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| After his marriage, Shakespeare left few traces in the historical record until he appeared on the ] theatrical scene. Indeed, the late 1580s are known as Shakespeare's "lost years" because no evidence has survived to show exactly where he was or why he left Stratford for London. On ], ], Shakespeare's first child, Susanna, was baptised at Stratford. Twin children, a son, Hamnet, and a daughter, Judith, were baptised on ], ]. Hamnet died in 1596. | |||
| ===London and theatrical career=== | |||
| By 1592, Shakespeare was a playwright in London; he had enough of a reputation for ] to denounce him as "an upstart crow, beautified with our feathers, that with his ''Tygers hart wrapt in a Players hyde'', supposes he is as well able to bombast out a blanke verse as the best of you: and being an absolute Johannes ], is in his owne conceit the onely Shake-scene in a countrey." (The italicised line parodies the phrase, "Oh, tiger's heart wrapped in a woman's hide" which Shakespeare wrote in '']''.) | |||
| By late 1594, Shakespeare was an actor, writer and part-owner of a ], known as the ] — like others of the period, the company took its name from its aristocratic sponsor, in this case the ]. The group became popular enough that after the death of ] and the coronation of ] (1603), the new monarch adopted the company and it became known as the ]. Shakespeare's writing shows him to indeed be an actor, with many phrases, words, and references to acting, but there isn't an academic approach to the art of theatre that might be expected.<ref><u>The Facts About Shakespeare</u> by William Allan Neilson and Ashley Horace Thorndike, 1913 the Macmillan company</ref> | |||
| By 1596, Shakespeare had moved to the parish of St. Helen's, ], and by 1598 he appeared at the top of a list of actors in '']'' written by ]. Also by 1598, his name began to appear on the title pages of his plays, presumably as a selling point. | |||
| There is a tradition that Shakespeare, in addition to writing many of the plays his company enacted, and being concerned as part-owner of the company with business and financial details, continued to act in various parts, such as the ghost of Hamlet's father, Adam in ""]"", and the Chorus in ""]"". | |||
| He appears to have moved across the Thames River to Southwark sometime around 1599. By 1604, he had moved again, north of the river, where he lodged just north of St Paul's Cathedral with a ] family named Mountjoy. His residence there is worth noting because he helped arrange a marriage between the Mountjoys' daughter and their apprentice Stephen Bellott. Bellott later sued his father-in-law for defaulting on part of the promised dowry, and Shakespeare was called as a witness. | |||
| Various documents recording legal affairs and commercial transactions show that Shakespeare grew rich enough during his stay in London to buy a property in ] and own the second-largest house in Stratford, ]. | |||
| ===Later years=== | |||
| ]]]Shakespeare's last two plays were written in 1613, after which he appears to have retired to Stratford. He died on ] ], at the age of fifty-two, on the same date (though not same day for England was still functioning under the ]) as Spanish writer and poet ]. He also died on his birthday, if the speculation that he was born on April 23 is correct. He was married to Anne until his death and was survived by his two daughters, Susanna and Judith. Susanna married ], but there are no direct descendants of the poet and playwright alive today. | |||
| Shakespeare is buried in the ] of ] in ]. He was granted the honour of burial in the chancel not on account of his fame as a playwright but for purchasing a share of the ] of the church for £440 (a considerable sum of money at the time). A [[Shakespeare's funeral | |||
| ==Works== | |||
| ===Plays=== | |||
| <!--This is a SUMMARY. Please don't add new information or details here, but instead at the main article ]!--> | |||
| {{main|Shakespeare's plays}} | |||
| A number of Shakespeare's plays have the reputation of being among the greatest in the ] and in ] literature. He wrote ], histories, ] and romances, which have been translated into every major living language {{fact}}, in addition to being continually performed around the world. | |||
| As was normal in the period, Shakespeare based many of his plays on the work of other playwrights and reworked earlier stories and historical material. For example, '']'' (c. 1601) is probably a reworking of an older, lost play (the so-called '']''), and '']'' is an adaptation of an earlier play, also called ''King Lear''. For plays on historical subjects, Shakespeare relied heavily on two principal texts. Most of the Roman and Greek plays are based on ]'s ''Parallel Lives'' (from the 1579 English translation by Sir ]<ref>. Accessed 10/23/05.</ref>), and the English ]s are indebted to ]'s 1587 ''Chronicles''. | |||
| Shakespeare's plays tend to be placed into three main stylistic groups: | |||
| * early comedies and histories (such as '']'' and '']'') | |||
| * middle period (which includes his most famous tragedies, '']'', '']'', '']'' and '']'', as well as "]" such as ]) | |||
| * ] (such as '']'' and '']''). | |||
| The earlier plays range from broad comedy to historical nostalgia, while the middle-period plays tend to be grander in terms of theme, addressing such issues as ], ], ], ], and ]. By contrast, his late romances feature redemptive plotlines with ambiguous endings and the use of ] and other fantastical elements. However, the borders between these genres are never clear. | |||
| ] (1623), the first collected edition of his plays]] | |||
| Some of Shakespeare's plays first appeared in print as a series of ], but most remained unpublished until 1623 when the posthumous ] was published by two actors who had been in Shakespeare's company: ] and ]. The traditional division of his plays into tragedies, comedies, and histories follows the logic of the First Folio. It is at this point that stage directions, punctuation and act divisions enter his plays, setting the trend for further future editorial decisions. Modern criticism has also labelled some of his plays "]" or tragi-comedies, as they elude easy categorisation, or perhaps purposefully break generic conventions. The term "romances" has also been preferred for the later comedies. | |||
| There are many controversies about the ]. In addition, the fact that Shakespeare did not produce an authoritative print version of his plays during his life accounts for part of the ] often noted with his plays, which means that for several of the plays there are different textual versions. As a result, the problem of identifying what Shakespeare actually wrote became a major concern for most modern editions. Textual corruptions also stem from printers' errors, compositors' misreadings, or wrongly scanned lines from the source material. Additionally, in an age before standardised spelling, Shakespeare often wrote a word several times in a different spelling, contributing further to the transcribers' confusions. Modern scholars also believe Shakespeare revised his plays throughout the years, sometimes leading to two existing versions of one play. | |||
| ===Sonnets=== | |||
| <!--This is a SUMMARY. Please don't add new information or details here, but instead at the main article Shakespeare's sonnets! | |||
| (unless it adds to the general understanding of the subject while maintaining brevity)}}--> | |||
| {{main|Shakespeare's sonnets}} | |||
| Shakespeare's ]s are a collection of 154 ]s that deal with such themes as ], ], and ]. All but two first appeared in the 1609 publication entitled ''Shakespeare's Sonnets''; numbers ] ("When my love swears that she is made of truth") and ] ("Two loves have I, of comfort and despair") had previously been published in a 1599 miscellany entitled '']''. The Sonnets were written over a number of years, probably beginning in the early 1590s. | |||
| The conditions under which the sonnets were published are unclear. The 1609 text is dedicated to one "]", who is described as "the only begetter" of the poems in the dedication. It is unknown if the dedication was written by Shakespeare or Thomas Thorpe, the publisher. It is also unknown who this man was, although there are many theories, including those who believe him to be the ] featured in the sonnets. <ref> Hallet Smith, "Sonnets," ''The Riverside Shakespeare'', pp 1745-8. Houghton Mifflin 1974 </ref> In addition, it is not known whether the publication of the sonnets was even authorised by Shakespeare. | |||
| ===Other poems=== | |||
| In addition to his sonnets, Shakespeare also wrote several longer ]s, '']'', '']'' and ''].'' These poems appear to have been written either in an attempt to win the patronage of a rich benefactor (as was common at the time) or as the result of such patronage. For example, ''The Rape of Lucrece'' and ''Venus and Adonis'' were both dedicated to Shakespeare's patron, ]. | |||
| In addition, Shakespeare wrote the short poem '']''. The anthology ''The Passionate Pilgrim'' was attributed to him upon its first publication in 1599, but in fact only five of its poems are by Shakespeare and the attribution was withdrawn in the second edition. | |||
| ==Style== | |||
| ], London.]] | |||
| Shakespeare's works have been a major influence on subsequent theatre. Not only did Shakespeare create some of the most admired plays in ], he also transformed English theatre by expanding expectations about what could be accomplished through ], ], ], ], and ].<ref>''Shakespeare's Reading'' by Robert S. Miola, Oxford University Press, 2000.</ref> His poetic artistry helped raise the status of popular theatre, permitting it to be admired by intellectuals as well as by those seeking pure entertainment. | |||
| Theatre was changing when Shakespeare first arrived in London in the late 1580s or early 1590s. Previously, the most common forms of popular English theatre were the ] ]s. These plays, which blend ] with ] and ], were ] in which the characters are ] moral attributes who validate the virtues of ]ly life by prompting the ] to choose such a life over evil. The characters and plot situations are ] rather than realistic. As a child, Shakespeare would likely have been exposed to this type of play (along with ]s and ]s).<ref>''Shakespeare's Reading'' by Robert S. Miola, Oxford University Press, 2000.</ref> Meanwhile, at the universities, academic plays were being staged based on ] ]s. These plays, often performed in ], used a more exact and academically respectable poetic style than the morality plays, but they were also more static, valuing lengthy speeches over physical action. | |||
| By the late 16th century, the popularity of morality and academic plays waned as the ] took hold, and playwrights like ] and ] began to revolutionise theatre. Their plays blended the old morality drama with academic theatre to produce a new ] form. The new drama had the poetic grandeur and philosophical depth of the academic play and the bawdy populism of the moralities. However, it was more ambiguous and complex in its meanings, and less concerned with simple moral allegories. Inspired by this new style, Shakespeare took these changes to a new level, creating plays that not only resonated on an emotional level with audiences but also explored and debated the basic elements of what it means to be human. | |||
| ==Reputation== | |||
| <!--This is a SUMMARY. Please don't add new information or details here, but instead at the main article ]!--> | |||
| {{main|Shakespeare's reputation}} | |||
| Shakespeare's reputation has grown considerably since his own time. During his lifetime and shortly after his death, Shakespeare was well-regarded but not considered the supreme poet of his age. He was included in some contemporary lists of leading poets, but he lacked the stature of ] or ]. After the ] stage ban of 1642–1660, the new ] theatre companies had the previous generation of playwrights as the mainstay of their repertory, most of all the phenomenally popular ], but also ] and Shakespeare. As with other older playwrights, Shakespeare's plays were mercilessly adapted by later dramatists for the ] with little of the reverence that would later develop. | |||
| Beginning in the late 17th century, Shakespeare began to be considered the supreme English-language playwright (and, to a lesser extent, poet). Initially this reputation focused on Shakespeare as a dramatic poet, to be studied on the printed page rather than in the theatre. By the early 19th century, though, Shakespeare began hitting peaks of fame and popularity. During this time, theatrical productions of Shakespeare provided spectacle and melodrama for the masses and were extremely popular. ] critics such as ] then raised admiration for Shakespeare to adulation or '']'' (from bard + idolatry), in line with the Romantic reverence for the poet as prophet and genius. In the middle to late 19th century, Shakespeare also became an emblem of English pride and a "rallying-sign", as ] wrote in 1841, for the whole ]. | |||
| This reverence has provoked a negative reaction. In the 21st century most inhabitants of the ] encounter Shakespeare at school at a young age, and there is an association by some students of his work with boredom and incomprehension and of "high art" not easily appreciated by popular culture, an ironic fate considering the social mix of Shakespeare's audience. At the same time, Shakespeare's plays remain more frequently staged than the works of any other playwright and are frequently ]—including ] movies specifically marketed to broad teenage audiences. | |||
| {{seealso|Timeline of Shakespeare criticism}} | |||
| ==Speculations about Shakespeare== | |||
| ===Identity=== | |||
| <!--This is a SUMMARY. Please don't add new information or details here, but instead at the main article ]!--> | |||
| {{main|Shakespearean authorship}} | |||
| Over the years such figures as ], ] and ]<ref>in his work </ref> have expressed disbelief that the man from Stratford-upon-Avon actually produced the works attributed to him. Some of these claims necessarily rely on ] to explain the lack of direct historical evidence for them, although their advocates also point to evidentiary gaps in the orthodox history. Most professional scholars consider the argument baseless, and attribute the debate to the scarcity and ambiguity of many of the historical records of Shakespeare's life. | |||
| ], the 17th ], an English nobleman and intimate of Queen Elizabeth, became the most prominent alternative candidate for authorship of the Shakespeare canon, after having been identified in the 1920s. Oxford partisans note the similarities between the Earl's life, and events and sentiments depicted in the plays and sonnets. The principal hurdle for the ] is the evidence that many of the Shakespeare plays were written after their candidate's death, but well within the lifespan of William Shakespeare. ] is considered by some to be the most highly qualified to have written the works of Shakespeare. It has been speculated that Marlowe's recorded death in 1593 was faked for various reasons and that Marlowe went into hiding, subsequently writing under the name of William Shakespeare; this is called the ]. ] is another proposed author for the Shakespeare works. Besides having travelled to some of the countries in which the plays are set, he could also have read the Shakespeare sources in their original Greek, Italian, Hebrew, or French. He described himself as a "Concealed Poet" and was alive at the time of the publication of the ] in 1623. Arguments against Bacon include the suggestion that he had no time to write so many plays, and that his style is different from Shakespeare's. | |||
| A question in mainstream academia addresses whether Shakespeare himself wrote every word of his commonly accepted plays, given that collaboration between dramatists routinely occurred in the Elizabethan theatre. Serious academic work continues to attempt to ascertain the authorship of plays and poems of the time, both those attributed to Shakespeare and others. | |||
| ===Sexuality=== | |||
| <!--This is a SUMMARY. Please don't add new information or details here, but instead at the main article ]!--> | |||
| {{main|Sexuality of William Shakespeare}} | |||
| ]" of the sonnets.]] | |||
| Homoerotic allusions in a number of his works have led commentators to contemplate Shakespeare's possible ]. While twenty-six of the ''Sonnets'' are love poems addressed to a married woman (the "]"), one hundred and twenty-six are addressed to a young man (known as the "]"). The amorous tone of the latter group, which focuses on the young man's beauty and the writer's devotion, has all along been interpreted as suggestive evidence for Shakespeare's being bisexual. For example, in 1954, ] wrote that the sonnets are "too lover-like for ordinary male friendship" (although he added that they are not the poetry of "full-blown ]") and that he "found no real parallel to such language between friends in the sixteenth-century literature."<ref></ref> Nonetheless, others interpret them as referring to intense ] rather than sexual love. | |||
| ===Religion=== | |||
| In 1559, five years before Shakespeare's birth, the ] finally severed the ] from the ] after decades of uncertainty. In the ensuing years, extreme pressure was placed on England's Catholics to convert to the ] Church of England, and ] laws made Catholicism illegal. Some historians maintain that in Shakespeare's lifetime there was a substantial and widespread quiet resistance to the newly imposed faith.<ref>''The Shakespeares and ‘the Old Faith’'' (1946) by John Henry de Groot; ''Die Verborgene Existenz Des William Shakespeare: Dichter Und Rebell Im Katholischen Untergrund'' (2001) by Hildegard Hammerschmidt-Hummel; ''Shadowplay: The Hidden Beliefs and Coded Politics of William Shakespeare'' (2005) by Clare Asquith.</ref> Some scholars, using both historical and literary evidence, have argued that Shakespeare was one of these recusants, but this cannot be proven absolutely. | |||
| There is evidence that members of Shakespeare's family were recusant Catholics. The strongest evidence is a tract professing secret Catholicism signed by ], father of the poet. The tract was found in the rafters of Shakespeare's birthplace in the ], and was seen and described by the reputable scholar ]. However, the tract has since been lost, and its authenticity cannot therefore be proven. John Shakespeare was also listed as one who did not attend church services, but this was "for feare of processe for Debtte", according to the commissioners, not because he was a recusant <ref>Mutschmann, H. and Wentersdorf, K., ''Shakespeare and Catholicism'', Sheed and Ward: New York, 1952, p. 401.</ref>. | |||
| Shakespeare's mother, ], was a member of a conspicuous and determinedly Catholic family in ] <ref>Peter Ackroyd, ''Shakespeare: The Biography''. Doubleday, 2005. p. 29</ref>. In 1606, William's daughter Susanna was listed as one of the residents of Stratford refusing to take Holy Communion, which may suggest Catholic sympathies.<ref> Peter Ackroyd, ''Shakespeare: The Biography''. Doubleday, 2005. p. 451</ref> Archdeacon ], an eighteenth century Anglican cleric, allegedly wrote of Shakespeare: "He dyed a Papyst".<ref> Catholic Encyclopedia on CD-ROM. (Accessed Dec. 23, 2005.)</ref> Four of the six schoolmasters at the grammar school during Shakespeare's youth were Catholic sympathisers <ref> Peter Ackroyd, ''Shakespeare: The Biography''. Doubleday, 2005. pp. 63–64 </ref>, and ], likely one of Shakespeare’s teachers, later became a ] <ref></ref>. | |||
| While none of this evidence proves Shakespeare's own Catholic sympathies, one historian, Clare Asquith, has claimed that those sympathies are detectable in his writing. Asquith claims that Shakespeare uses terms such as "high" when referring to Catholic characters and "low" when referring to Protestants (the terms refer to their ]s) and "light" or "fair" to refer to Catholic and "dark" to refer to Protestant, a reference to certain clerical garbs. Asquith also detects in Shakespeare's work the use of a simple code used by the Jesuit underground in England which took the form of a mercantile terminology wherein priests were 'merchants' and souls were 'jewels', the people pursuing them were 'creditors', and the ] gallows where the members of the underground died was called 'the place of much trading'.<ref>''Shadowplay: The Hidden Beliefs and Coded Politics of William Shakespeare'' (2005) by Clare Asquith.</ref> The Jesuit underground used this code so their correspondences looked like innocuous commercial letters, and Asquith claims that Shakespeare also used this code.<ref>''Shadowplay: The Hidden Beliefs and Coded Politics of William Shakespeare'' (2005) by Clare Asquith.</ref> | |||
| Needless to say, Shakespeare’s Catholicism is by no means universally accepted. The '']'' questions not only his Catholicism, but whether "Shakespeare was not infected with the ], which ... was rampant in the more cultured society of the Elizabethan age."<ref> Catholic Encyclopedia on CD-ROM. (Accessed Dec. 23, 2005.)</ref> ], of Harvard, suspects Catholic sympathies of some kind or another in Shakespeare and his family but considers the writer to be a less than pious person with essentially worldly motives {{fact}}. An increasing number of scholars do look to matters biographical and evidence from Shakespeare’s work such as the placement of young Hamlet as a student at ] while old Hamlet’s ghost is in ], the sympathetic view of religious life ("thrice blessed"), ] in "]", and sympathetic allusions to martyred English Jesuit ] in '']''<ref> by C. Richard Desper, Elizabethan Review, Spring/Summer 1995.</ref> and many other matters as suggestive of a Catholic worldview. However, these may have been continuations of old literary conventions rather than determined Catholicism just as the ] ballads continued to have friars in them after the Reformation. | |||
| Furthermore, Shakespeare's plays sometimes criticise Catholicism. The Porter's speech in '']'' has been read by some as a criticism of the ] of Father ] after it became topical in 1606 due to his execution. <ref>http://www.eastdonsc.vic.edu.au/home/pgardner/teaching/Macbeth_notes.html Elloway, D.R., ''An Introduction to Macbeth''</ref> | |||
| ==See also== | |||
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| ==Bibliography== | |||
| Shakespeare's plays are traditionally organised into three groups: Tragedies, Comedies, and Histories. The following list separates the plays according to their classification in the ], the first published edition of Shakespeare's plays. Today, some of the comedies are usually considered as a separate subgenre, the ] or tragicomedies; these plays are highlighted with an asterisk (*). | |||
| {{col-begin}} | |||
| {{col-3}} | |||
| ===Comedies=== | |||
| {{main|Shakespearean comedies}} | |||
| *'']''* | |||
| *'']'' | |||
| *'']'' | |||
| *'']'' | |||
| *'']'' | |||
| *'']'' | |||
| *'']'' | |||
| *'']'' | |||
| *'']'' | |||
| *'']'' | |||
| *'']'' | |||
| *'']'' | |||
| *'']'' | |||
| *'']''* | |||
| *'']''* (not included in the First Folio) | |||
| *'']''* (not included in the First Folio) | |||
| *'']''* | |||
| {{col-3}} | |||
| ===Histories=== | |||
| {{main|Shakespearean histories}} | |||
| *'']'' | |||
| *'']'' | |||
| *'']'' | |||
| *'']'' | |||
| *'']'' | |||
| *'']'' | |||
| *'']'' | |||
| *'']'' | |||
| *'']'' | |||
| *'']'' | |||
| {{col-3}} | |||
| ===Tragedies=== | |||
| {{main|Shakespearean tragedy}} | |||
| *'']'' | |||
| *'']'' | |||
| *'']'' | |||
| *'']'' | |||
| *'']'' | |||
| *'']'' | |||
| *'']'' | |||
| *'']'' | |||
| *'']'' | |||
| *'']'' | |||
| *'']'' | |||
| {{col-end}} | |||
| {{col-begin}} | |||
| {{col-3}} | |||
| ===Poems=== | |||
| *'']'' | |||
| *'']'' | |||
| *'']'' | |||
| *'']'' | |||
| *'']'' | |||
| *'']'' | |||
| {{col-3}} | |||
| ===Lost plays=== | |||
| *'']'' | |||
| *'']'' | |||
| {{col-3}} | |||
| ===Apocrypha=== | |||
| {{main|Shakespeare Apocrypha}} | |||
| *'']'' | |||
| *'']'' | |||
| *'']'' | |||
| {{col-end}} | |||
| {{col-begin}} | |||
| {{col-3}} | |||
| ===Shakespeare on screen=== | |||
| {{main|Shakespeare on screen}} | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| ==Notes== | |||
| <div class="references-small"> | |||
| <references /> | |||
| <!--READ ME!! PLEASE DO NOT JUST ADD NEW NOTES AT THE BOTTOM. See the instructions above on ordering. --> | |||
| </div> | |||
| ==Further reading== | |||
| *], ''Nothing Like The Sun'' (1964). Fictionalised biography | |||
| *], '']'' (1970). Biography | |||
| *], ''Will in the World'' (2004). Biography | |||
| *], ''Players: The Mysterious Identity of William Shakespeare'' (2005) | |||
| *], ''Shakespeare Goes to Paris: How the Bard Conquered France'' (2005) | |||
| * | |||
| *], ''Shakespeare: The Invention of the Human'' (1999). Literary Criticism | |||
| *], ''In Search of Shakespeare'' (2003) Historical background, BBC Books, ISBN 0-563-52141-4 (paperback). This work is a companion to the television series of the same title. | |||
| *], ''Shakespeare: The Biography'' *(2005). Biography | |||
| *], ''Shakespeare the Man'' (St. Martin’s Press, revised ed. 1988). Biography | |||
| *], ''William Shakespeare, A Compact Documentary Life'' (Oxford U. Press, 1977). Biography | |||
| *], ''The Well-Wrought Urn'' (Harvest, 1947). This collection of criticism contains a classic essay on ''Macbeth''. | |||
| *], ''What Happens in Hamlet'' (Cambridge U. Press, 1970). Literary Criticism | |||
| *], ''The Shakespearean Moment and Its Place in the Poetry of the 17th Century'' (Vintage, 1960). | |||
| ==External links== | |||
| {{portal|name=Shakespeare|image=Shakespeare.jpg}} | |||
| {{commons|William Shakespeare}} | |||
| {{Wikisource author}} | |||
| {{wikiquote}} | |||
| {{wikibookspar|Study Guide|Shakespeare}} | |||
| * includes the complete works, an advanced search function, a complete concordance, and some statistics about the works. | |||
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| *{{gutenberg author|id=William_Shakespeare|name=William Shakespeare}} | |||
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| * at University of Guelph | |||
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| {{Shakespeare}} | |||
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