Misplaced Pages

Arvanites: Difference between revisions

Article snapshot taken from Wikipedia with creative commons attribution-sharealike license. Give it a read and then ask your questions in the chat. We can research this topic together.
Browse history interactively← Previous editNext edit →Content deleted Content addedVisualWikitext
Revision as of 17:30, 12 August 2006 view sourceAldux (talk | contribs)Extended confirmed users27,291 editsm Reverted edits by Deucalionite (talk) to last version by Aldux← Previous edit Revision as of 20:49, 13 August 2006 view source Future Perfect at Sunrise (talk | contribs)Edit filter managers, Administrators87,200 edits Full rewrite. Shortened, tightened, restructured, tidied up. See talk.Next edit →
Line 12: Line 12:
----substantial changes.--------------------------------------------------* ----substantial changes.--------------------------------------------------*
************************************************************************--> ************************************************************************-->
'''Arvanites''' (Greek: Αρβανίτες, see ] for more about names<!--Note to editors: please don't add Arvanitic/Albanian names here without first seeking consensus on talk page, as this has been controversial-->) are a population group in Greece whose linguistic heritage is ], a form of ]. Arvanites are predominantly ] Christians and identify as ]. They used to be the predominant population element in some regions in the south of Greece up to the 19th century. Today, Arvanites have become largely assimilated into the Greek nation. Their language is under danger of extinction due to language shift towards Greek and due to large-scale migrations into the cities. '''Arvanites''' (Greek: Αρβανίτες, see also ] about names) are a population group in Greece who traditionally speak ], a form of ]. They settled in Greece during the late Middle Ages and used to be the predominant population element in some regions in the south of Greece up to the 19th century. Today, Arvanites have become largely assimilated and self-identify as Greeks. The Arvanitic language is under danger of extinction due to language shift towards Greek and due to large-scale migrations into the cities.


==History== ==History==
Arvanites in Greece originate from Albanian settlers who moved south at different times between the ] and the ] centuries from what is today southeastern ]<!--Note to editors: Let's not use "Despotate of Epirus" here, as it's prone to lead to misunderstandings--> (Biris 1960, Poulos 1950, Panagiotopulos 1985). Some of this migration happened in the course of settlement programmes invited by the Byzantine and Frankish rulers of the time in order to re-populate deserted areas in the south. Thus, from ] A.D. to ] A.D., 81,200 Arvanite mercenaries and their families have settled Greek lands after invitations from ] emperors (] Dynasty), the ] and the ]<ref name="biris">Biris, Kostas (1960): ''Αρβανίτες, οι Δωριείς του νεότερου Ελληνισμού: H ιστορία των Ελλήνων Αρβανιτών''. . Athens. (3rd ed. 1998: ISBN 9602040319 )</ref>. Later movements are believed to have been motivated to evade Islamization after the Ottoman conquest. Arvanites in Greece originate from nomadic Albanian settlers who moved south at different times between the ] and the ] centuries from what is today southeastern ].<ref>See Biris 1960, Poulos 1950, Panagiotopulos 1985, Ducellier 1994).</ref><ref>Some authors, particularly Biris (1961), have likened the medieval Arvanitic migrations to that of the ancient ]. Some Greek authors go one step further, and have proposed theories that link the ultimate ancestors of the Arvanites with pre-Greek "]" (Kollias 1983), or relate the ] with ]. These views have found no echo in mainstream scholarship. The "Pelasgian" view, which was fashionable in the 19th century, is currently still propagated by the largest association of Greek Arvanites (Αρβανιτικός Σύνδεσμος Ελλάδος, and .</ref>


The reasons for this migration are not entirely clear and may be manifold. In many instances the Albanians were invited by the Byzantine and Latin rulers of the time. They were employed to re-settle areas that had been largely depopulated through wars, epidemics and other reasons, and they were employed as soldiers. Some later movements are also believed to have been motivated to evade Islamization after the Ottoman conquest. The main waves of migration into southern Greece started around 1300 and reached a peak some time during the 14th century. Arvanites first reached ], then ] and finally the ].<ref>Biris gives an estimated figure of 18,200 Arvanites who were settled in southern Greece between 1350 and 1418.</ref>
Many Arvanites characterise the Arvanite settlements in Greece as a "modern ]".<ref name="biris" /><ref name="engonopoulos">
{{


In many instances Arvanite groups placed themselves in the services of local Greek rulers who were descendants of some of the dynasties of old Byzantine nobility. During the 15th and 16th centuries, such groups were renowned as mercenaries, the so-called ], serving in the armies of the ] and other foreign forces. Many of them became bilingual and culturally assimilated to the Greeks.
cite news
|url=http://ta-nea.dolnet.gr/print_article.php?e=A&f=16401&m=P12&aa=1
|publisher=Τα Νέα
|title=Εικονοστάσι ηρώων
|date=March 3, 1999
|page=P12


] fighter in the early 19th century.]]
}}
Being Orthodox Christians, the Arvanites identified with the Greeks in their conflicts with Muslims during the time of the ]. In the 17th and 18th centuries, Arvanites from Epirus constituted a prominent element in the establishment of the effectively independent state of the ] in the mountains of ], which resisted Ottoman domination. During the ], many Arvanites played an important role fighting on the Greek side against the Ottomans, acquiring the role of national Greek heroes. With the formation of modern nations and nation states in the Balkans, Arvanites have come to be regarded as an integral part of the Greek nation. In 1899, leading representatives of the Arvanites in Greece, among them descendants of the independence heroes Botsaris and Tzavelas, published a manifesto calling their fellow Albanians outside Greece <!-- note to editors: yes, fellow Albanians, the text says "we" throughout referring both to Albanians outside Greece and Arvanites within, never making a distinction --> to join in the creation of a common Albanian-Greek state.<ref>First published in ''Ελληνισμός'', Athens 1899, 195-202. Quoted in Gkikas 1978:7-9.</ref>


During the 20th century, after the creation of the Albanian nation-states, Arvanites in Greece have come to dissociate themselves much more strongly from Albanians, stressing instead their national self-identification as Greeks. Many are reported to find their designation as "Albanians", or that of their language as "Albanian", offensive.<ref>GHM 1995.</ref> At the same time, it has been reported that many Arvanites in past decades have maintained a stance of social self-deprecation, leading to a progressive loss of their traditional language and a shifting of the younger generation towards Greek. At some times, particularly under the nationalist ] regime of 1936-1940, Greek state institutions followed a policy of actively discouraging and repressing the use of the Arvanitic language.<ref>GHM 1995, Trudgill/Tzavaras 1977. See also Tsitsipis 1981, Botsi 2003</ref>
"''Είναι ακόμα Υδραίοι αγωνιστές, ο προπάππους του (Νίκου Εγγονόπουλου) Περραιβός και ο ήρωας των Αρβανιτών Σκεντέρμπεης (τιμώντας την αρβανίτικη, υδραίικη, καταγωγή του).
«Είναι οι τελευταίοι Έλληνες Δωριείς» τον θυμάται να λέει για τους Αρβανίτες η Λένα Εγγονοπούλου σε εποχές «ανύποπτες» για τις πρόσφατες πολιτικές εξελίξεις.''"</ref> Some Greek and Arvanite authors go one step further, and have proposed theories that link the ultimate ancestors of the Arvanites with pre-Greek "]" (Kollias 1983) and relate ] with ]. These views have little echo in mainstream scholarship to date.<ref name="ASE">The "Pelasgian" view is currently propagated by the largest association of Greek Arvanites (Αρβανιτικός Σύνδεσμος Ελλάδος). It has quoted a self-published study (Stylos, no date, see and ) arguing that several archaic ancient Greek ]s, among them the famous ] (which all other scholarship agrees to be Greek), are in fact written in Arvanitic. See , and for the accepted Greek readings.</ref>


Being Orthodox Christians, the Arvanites identified with the Greeks in their conflicts with Muslims during the time of the ]. Many Arvanites became national Greek heros, having played an important role fighting with the Greeks in the ] of 1821. With the formation of modern nations and nation states in the Balkans, Arvanites have come to be regarded as an integral part of the Greek nation. To identify as an 'Arvanites' in Greece is to identify with a constituent element of the Greek nation.

The history of the ''Arvanites'' or ''Albanites'' begins in Albania during the 13th century. The population of the region, entailing both Greeks and Albanians, undergoes large changes in the old system of factions and tight bonds that were developed during the previous centuries. A plethora of information can be gathered from '''Arvanitic songs''', where the '''phara''' is belauded and the statutory promise '''besha''', those two basic characteristics of those primarily agricultural and veterinarian communities.

The creation of the ] is deemed by certain authors as a confirmation of the "ancient" bonds the Albanians and Greeks of the Byzantine Empire shared. These bonds entailed military collaboration where Greeks and Albanians fought together against ] and ] during the ]. Such military services did not benefit the people of the region. However, the aristocracy of the phares prospered since they were awarded court titles for their military services.

These aristocrats ruled over many regions and they progressively weakened the old administrative system. From traditional ] leaders, they evolved into landlords. The new regime that the aristocracy imposed not only deprived the common people of their fortunes, but many times also resulted in their liberticide.

In their attempts to escape from these new conditions, the Arvanites were compelled to acquire ] habits. They saw immigration as the only solution to their problems created by the monopolizing of Albanian territories from ever more violent rulers. The ] invasion was one more reason for the Arvanites' expatriation. During the 13th century, the Arvanites moved either volunteerly or involuntarily as a result of the numerous conflicts that were occurring in the Balkans. They kept their language intact while becoming Greek culturally, socially and nationally. Like the ], the Arvanites developed Greek national conscience and they self-identify as Greeks.

Leaders of phares, who for one reason or another kept the old traditions, assembled all of the peasants who were ready to begin a new course. The immigration via sea started around ] AD, and the land immigration peaked at the end of the 13th century since there are mentions of an Arvanitic presence in ] in ] AD.

The Arvanite nomads migrate from Thessaly to Attica and from Acarnania to the south of the Peloponnese. Whether individually or en masse, these immigrations appear to be an escape reaction from social oppression that became intolerable or a reaction to the destruction of the old way of life that made the people feel disoriented.

The phares kept, along with their leaders, the Greek Orthodox faith, and they were thus entrenched in traditions. The rulers of the Albanian coastline were entrenched in Roman Catholicism. Thessaly was the first Greek region that accepted the migrations. According to ], the Arvanites went from Thessaly to inner ] up to ]. They brought there their skills in agriculture. The waves of immigrants were not always welcome and were initially mistrusted in many areas. In other areas, they were received with open arms because their presence provided an important opportunity to restore the worn out lands with new workers.

Those who reached Peloponnese and settled in innaccessible mountainous areas, shaped compact teams. Often they had no scruples placing themselves under the sovereignty of a Greek ruler - often the direct descendant of an old Byzantine dynasty. Along with the rest of the Greeks they constituted a strong front of resistance against the Ottomans. With the adoption of a common ethos, the Greek-Albanian unions played an important role in the 1821 Greek War of Independence, as the Arvanites had completely accepted their origin.

The waves of immigrants were id not always peacefully disposed and initially in many areas they were received with mistrust. In other areas they were received with open arms, because their presence was an important opportunity to restore the worn out lands with new workforce.
To sum up, Arvanites were an ideal supplier of workforce for Greece; they boosted demographically the local population and contributed considerably in his fight against the Ottoman forces. Greeks and Arvanites, accomplished through expostulations and compromises, to lead to a common life, without degrading the sovereign Greek character, whose assimilating power enabled many Arvanites to reached the top echelons of political and military ranks.

In 1897, the descendants of the Arvanites heroes of the Greek War of Independence, sign the manifesto of the Arvanitic league. Botsaris, Tzavelas and others support the previous call by forty Albanian ]s to revolt against the Ottomans and join the Greek Kingdom.

<small>
*Parts of this section were translated from the ]. The references for the translated section are:
** Ducellier (1994)
** ''Ιστορία των Βαλκανικών Λαών'', Παπαδήμας, 1995
</small>


==Demographics== ==Demographics==
] ]
⚫ Regions with a strong traditional presence of Arvanites are found mainly in a compact area in southeast Greece, namely across ], southern ], the north-east of the ], the south of the island of ], the north of the island of ], and several islands of the ] including ]. In parts of this area they formed a solid majority until c.1900. Within Attica, parts of the capital ] and its suburbs were Arvanitic until the late 19th century. There are also settlements in some other parts of the Peloponnese, and in ] and ].

⚫ Regions with a strong traditional presence of Arvanites in the south of Greece are found across in ], ], the north-east of the ], the south of the island of ] and the north of the island of ]. In parts of this area they formed a solid majority until c.1900. Within Attica, the capital ] and its suburbs were partly Arvanitic until the late 19th century. There are also settlements in ], ] and several islands of the ] including ].


Other groups of Arvanites live in the north of Greece in areas closer to Albania and the historical centers of contiguous Albanian populations (Banfi 1996). Some of them live in ] (] and ]); in ]/] (near the border of the ]); and in some locations further east in ]. These settlements are believed to be of a later date than the southern ones (GHM 1995). Other groups of Arvanites live in the north of Greece in areas closer to Albania and the historical centers of contiguous Albanian populations (Banfi 1996). Some of them live in ] (] and ]); in ]/] (near the border of the ]); and in some locations further east in ]. These settlements are believed to be of a later date than the southern ones (GHM 1995).


There are no reliable figures about the number of Arvanites in Greece today. The last official census figures available come from 1951. The number of active speakers of the Arvanitic language is believed to be much lower than the number of people who identify culturally as Arvanites owing to family tradition and local loyalties (see ] below), and that number might be lower than the number of people of ultimately Arvanitic descent. The following is a summary of the widely diverging estimates (Botsi 2003: 97): There are no reliable figures about the number of Arvanites in Greece today. The last official census figures available come from 1951. The number of active speakers of the Arvanitic language is believed to be much lower than the number of people who identify culturally as Arvanites owing to family tradition and local loyalties, and that number is likely to be still lower than the number of people of ultimately Arvanitic descent. The following is a summary of the widely diverging estimates (Botsi 2003: 97):


*1928 census: 18,773 citizens self-identifying as "Albanophone", i.e. Arvanitic-speaking. *1928 census: 18,773 citizens self-identifying as "Albanophone", i.e. Arvanitic-speaking.
Line 82: Line 47:


==Names== ==Names==
The name '''Arvanites''' and its equivalents are today used both in Greek ('''Αρβανίτες''') and in Arvanitic itself ('''Arbërorë''', spelled '''Αρbε̰ρόρε̰''' in the Greek-based ]). In Standard Albanian, the name is '''Arvanitë'''. Arvanites are thus distinguished from ethnic Albanians, who are called '''Shqiptarë''' in Standard Albanian, and '''Alvaní''' (Αλβανοί) in Greek. Feminine sing. is '''Arvanitissa''' (Αρβανίτισσα) and masculine sing. is '''Arvanitis'''<ref>Tsitsipis (1999)</ref>. It's interesting to note that Arvanites of Epirus named the ] Arvanitis. The name '''Arvanites''' and its equivalents are today used both in Greek (''Αρβανίτες'', singular form ''Αρβανίτης'', feminine ''Αρβανίτισσα'') and in Arvanitic itself ('''Arbërorë'''). In Standard Albanian, the name is '''Arvanitë'''. Arvanites are thus distinguished from ethnic Albanians, who are called '''Shqiptarë''' in Standard Albanian, and '''Alvaní''' (Αλβανοί) in Greek. Arvanites have referred to their place of origin as '''Arvanitiá''' (today southern Albania and NW Greece). Sometimes this term has also been applied to the whole of Albania and/or Epirus.


The name '''Arvanites''' and its equivalents go back to an old ethnonym that was at one time used by all Albanians to refer to themselves. It goes back to a geographical term, first attested in ] in the form of a place-name Άρβων, and then again in Byzantine authors of the 11th and 12th centuries in the form Άρβανον or Άρβανα, referring to a place in what is today Albania.<ref>], ''Ιστορία'' 297 mentiones "Arbanitai" as parts of a mercenary army (c.1085); ], ''Αλεξιάς'', VI:7/7 and XIII 5/1-2 mentions a region or town called Arbanon or Arbana, and "Arbanitai" as its inhabitants (1148). See also Vranousi (1970) and Ducellier (1968).</ref> "Arvanites" ("Arbanitai") originally referred to the inhabitants of that region, and then to all Albanian-speakers. The alternative name "Albanians" (Αλβανοί) may ultimately be etymologically related, but is of less clear origin (see ]). It was probably conflated with that of the "Arbanitai" at some stage due to phonological similarity. In later Byzantine usage, the terms "Arbanitai" and "Albanoi", with a range of variants, were used interchangably, while sometimes the same groups were also called by the classicising names "Illyrians" or "Macedonians". In the 19th and early 20th century, Αλβανοί ("Albanians") was used predominantly in formal registers and Αρβανίτες ("Arvanites") in the more popular speech in Greek, but both were used indiscriminately for both Muslim and Christian Albanophones inside and outside Greece. In Albania itself, the self-designation "Arvanites" had been exchanged for the new name "Shqiptarë" since the 15th century, an innovation that was not shared by the Albanophone migrant communities in the south of Greece. In the course of the 20th century, it became customary to use only "Αλβανοί" for the people of Albania, and only "Αρβανίτες" for the Christian Arvanites integrated into Greek society, thus stressing the national separation between the two groups.
Arvanites refer to their place of origin as '''Arvanitia''' (today southern Albania and NW Greece). Sometimes they apply this term to the whole of Albania and/or Epirus. Arvanitia is also an alternate name for ], ]'s ].


⚫ Arvanites are distinguished in Greece from ] (Greek: "Τσάμηδες"), another group of Albanophones in the northwest of Greece. Unlike the Christian Arvanites, the Chams were predominantly Muslims and identified nationally as Albanians. Muslim Chams were expelled from Greece at the end of the ], after violent clashes and atrocities committed during and after Axis occupation.
The name '''Arvanites''' and its Albanian/Arvanitic equivalents go back to an old ethnonym that was formerly used by all Albanians to refer to themselves. Albanians adopted the new name of '''Shqiptarë''' and the country name '''Shqipëria''' since the 15th century, after the Arvanitic populations had split off. The Arvanites kept the old, common name, as did the Albanophone settlers in Italy ('''Arbëreshë'''). The word stems of both '''Arvanites''' and '''Albanians''', originally ''arb- (αρβ-)'' and ''alb- (αλβ-)'' have been attested as designations for people in the area of today's Albania since antiquity. (]: Άρβων, Αρβωνίται; ]: Αλβανόπολις, Αλβανοί; for more details see: '']''). It is a matter of debate whether the two roots are ultimately cognate, or whether two accidentally similar roots were conflated with each other at a later date (Babiniotis 1998). In ] Greek and in medieval Latin authors, reflexes of both roots are used synonymously for the people of today's Albania.<ref>] speaks of ''"Arbanitai"'' of the city of "Arbanon" in the ''Alexiad'', Book IV; ] mentions both ''"Albanoi"'' and ''"Arbanitai"''. See also Botsi (2003: 18-20) for more references. However, some authors have argued that the earliest medieval mentionings of the name ''"Albanians"'' in Attaleiates may be referring to entirely different groups, as it was a common designation for 'strangers' in medieval Latin, and that originally only ''"Arbanitai"'' was used for all Albanians (Vranousi 1970).</ref> This usage continued in Greek until the 19th and early 20th century, with Αλβανοί ("Albanians") being used in formal registers and Αρβανίτες ("Arvanites") used in the more popular speech, but both used indiscriminately for both Muslim and Christian Albanophones.<ref>; see also for references.</ref> In the course of the formation of the modern nation-state societies, it became customary to use only "Αλβανοί" for the people of Albania, and only "Αρβανίτες" for the Christian Arvanites integrated into Greek society.


⚫ There is some uncertainty to what extent the term "Arvanites" also includes the small remaining ''Christian'' Albanophone population groups in Northwest Greece (] and western ]). Unlike the southern Arvanites, these speakers are reported to use the name ''Shqiptarë'' both for themselves and for Albanian nationals (Banfi 1996), although this is reported not necessarily to imply Albanian national consciousness (Kollias 1983). The word Shqiptár is also used in a few villages of ], where Arvanites migrated from the mountains of ] during the ]. Moraitis (2002) reports that such speakers also use the name Arvanitis in their Greek, and the report notes that the designation ''Chams'' is today rejected by the group. The report by GHM (1995) subsumes the Epirote Albanophones under the term Arvanites, although it notes the different linguistic self-designation. Botsi (2003: 21), on the other hand, applies the term "Arvanites" only to the populations of the compact Arvanitic settlement areas in southern Greece, in keeping with the self-identification of those groups. Linguistically, the ] () identifies the present-day Albanian/Arvanitic dialects of Northwestern Greece (in Epirus and Lechovo) with those of the Chams, and therefore classifies them together with standard Tosk Albanian, as opposed to "Arvanitika Albanian proper" (i.e. southern Greek Arvanitic). Nevertheless it reports that in Greek the Epirus varieties are also often subsumed under "Arvanitika" in a wider sense. It puts the estimated number of Epirus Albanophones at 10,000. "Arvanitic proper" () is said to include the outlying dialects spoken in Thrace.
⚫ Arvanites are distinguished in Greece from ] (Greek: "Τσάμηδες"), another group of Albanophones in the northwest of Greece. Unlike the Christian Arvanites, the Chams were predominantly Muslims and identified nationally as Albanians. Most Muslim Chams were expelled from Greece shortly before the end of the ], after violent clashes and atrocities committed during and after Axis occupation.


⚫ There is some disagreement to what extent the term "Arvanites" legitimately also includes the small remaining ''Christian'' Albanophone population groups in Northwest Greece (] and western ]). Unlike the southern Arvanites, these speakers are reported to use the name ''Shqiptarë'' both for themselves and for Albanian nationals (Banfi 1996), although this is reported not necessarily to imply Albanian national consciousness (Kollias 1983). Moraitis (2002) reports that such speakers also use the name Arvanitis in their Greek, and the report notes that the designation ''Chams'' is today rejected by the group. The word Shqiptár is also used in a few villages of ], where Arvanites migrated from the mountains of ] during the ]. Botsi (2003: 21) reports that the term "Arvanites" in its narrow sense includes only the populations of the compact Arvanitic settlement areas in southern Greece, according to the self-identification of those groups. The ] () identifies the present-day Albanian/Arvanitic dialects of Northwestern Greece (in Epirus and Lechovo) with those of the Chams. They are therefore classified linguistically together with standard Tosk Albanian, as opposed to "Arvanitika Albanian proper" (i.e. southern Greek Arvanitic). Nevertheless it reports that in Greek the Epirus varieties are also often subsumed under "Arvanitika" in a wider sense. It puts the estimated number of Epirus Albanophones at 10,000. "Arvanitic proper" () is said to include the outlying dialects spoken in Thrace. Other sources (e.g. GHM 1995) subsume the Epirote Albanophones under the term Arvanites, although they note the different linguistic self-designation.


==Language use and language perception== ==Language use and language perception==
{{main|Arvanitic language}} {{main|Arvanitic language}}


⚫ While the Arvanitic language was commonly called Albanian in Greece until the 20th century, the wish of Arvanites to express their ethnic identification as Greeks has led to a stance of rejecting the identification of the language with Albanian as well. Breu (1985: 424) and Tsitsipis (1983) reported that many Arvanites had only very imprecise notions about how related or unrelated their language was to Albanian. Today, many Arvanites prefer to regard Arvanitic as different from Albanian. Since Arvanitic is almost exclusively a spoken language, Arvanites also have no practical affiliation with the Standard Albanian language used in Albania, as they do not use this form in writing or in media. The question of linguistic closeness or distance between Arvanitic and Albanian has come to the forefront especially since the early 1990s, when a large number of immigrants from Albania began to enter Greece and came into contact with local Arvanitic communities (cf. Botsi 2003, Athanassopoulou 2005).
The decline of the Arvanitic language has been brought about by several factors. One is the demographic trend of movement towards the cities, breaking up some of the social ties of village communities. It is also reported that many Arvanites in past decades have maintained a stance of social self-deprecation of the traditional community language, encouraging younger generations to switch to the dominant language, Greek, which was associated with social mobility and modernity (Tsitsipis 1981, Botsi 2003). Especially earlier in the 20th century, Greek state institutions are reported to have sometimes followed a policy of actively discouraging and repressing the use of the Arvanitic language, most strongly under the nationalist ] regime of 1936-1940 (GHM 1995; Trudgill/Tzavaras 1977).


⚫ Since the 1980s, there have been some organized efforts to preserve the cultural and linguistic heritage of Arvanites.
⚫ While the Arvanitic language was commonly called Albanian in Greece until the 20th century, the wish of Arvanites to express their ethnic identification as Greeks has led to a stance of rejecting the identification of the language with Albanian as well. Breu (1985: 424) and Tsitsipis (1983) reported that many Arvanites had only very imprecise notions about how related or unrelated their language was to Albanian. Today, many Arvanites prefer to regard Arvanitic as different from Albanian. As Arvanitic is almost exclusively a spoken language, Arvanites also have no practical affiliation with the Standard Albanian language used in Albania, as they do not use this form in writing or in media. The question of linguistic closeness or distance between Arvanitic and Albanian has come to the forefront especially since the early 1990s, when a large number of immigrants from Albania began to enter Greece and came into contact with local Arvanitic communities (cf. Botsi 2003, Athanassopoulou 2005).

⚫ Since the 1980s, there have been some organized efforts to preserve the cultural heritage of Arvanites.


==Minority status== ==Minority status==


Some foreign sources refer to Arvanites as Albanians,<ref name="Schukalla">E.g. Schukalla (1993).</ref> as did older Greek authors up to the mid-20th century.<ref name="GreekAlbanian">E.g. Paschidis (1879), Poulos (1950).</ref> The view of Arvanites as an Albanian group is reported as wide-spread in Albania (Dimitras/Lenkova 1997). Arvanites themselves, however, have come to reject the designation as Albanians, and often also object to the term "minority" being applied to them. Although sociological studies of Arvanite communities (Trudgill/Tzavaras 1977) used to note an identifiable sense of a special "ethnic" identity among Arvanites, the authors did not identify a sense of 'belonging to Albania or to the Albanian nation'; this was partly due to religious differences between the Muslim majority of Albania and the Greek Orthodox faith of the Arvanites. Today, for Arvanites this identity is subordinated to that of being part of the Greek nation. Conversely, other Greeks regard the Arvanite element as an integral part of Greek nationhood. Levy (2000) dates the onset of this national integration into the early 19th century and Kollias (1983) to the 15th century following the death of ]. No political desire to obtain any officially recognized minority status for themselves or protection for their language has been reported on the part of Arvanite groups. Attempts at making the Arvanites the topic of a political "ethnic minority" issue between Greece and Albania, which were made briefly during the 1990s under Albanian president ], were met with furious or amused rejection by public opinion in Greece. Although sociological studies of Arvanite communities (Trudgill/Tzavaras 1977) still used to note an identifiable sense of a special "ethnic" identity among Arvanites, the authors did not identify a sense of 'belonging to Albania or to the Albanian nation'. Arvanite identity is subordinated to that of being part of the Greek nation. Arvanites often not only reject the designation as Albanians but also object to the term "minority" being applied to them, a term that is politically highly charged in Greece. No political desire to obtain any officially recognized minority status for themselves or protection for their language has been reported on the part of Arvanite groups. Attempts at making the Arvanites the topic of a political "ethnic minority" issue between Greece and Albania, which were made briefly during the 1990s under Albanian president ], were met with furious or amused rejection by public opinion in Greece.


== Arvanitic culture == == Arvanitic culture ==
=== Phara === === Phara ===
Phara (φάρα) is a ], similar to ]s. Arvanites were organised in phares (φάρες) mostly during the reign of the ]. The ] was a warlord and the phara was named after him (i.e. Botsaris' phara). In an Arvanitic village each phara was responsible to keep genealogical records (see also ]), that are preserved until today as historical documents in local libraries. Usually there were more than one phares in an Arvanitic village and sometimes they were organised in ] that had conflict of interests. Those phratries didn't last long, because each leader of a phara desired to be the leader of the phratry and would not be lead by another. Phara (φάρα) is a ], similar to ]s. Arvanites were organised in phares (φάρες) mostly during the reign of the ]. The ] was a warlord and the phara was named after him (i.e. Botsaris' phara). In an Arvanitic village each phara was responsible to keep genealogical records (see also ]), that are preserved until today as historical documents in local libraries. Usually there were more than one phares in an Arvanitic village and sometimes they were organised in ] that had conflict of interests. Those phratries didn't last long, because each leader of a phara desired to be the leader of the phratry and would not be lead by another.<ref>See Biris (1960) and Kollias (1983).</ref>


=== The role of women ===
<small>The section about '''phara''' is based on Biris (1960) and Kollias (1983).</small>


According to Kollias (1983), women held a relatively strong position in traditional Arvanite society. Women had a say in public issues concerning their "phara", and also often bore arms. Widows could inherit the status and privileges of their husbands and thus acquire leading roles within a phara, as did, for instance, ].
=== The position of woman in Arvanitic society ===
Arvanitissa is an Arvanite woman. There's also a church in ] that is dedicated to "''] Arvanitissa''"<ref>about 2.5 km from Chora, {{coor d|38.40194|N|26.063|E|}}</ref>. Kollias (1983) compares the position of woman in Arvanitic society with the position of a Spartan woman in Ancient Sparta. Centuries before ], an Arvanitissa not only had the right to express her opinion about issues that concerned her phara, but also bear arms. If her husband died, then she acquired all the rights and the priviledges that he used to have in the phara - such an example was ].
<!-- these are from memory, I'll try to expand them when I get the book in my hands again - you may improve my english if you wish +MATIA -->

===Trivia===
]
*'''Ouzo Plomari, Isidoros Arvanitis''', is a brand of ] (Ούζο Πλωμαρίου<ref>Plomari is a town of ]</ref>, Ισιδώρου Αρβανίτου, 1894).


===Arvanitic songs=== ===Arvanitic songs===
Although they are almost fully assimilated into Greek society, some distinct Arvanitic cultural characteristics are still identifiable.


⚫ Traditional Arvanite folk songs offer valuable information about social values and ideals of Arvanite societies.<ref>Songs have been studied by Moraitis (2002), Dede (1978), and Gkikas (1978).</ref> Arvanitic songs share similarities with ], ] and ].
There are 4 ] ]s featuring Arvanitic songs although the lyrics are often in Greek. There are no mass media in Arvanitic, although some local radio stations have occasionally broadcast Arvanitic songs. During the last decades there have been made some attempts to document Arvanitic songs, the most recent by Thanasis Moraitis.

⚫ Arvanitic songs share similarities with ], ] and ].

==Studies and books about the Arvanites==
===Kostas Biris===
'''Biris''' was a folklorist and an architect. His book "''Arvanites, the Dorians of modern Hellenism, history of Arvanites Greeks''" (]) is a thorough study on Arvanites and it is the most referenced work by other scholars who studied Arvanites.

===Maria Michael-Dede===
]

'''Maria Michael-Dede''' is an author of literature and an ethnologist. She has written two books about Arvanitic songs (]) and the book ''The Greek Arvanites'' (]).

===Aristeides Kollias===
'''Kollias''', a lawyer by profession, performed ethnologist studies on Arvanites. In his book "''Arvanites and the origin of the Greeks''" (]), Kollias promotes the ''Pelasgian theory'' that identifies the ] with the Arvanites. Kollias states that Greek people and Albanian people were closer in the past than they are during the last two centuries and that they both descend from the Pelasgians. His rejection of the ] and his theory that Arvanitika is very close (if not identical) to the ] have been criticized, however his work on Arvanitic culture is generally accepted.

===Thanasis Moraitis===
'''Moraitis''' had worked with Kollias for some time, and he did an extensive search on Arvanitic music. In his book "''Arvanitika Songs''", he documents about 150 songs, analyzes their musical structure, and also has texts by linguists and historians about Arvanitic history, culture and the Arvanitic language.


==Famous Arvanites== ==Famous Arvanites==
<!-- I have written the following list after carefully checking each one of them +MATIA --> <!-- I have written the following list after carefully checking each one of them +MATIA -->

]


*] *]
Line 191: Line 127:
===Bibliography=== ===Bibliography===
*Athanassopoulou, Angélique (2005), "'Nos Albanais à nous': Travailleurs émigrés dans une communauté arvanite du Péloponnèse" . ''Revue Ethnologie Française'' 2005/2. *Athanassopoulou, Angélique (2005), "'Nos Albanais à nous': Travailleurs émigrés dans une communauté arvanite du Péloponnèse" . ''Revue Ethnologie Française'' 2005/2.
*Babiniotis, Georgios (1998), ''Λεξικό της Νέας Ελληνικής Γλώσσας'' . Athens: Kentro Lexikologias.
*Banfi, Emanuele (1996), "Minoranze linguistiche in Grecia: Problemi storico- e sociolinguistici" . In: C. Vallini (ed.), ''Minoranze e lingue minoritarie: Convegno internazionale''. Naples: Universtario Orientale. 89-115. *Banfi, Emanuele (1996), "Minoranze linguistiche in Grecia: Problemi storico- e sociolinguistici" . In: C. Vallini (ed.), ''Minoranze e lingue minoritarie: Convegno internazionale''. Naples: Universtario Orientale. 89-115.
*Biris, Kostas (1960): ''Αρβανίτες, οι Δωριείς του νεότερου Ελληνισμού: H ιστορία των Ελλήνων Αρβανιτών''. . Athens. (3rd ed. 1998: ISBN 9602040319 ) *Biris, Kostas (1960): ''Αρβανίτες, οι Δωριείς του νεότερου Ελληνισμού: H ιστορία των Ελλήνων Αρβανιτών''. . Athens. (3rd ed. 1998: ISBN 9602040319 )
Line 197: Line 132:
*Breu, Walter (1990): "Sprachliche Minderheiten in Italien und Griechenland" . In: B. Spillner (ed.), ''Interkulturelle Kommunikation.'' Frankfurt: Lang. 169-170. *Breu, Walter (1990): "Sprachliche Minderheiten in Italien und Griechenland" . In: B. Spillner (ed.), ''Interkulturelle Kommunikation.'' Frankfurt: Lang. 169-170.
*Clogg, Richard (2002): ''Minorities in Greece: Aspect of a Plural Society''. Oxford: Hurst. *Clogg, Richard (2002): ''Minorities in Greece: Aspect of a Plural Society''. Oxford: Hurst.
*Dede, Maria (1978): ''Αρβανίτικα Τραγούδια.'' Athens: Καστανιώτης.
*Dede, Maria (1987): ''Οι Έλληνες Αρβανίτες.'' . Ioannina: Idryma Voreioipirotikon Erevnon. *Dede, Maria (1987): ''Οι Έλληνες Αρβανίτες.'' . Ioannina: Idryma Voreioipirotikon Erevnon.
*P. Dimitras, M. Lenkova (1997): "'Unequal rights' for Albanians in the southern Balkans". Greek Helsinki Monitor Report, AIM Athens, October 1997. *P. Dimitras, M. Lenkova (1997): "'Unequal rights' for Albanians in the southern Balkans". Greek Helsinki Monitor Report, AIM Athens, October 1997.
*Ducellier, Alain (1968): "L'Arbanon et les Albanais", ''Travaux et mémoires'' 3: 353-368.
*Ducellier, Alain (1994): ''Οι Αλβανοί στην Ελλάδα (13-15 αι.): Η μετανάστευση μίας κοινότητας.'' . Athens: Idhrima Gulandri Horn. *Ducellier, Alain (1994): ''Οι Αλβανοί στην Ελλάδα (13-15 αι.): Η μετανάστευση μίας κοινότητας.'' . Athens: Idhrima Gulandri Horn.
*Euromosaic (1996): "L'arvanite / albanais en Grèce". Report published by the Institut de Sociolingüística Catalana. *Euromosaic (1996): "L'arvanite / albanais en Grèce". Report published by the Institut de Sociolingüística Catalana.
*Furikis, Petros (1931): "Πόθεν το εθνικόν Αρβανίτης;" ''Αθήνα'' 43: 3-37. *Furikis, Petros (1931): "Πόθεν το εθνικόν Αρβανίτης;" ''Αθήνα'' 43: 3-37.
*Furikis, Petros (1934): "Η εν Αττική ελληνοαλβανική διάλεκτος". ''Αθήνα'' 45: 49-181. *Furikis, Petros (1934): "Η εν Αττική ελληνοαλβανική διάλεκτος". ''Αθήνα'' 45: 49-181.
*Gkikas, Yannis: "Arvanites and arvanitic song in Greece" *Gkikas, Yannis (1978): ''Οι Αρβανίτες και το αρβανίτικο τραγούδι στην Ελλάδα'' . Athens.
*Grapsitis, Vasilis (1989): ''Οι Αρβανίτες'' . Athens. *Grapsitis, Vasilis (1989): ''Οι Αρβανίτες'' . Athens.
*GHM (=Greek Helsinki Monitor) (1995): "Report: The Arvanites". *GHM (=Greek Helsinki Monitor) (1995): "Report: The Arvanites".
Line 232: Line 169:


=== External links === === External links ===
*{{el icon}} *{{el icon}}
*{{en icon}} *{{en icon}}
*{{el icon}} {{ *{{el icon}} {{

Revision as of 20:49, 13 August 2006

Ethnic group
Arvanites
File:FArvanites.jpg
Regions with significant populations
Greece
Languages
Arvanitic, Greek
Religion
Greek Orthodox

Arvanites (Greek: Αρβανίτες, see also below about names) are a population group in Greece who traditionally speak Arvanitic, a form of Albanian. They settled in Greece during the late Middle Ages and used to be the predominant population element in some regions in the south of Greece up to the 19th century. Today, Arvanites have become largely assimilated and self-identify as Greeks. The Arvanitic language is under danger of extinction due to language shift towards Greek and due to large-scale migrations into the cities.

History

Arvanites in Greece originate from nomadic Albanian settlers who moved south at different times between the 14th and the 15th centuries from what is today southeastern Albania.

The reasons for this migration are not entirely clear and may be manifold. In many instances the Albanians were invited by the Byzantine and Latin rulers of the time. They were employed to re-settle areas that had been largely depopulated through wars, epidemics and other reasons, and they were employed as soldiers. Some later movements are also believed to have been motivated to evade Islamization after the Ottoman conquest. The main waves of migration into southern Greece started around 1300 and reached a peak some time during the 14th century. Arvanites first reached Thessaly, then Attica and finally the Peloponnese.

In many instances Arvanite groups placed themselves in the services of local Greek rulers who were descendants of some of the dynasties of old Byzantine nobility. During the 15th and 16th centuries, such groups were renowned as mercenaries, the so-called Stradioti, serving in the armies of the Venetian Republic and other foreign forces. Many of them became bilingual and culturally assimilated to the Greeks.

An Armatole fighter in the early 19th century.

Being Orthodox Christians, the Arvanites identified with the Greeks in their conflicts with Muslims during the time of the Ottoman Empire. In the 17th and 18th centuries, Arvanites from Epirus constituted a prominent element in the establishment of the effectively independent state of the Souliotes in the mountains of Epirus, which resisted Ottoman domination. During the Greek War of Independence, many Arvanites played an important role fighting on the Greek side against the Ottomans, acquiring the role of national Greek heroes. With the formation of modern nations and nation states in the Balkans, Arvanites have come to be regarded as an integral part of the Greek nation. In 1899, leading representatives of the Arvanites in Greece, among them descendants of the independence heroes Botsaris and Tzavelas, published a manifesto calling their fellow Albanians outside Greece to join in the creation of a common Albanian-Greek state.

During the 20th century, after the creation of the Albanian nation-states, Arvanites in Greece have come to dissociate themselves much more strongly from Albanians, stressing instead their national self-identification as Greeks. Many are reported to find their designation as "Albanians", or that of their language as "Albanian", offensive. At the same time, it has been reported that many Arvanites in past decades have maintained a stance of social self-deprecation, leading to a progressive loss of their traditional language and a shifting of the younger generation towards Greek. At some times, particularly under the nationalist Metaxas regime of 1936-1940, Greek state institutions followed a policy of actively discouraging and repressing the use of the Arvanitic language.


Demographics

Areas in Greece with significant presence of minority languages.

Regions with a strong traditional presence of Arvanites are found mainly in a compact area in southeast Greece, namely across Attica, southern Boeotia, the north-east of the Peloponnese, the south of the island of Euboea, the north of the island of Andros, and several islands of the Saronic Gulf including Salamis. In parts of this area they formed a solid majority until c.1900. Within Attica, parts of the capital Athens and its suburbs were Arvanitic until the late 19th century. There are also settlements in some other parts of the Peloponnese, and in Phthiotis and Locris.

Other groups of Arvanites live in the north of Greece in areas closer to Albania and the historical centers of contiguous Albanian populations (Banfi 1996). Some of them live in Epirus (Thesprotia and Preveza); in Florina/Konitsa (near the border of the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia); and in some locations further east in Thrace. These settlements are believed to be of a later date than the southern ones (GHM 1995).

There are no reliable figures about the number of Arvanites in Greece today. The last official census figures available come from 1951. The number of active speakers of the Arvanitic language is believed to be much lower than the number of people who identify culturally as Arvanites owing to family tradition and local loyalties, and that number is likely to be still lower than the number of people of ultimately Arvanitic descent. The following is a summary of the widely diverging estimates (Botsi 2003: 97):

  • 1928 census: 18,773 citizens self-identifying as "Albanophone", i.e. Arvanitic-speaking.
  • 1951 census: 22,736 "Albanophones".
  • Furikis (1934): estimated 70,000 Arvanites only in Attica.
  • Trudgill/Tzavaras (1976/77): estimated 140,000 only in Attica and Boeotia.
  • Sasse (1991): estimated 50,000 Arvanitic speakers in total.
  • Ethnologue, 2000: 150,000 Arvanites, living in 300 villages.
  • Federal Union of European Nationalities, 1991: 95,000 "Albanians of Greece" (MRG 1991: 189)
  • According to some estimates: up to 250,000 (quoted in Schukalla 1993: 523) or even over a million (Albanian life No.2, 1994, quoted in Clogg 2002) people of ultimately Arvanitic descent.

Like the rest of the Greek population, Arvanites have been emigrating from their villages to the cities and especially to the capital Athens. This has contributed to the loss of the language in the younger generation.

Names

The name Arvanites and its equivalents are today used both in Greek (Αρβανίτες, singular form Αρβανίτης, feminine Αρβανίτισσα) and in Arvanitic itself (Arbërorë). In Standard Albanian, the name is Arvanitë. Arvanites are thus distinguished from ethnic Albanians, who are called Shqiptarë in Standard Albanian, and Alvaní (Αλβανοί) in Greek. Arvanites have referred to their place of origin as Arvanitiá (today southern Albania and NW Greece). Sometimes this term has also been applied to the whole of Albania and/or Epirus.

The name Arvanites and its equivalents go back to an old ethnonym that was at one time used by all Albanians to refer to themselves. It goes back to a geographical term, first attested in Polybius in the form of a place-name Άρβων, and then again in Byzantine authors of the 11th and 12th centuries in the form Άρβανον or Άρβανα, referring to a place in what is today Albania. "Arvanites" ("Arbanitai") originally referred to the inhabitants of that region, and then to all Albanian-speakers. The alternative name "Albanians" (Αλβανοί) may ultimately be etymologically related, but is of less clear origin (see Albania (toponym)). It was probably conflated with that of the "Arbanitai" at some stage due to phonological similarity. In later Byzantine usage, the terms "Arbanitai" and "Albanoi", with a range of variants, were used interchangably, while sometimes the same groups were also called by the classicising names "Illyrians" or "Macedonians". In the 19th and early 20th century, Αλβανοί ("Albanians") was used predominantly in formal registers and Αρβανίτες ("Arvanites") in the more popular speech in Greek, but both were used indiscriminately for both Muslim and Christian Albanophones inside and outside Greece. In Albania itself, the self-designation "Arvanites" had been exchanged for the new name "Shqiptarë" since the 15th century, an innovation that was not shared by the Albanophone migrant communities in the south of Greece. In the course of the 20th century, it became customary to use only "Αλβανοί" for the people of Albania, and only "Αρβανίτες" for the Christian Arvanites integrated into Greek society, thus stressing the national separation between the two groups.

Arvanites are distinguished in Greece from Cham Albanians (Greek: "Τσάμηδες"), another group of Albanophones in the northwest of Greece. Unlike the Christian Arvanites, the Chams were predominantly Muslims and identified nationally as Albanians. Muslim Chams were expelled from Greece at the end of the Second World War, after violent clashes and atrocities committed during and after Axis occupation.

There is some uncertainty to what extent the term "Arvanites" also includes the small remaining Christian Albanophone population groups in Northwest Greece (Epirus and western Macedonia). Unlike the southern Arvanites, these speakers are reported to use the name Shqiptarë both for themselves and for Albanian nationals (Banfi 1996), although this is reported not necessarily to imply Albanian national consciousness (Kollias 1983). The word Shqiptár is also used in a few villages of Thrace, where Arvanites migrated from the mountains of Pindos during the 19th century. Moraitis (2002) reports that such speakers also use the name Arvanitis in their Greek, and the Euromosaic (1996) report notes that the designation Chams is today rejected by the group. The report by GHM (1995) subsumes the Epirote Albanophones under the term Arvanites, although it notes the different linguistic self-designation. Botsi (2003: 21), on the other hand, applies the term "Arvanites" only to the populations of the compact Arvanitic settlement areas in southern Greece, in keeping with the self-identification of those groups. Linguistically, the Ethnologue () identifies the present-day Albanian/Arvanitic dialects of Northwestern Greece (in Epirus and Lechovo) with those of the Chams, and therefore classifies them together with standard Tosk Albanian, as opposed to "Arvanitika Albanian proper" (i.e. southern Greek Arvanitic). Nevertheless it reports that in Greek the Epirus varieties are also often subsumed under "Arvanitika" in a wider sense. It puts the estimated number of Epirus Albanophones at 10,000. "Arvanitic proper" () is said to include the outlying dialects spoken in Thrace.


Language use and language perception

Main article: Arvanitic language

While the Arvanitic language was commonly called Albanian in Greece until the 20th century, the wish of Arvanites to express their ethnic identification as Greeks has led to a stance of rejecting the identification of the language with Albanian as well. Breu (1985: 424) and Tsitsipis (1983) reported that many Arvanites had only very imprecise notions about how related or unrelated their language was to Albanian. Today, many Arvanites prefer to regard Arvanitic as different from Albanian. Since Arvanitic is almost exclusively a spoken language, Arvanites also have no practical affiliation with the Standard Albanian language used in Albania, as they do not use this form in writing or in media. The question of linguistic closeness or distance between Arvanitic and Albanian has come to the forefront especially since the early 1990s, when a large number of immigrants from Albania began to enter Greece and came into contact with local Arvanitic communities (cf. Botsi 2003, Athanassopoulou 2005).

Since the 1980s, there have been some organized efforts to preserve the cultural and linguistic heritage of Arvanites.

Minority status

Although sociological studies of Arvanite communities (Trudgill/Tzavaras 1977) still used to note an identifiable sense of a special "ethnic" identity among Arvanites, the authors did not identify a sense of 'belonging to Albania or to the Albanian nation'. Arvanite identity is subordinated to that of being part of the Greek nation. Arvanites often not only reject the designation as Albanians but also object to the term "minority" being applied to them, a term that is politically highly charged in Greece. No political desire to obtain any officially recognized minority status for themselves or protection for their language has been reported on the part of Arvanite groups. Attempts at making the Arvanites the topic of a political "ethnic minority" issue between Greece and Albania, which were made briefly during the 1990s under Albanian president Sali Berisha, were met with furious or amused rejection by public opinion in Greece.

Arvanitic culture

Phara

Phara (φάρα) is a descent model, similar to Scottish clans. Arvanites were organised in phares (φάρες) mostly during the reign of the Ottoman Empire. The apex was a warlord and the phara was named after him (i.e. Botsaris' phara). In an Arvanitic village each phara was responsible to keep genealogical records (see also registry offices), that are preserved until today as historical documents in local libraries. Usually there were more than one phares in an Arvanitic village and sometimes they were organised in phratries that had conflict of interests. Those phratries didn't last long, because each leader of a phara desired to be the leader of the phratry and would not be lead by another.

The role of women

According to Kollias (1983), women held a relatively strong position in traditional Arvanite society. Women had a say in public issues concerning their "phara", and also often bore arms. Widows could inherit the status and privileges of their husbands and thus acquire leading roles within a phara, as did, for instance, Bouboulina.

Arvanitic songs

Traditional Arvanite folk songs offer valuable information about social values and ideals of Arvanite societies. Arvanitic songs share similarities with Arbëresh, Albanian and Greek Epirote music.

Famous Arvanites

See also

References

Footnotes

  1. See Biris 1960, Poulos 1950, Panagiotopulos 1985, Ducellier 1994).
  2. Some authors, particularly Biris (1961), have likened the medieval Arvanitic migrations to that of the ancient Dorians. Some Greek authors go one step further, and have proposed theories that link the ultimate ancestors of the Arvanites with pre-Greek "Pelasgians" (Kollias 1983), or relate the Arvanitic language with Ancient Greek. These views have found no echo in mainstream scholarship. The "Pelasgian" view, which was fashionable in the 19th century, is currently still propagated by the largest association of Greek Arvanites (Αρβανιτικός Σύνδεσμος Ελλάδος, and .
  3. Biris gives an estimated figure of 18,200 Arvanites who were settled in southern Greece between 1350 and 1418.
  4. First published in Ελληνισμός, Athens 1899, 195-202. Quoted in Gkikas 1978:7-9.
  5. GHM 1995.
  6. GHM 1995, Trudgill/Tzavaras 1977. See also Tsitsipis 1981, Botsi 2003
  7. Attaleiates, Ιστορία 297 mentiones "Arbanitai" as parts of a mercenary army (c.1085); Anna Comnena, Αλεξιάς, VI:7/7 and XIII 5/1-2 mentions a region or town called Arbanon or Arbana, and "Arbanitai" as its inhabitants (1148). See also Vranousi (1970) and Ducellier (1968).
  8. See Biris (1960) and Kollias (1983).
  9. Songs have been studied by Moraitis (2002), Dede (1978), and Gkikas (1978).
  10. ^ Απομνημονεύματα Μακρυγιάννη Cite error: The named reference "makriyannis" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  11. Πάγκαλος, Θεόδωρος (1950), Τα απομνημονευματά μου, 1897-1947 : η ταραχώδης περιόδος της τελευταίας πεντηκονταετίας
  12. Κριεζής, Θεόδωρος (1948), Οι Κριεζήδες του Εικοσιένα
  13. Cite error: The named reference engonopoulos was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

Bibliography

  • Athanassopoulou, Angélique (2005), "'Nos Albanais à nous': Travailleurs émigrés dans une communauté arvanite du Péloponnèse" . Revue Ethnologie Française 2005/2. Online abstract
  • Banfi, Emanuele (1996), "Minoranze linguistiche in Grecia: Problemi storico- e sociolinguistici" . In: C. Vallini (ed.), Minoranze e lingue minoritarie: Convegno internazionale. Naples: Universtario Orientale. 89-115.
  • Biris, Kostas (1960): Αρβανίτες, οι Δωριείς του νεότερου Ελληνισμού: H ιστορία των Ελλήνων Αρβανιτών. . Athens. (3rd ed. 1998: ISBN 9602040319 )
  • Botsi, Eleni (2003): Die sprachliche Selbst- und Fremdkonstruktion am Beispiel eines arvanitischen Dorfes Griechenlands: Eine soziolinguistische Studie. ("Linguistic construction of the self and the other in an Arvanitic village in Greece: A sociolinguistic study"). PhD dissertation, University of Konstanz, Germany. Online text
  • Breu, Walter (1990): "Sprachliche Minderheiten in Italien und Griechenland" . In: B. Spillner (ed.), Interkulturelle Kommunikation. Frankfurt: Lang. 169-170.
  • Clogg, Richard (2002): Minorities in Greece: Aspect of a Plural Society. Oxford: Hurst.
  • Dede, Maria (1978): Αρβανίτικα Τραγούδια. Athens: Καστανιώτης.
  • Dede, Maria (1987): Οι Έλληνες Αρβανίτες. . Ioannina: Idryma Voreioipirotikon Erevnon.
  • P. Dimitras, M. Lenkova (1997): "'Unequal rights' for Albanians in the southern Balkans". Greek Helsinki Monitor Report, AIM Athens, October 1997.
  • Ducellier, Alain (1968): "L'Arbanon et les Albanais", Travaux et mémoires 3: 353-368.
  • Ducellier, Alain (1994): Οι Αλβανοί στην Ελλάδα (13-15 αι.): Η μετανάστευση μίας κοινότητας. . Athens: Idhrima Gulandri Horn.
  • Euromosaic (1996): "L'arvanite / albanais en Grèce". Report published by the Institut de Sociolingüística Catalana. Online version
  • Furikis, Petros (1931): "Πόθεν το εθνικόν Αρβανίτης;" Αθήνα 43: 3-37.
  • Furikis, Petros (1934): "Η εν Αττική ελληνοαλβανική διάλεκτος". Αθήνα 45: 49-181.
  • Gkikas, Yannis (1978): Οι Αρβανίτες και το αρβανίτικο τραγούδι στην Ελλάδα . Athens.
  • Grapsitis, Vasilis (1989): Οι Αρβανίτες . Athens.
  • GHM (=Greek Helsinki Monitor) (1995): "Report: The Arvanites". Online report
  • Haebler, Claus (1965): Grammatik der albanischen Mundarten von Salamis . Wiesbaden: Harassowitz.
  • Jochalas, Titos P. (1971): Über die Einwanderung der Albaner in Griechenland: Eine zusammenfassene Betrachtung . München: Trofenik.
  • Kollias, Aristidis (1983): Αρβανίτες και η καταγωγή των Ελλήνων. . Athens.
  • Levy, Jacques (2000): From Geopolitics to Global Politics: A French Connection (ISBN 0714651079)
  • Moraitis, Thanassis (2002): Anthology of Arvanitika songs of Greece. Athens. (ISBN 9608597676)
  • MRG (=Minority Rights Group) (1991): Greece and its minorities. London: Minority Rights Publications.
  • Panagiotopulos, Vasilis (1985): Πληθυσμός και οικισμοί της Πελοποννήσου, 13ος-18ος αιώνας. . Athens: Istoriko Archeio, Emporiki Trapeza tis Elladas.
  • Paschidis, Athanasios (1879): Οι Αλβανοί και το μέλλον αυτών εν τω Ελληνισμώ . Athens.
  • Poulos, Ioannis (1950): "Η εποίκησις των Αλβανών εις Κορινθίαν" . Επετηρίς μεσαιωνικού αρχείου, Athens. 31-96.
  • Sasse, Hans-Jürgen (1985): "Sprachkontakt und Sprachwandel: Die Gräzisierung der albanischen Mundarten Griechenlands" . Papiere zur Linguistik 32(1). 37-95.
  • Sasse, Hans-Jürgen (1991): Arvanitika: Die albanischen Sprachreste in Griechenland . Wiesbaden.
  • Schukalla, Karl-Josef (1993): "Nationale Minderheiten in Albanien und Albaner im Ausland." . In: K.-D. Grothusen (ed.), Südosteuropa-Handbuch: Albanien. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. 505-528.
  • Sella-Mazi, Eleni (1997): "Διγλωσσία και ολιγώτερο ομιλούμενες γλώσσες στην Ελλάδα" . In: K. Tsitselikis, D. Christopoulos (eds.), Το μειονοτικό φαινόμενο στην Ελλάδα . Athens: Ekdoseis Kritiki. 349-413.
  • Stylos, N. (2003): Στοιχεία προϊστορίας σε πανάρχαια αρβανίτικα κείμενα. . Ekdoseis Gerou
  • Trudgill, Peter (1976/77): "Creolization in reverse: Reduction and simplification in the Albanian dialects of Greece." Transactions of the Philological Society (Vol?), 32-50.
  • Trudgill, Peter (1986): Dialects in contact. Oxford: Blackwell.
  • Trudgill, Peter (2004): "Glocalisation and the Ausbau sociolinguistics of modern Europe". In: A. Duszak, U. Okulska (eds.), Speaking from the margin: Global English from a European perspective. Frankfurt: Peter Lang. Online article
  • Trudgill, Peter, George A. Tzavaras (1977): "Why Albanian-Greeks are not Albanians: Language shift in Attika and Biotia." In: H. Giles (ed.), Language, ethnicity and intergroup relations. London: Academic Press. 171-184.
  • Tsigos, Athanasios (1991): Κείμενα για τους Αρβανίτες. . Athens.
  • Tsitsipis, Lukas (1981): Language change and language death in Albanian speech communities in Greece: A sociolinguistic study. PhD dissertation, University of Wisconsin, Madison.
  • Tsitsipis, Lukas (1983): "Language shift among the Albanian speakers of Greece." Anthropological Linguisitcs 25(3): 288-308.
  • Tsitsipis, Lukas (1995): "The coding of linguistic ideology in Arvanitika (Albanian): Language shift, congruent and contradictory discourse." Anthropological Linguistics 37: 541-577.
  • Tsitsipis, Lukas (1998): Αρβανίτικα και Ελληνικά: Ζητήματα πολυγλωσσικών και πολυπολιτισμικών κοινοτήτων. . Vol. 1. Livadeia.
  • Vranousi, E. (1970): "Οι όροι 'Αλβανοί' και 'Αρβανίται' και η πρώτη μνεία του ομωνύμου λαού εις τας πηγάς του ΙΑ' αιώνος." . Σuμμεικτα 2: 207-254.

External links

Categories: