BiodynamicsBioinformatics
Main article: BioinformaticsBiology
Main article: BiologyBiomaterials
Main article: BiomaterialsBiomechanics
Main article: BiomechanicsBiomedical science
Main article: Biomedical scienceBiomedicine
Main article: BiomedicineBiomonitoring
Main article: BiomonitoringBiophysics
Main article: BiophysicsBiopolymers
Main article: BiopolymerBiotechnology
Main article: BiotechnologyBotany
Main article: BotanyCell biology
Main article: Cell biologyCognitive neuroscience
Main article: Cognitive neuroscienceComputational neuroscience
Main article: Computational neuroscienceConservation biology
Main article: Conservation biologyDevelopmental biology
Main article: Developmental biologyEcology
Main article: EcologyEnvironmental science
Main article: Environmental scienceEthology
Main article: EthologyEvolutionary biology
Main article: Evolutionary biologyEvolutionary genetics
Main article: Evolutionary geneticsFood science
Main article: Food scienceGenetics
Main article: GeneticsGenomics
Main article: GenomicsHealth sciences
Main article: Health sciencesImmunogenetics
Main article: ImmunogeneticsImmunology
Main article: ImmunologyImmunotherapy
Main article: ImmunotherapyKinesiology
Main article: KinesiologyMarine biology
Main article: Marine biologyMedical devices
Main article: Medical devicesMedical imaging
Main article: Medical imagingMedical Sciences
Main article: Medical SciencesMedical Social Work
Main article: Medical Social WorkMicrobiology
Main article: MicrobiologyMolecular biology
Main article: Molecular biologyNeuroethology
Main article: NeuroethologyNeuroscience
Main article: NeuroscienceOncology
Main article: OncologyOptogenetics
Main article: OptogeneticsOptometry
Main article: OptometryParasitology
Main article: ParasitologyPathology
Main article: PathologyPharmacogenomics
Main article: PharmacogenomicsPharmaceutical sciences
Main article: Pharmaceutical sciencesPharmacology
Main article: PharmacologyPhysiology
Main article: PhysiologyPopulation dynamics
Main article: Population dynamicsProteomics
Main article: ProteomicsPsychiatric Social Work
Main article: Psychiatric Social WorkPsychology
Main article: PsychologySports science
Main article: Sports scienceStructural biology
Main article: Structural biologySystems biology
Main article: Systems biologyZoology
Main article: ZoologyScientific societies
- Federation of European Biochemical Societies (FEBS)
- European Molecular Biology Organization (EMBO)
- International Union of Biological Sciences (IUBS)
- Life Sciences Switzerland
See also
References
- "Life Sciences". Empire State Development Corporation. Government of New York. Retrieved 3 February 2014.
- Panksepp J (1992). "A role for "affective neuroscience" in understanding stress: the case of separation distress circuitry". In Puglisi-Allegra S, Oliverio A (ed.). Psychobiology of Stress. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer Academic. pp. 41–58. ISBN 0-7923-0682-1.
- "Introduction page, "Anatomy of the Human Body". Henry Gray. 20th edition. 1918". Archived from the original on 16 March 2007. Retrieved 19 March 2007.
- "How the search for aliens can help sustain life on Earth". CNN News. 4 October 2012. Retrieved 2012-10-08.
{{cite news}}:|first=missing|last=(help); Check|first=value (help) - "About Astrobiology". NASA Astrobiology Institute. NASA. 21 January 2008. Archived from the original on 11 October 2008. Retrieved 2008-10-20.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|deadurl=ignored (|url-status=suggested) (help) - Mirriam Webster Dictionary entry "Exobiology" (accessed 11 April 2013)
- iTWire - Scientists will look for alien life, but Where and How?
- Ward, P. D. (2004). The life and death of planet Earth. New York: Owl Books. ISBN 0-8050-7512-7.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - "NASA Technical Memorandum 102363". Lewis Research Center, Ohio: NASA. February 1990.
{{cite journal}}:|contribution=ignored (help);|first=missing|last=(help);|format=requires|url=(help); Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - Altermann, Wladyslaw (2008). "From Fossils to Astrobiology - A Roadmap to Fata Morgana?". From Fossils to Astrobiology: Records of Life on Earth and the Search for Extraterrestrial Biosignatures. Vol. 12. p. xvii. ISBN 1-4020-8836-1.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|editors=ignored (|editor=suggested) (help) - Horneck, Gerda (2007). Complete Course in Astrobiology. Wiley-VCH. ISBN 3-527-40660-3.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|coauthor=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - Davies, Paul (18 November 2013). "Are We Alone in the Universe?". New York Times. Retrieved 20 November 2013.
- ^ Overbye, Dennis (4 November 2013). "Far-Off Planets Like the Earth Dot the Galaxy". New York Times. Retrieved 5 November 2013.
- ^ Petigura, Eric A.; Howard, Andrew W.; Marcy, Geoffrey W. (31 October 2013). "Prevalence of Earth-size planets orbiting Sun-like stars". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. doi:10.1073/pnas.1319909110. Retrieved 5 November 2013.
- Khan, Amina (4 November 2013). "Milky Way may host billions of Earth-size planets". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 5 November 2013.
Further reading
- Magner, Lois N. (2002). A history of the life sciences (3rd ed., rev. and expanded. ed.). New York: M. Dekker. ISBN 0824708245.
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