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In historiography, the term Spanish Black Legend (Template:Lang-es) refers to the hypothesis of a sustained trend in-mostly Englisg and German- historical writing amplifying the cruel deeds and ignoring or rejecting the merits of Spain and the Spanish Empire, its people and its culture. According tho this hypothesis the political rivalry and the invention of the printing press allowed protestant and anglican powers circulate fabrications or one sided propaganda aimed at presenting Spain as uniquely cruel, sadistic, greedy, retrograde and bigoted, in oposition to its tolerant an civilized northern rivals. This trend, alegedly, stared before the discovery of America, during the Italian Wars and the struggles for control of the Holy Roman Empire. It used the existing anti-semitic stereotypes of Europe, along with the tolerant attitude of Spain towards jews, to transfer the atributes of cruelty, sadism and greed atributed to the jew community to the rising Spanish nations as well. As such, Spaniards also became greedy adn cruel in the European imaginary. This trend, and the acusation of esceptional greed would continue and peak after the conquest of America, where the black legend would have worked in conjunction with the idea of thenoble savage to further British and American colonial interests. It is also used to refer to contemporary and near contemporary propaganda attacking the actions of the Spanish Empire, particularly that published in England and the Netherlands. This propaganda is theorised to have been "absorbed and converted into broadly held stereotypes" that assumed that Spain was "uniquely evil."

Though the term black legend for describing a- supposed- anti-Spanish bias in central European historiography was coined by Emilia Pardo Bazán in a conference, Paris, April 18, 1899, Julián Juderías was among the first to describe and denounce this phenomenon. His book The Black Legend and the Historical Truth (Spanish: La Leyenda Negra y la Verdad Histórica), a critique published in 1914, claims that this type of biased historiography has presented Spanish history in a deeply negative light, purposely ignoring positive achievements or advances. Later writers have supported and developed Juderías's critique. In 1958, Charles Gibson wrote that Spain and the Spanish Empire were historically presented as "cruel, bigoted, exploitative and self-righteous in excess of reality"..

The black legend hypothesis does not deny the existence of documented atrocities,but they claim a comparative bias in the way in which the history and actions of different nations are portrayed. They claim that:

-Foreign protestant authors laid this legacy on the Spanish alone, taking it out of context, while ignoring similar deeds in the same context by other nations.

-The actions are presented as somehow intrinsic element of Spanish character.

-This was politically motivated and instrumental for the development of both colonial power and national identity in central and northern European nations. The fact that Spain expulsed her jews would be a fact, not part of the black legend, but the fact that the general public and most publications ignore that England was the first nation to do so, after a brutal system of repression, that most of Europe had already done the same, that it was seen as a tool for social cohesion or that it was one of the last European nations to do so and that resisted it the most would be part of it. Likewise, the documented enslavement of American indians by Spanish conquerors would not be part of a black legend, since they are documented facts, but the exclusive atention placed on it by foreign historians, while the fact that Spain banned native slavery in the XV century, or that it was the first and only nation who New Laws is ignored would be. The black legend is not an argument of inocence but one of unequal judgement.

Its proponents claim that the Black Legend originated in the late middle ages and got to its peak in the 16th century, a time of strong rivalry between European colonial powers, and served as anti-Spanish and anti-Catholic propaganda.

Definitions

In his book, Juderías defines the Black Legend as

"The environment created by the fantastic stories about our homeland that have seen the light of publicity in all countries, the grotesque descriptions that have always been made of the character of Spaniards as individuals and collectively, the denial or at least the systematic ignorance of all that is favorable and beautiful in the various manifestations of culture and art, the accusations that in every era have been flung against Spain."

— Julián Juderías, La Leyenda Negra

Historian Philip Wayne Powell in Tree of Hate, gives this definition of the Black Legend:

"An image of Spain circulated through late sixteenth-century Europe, borne by means of political and religious propaganda that blackened the characters of Spaniards and their ruler to such an extent that Spain became the symbol of all forces of repression, brutality, religious and political intolerance, and intellectual and artistic backwardness for the next four centuries. Spaniards … have termed this process and the image that resulted from it as ‘The Black Legend,’ la leyenda negra."

— Philip Wayne Powell, Tree of Hate (1985),

One recent author, Fernández Álvarez, has defined a Black Legend more broadly:

"The careful distortion of the history of a nation, perpetrated by its enemies, in order to better fight it. And a distortion as monstrous as possible, with the goal of achieving a specific aim: the moral disqualification of the nation, whose supremacy must be fought in every way possible."

— Alfredo Alvar, La Leyenda Negra (1997:5)

16th century

The conquest of the Americas

In the process of European colonization of the Americas that lasted over three centuries, atrocities were committed by all nations, according to both contemporary opinion and modern moral standards. It is historically established fact that Spain's colonization involved murder, slavery (including sexual slavery) and genocide of Native peoples, and that these atrocities began during the Columbian voyages in the Caribbean. However, Spain did pass some laws for the protection of Native Americans. As early as 1512, the Laws of Burgos regulated the behavior of Europeans in the New World forbidding the ill-treatment of indigenous people and limiting the power of encomenderos—those who received royal grants of authority to impose forced labor on specific groups of natives. In 1542 the New Laws expanded and corrected the previous body of laws in order to improve their application. Although these laws were not always followed across all American territories — resulting in documented cruelty by slave owners and little ground for redress by the natives — they at least reflect the will of the Spanish colonial government of the time to protect the rights of the native population.

Testimonies of the time accuse Columbus of brutality against the natives and forced labor, and direct reports by members of his journey tell of murder, rape and enslavement in the words of the perpetrators. These atrocities led to debate within Spain itself about the treatment and rights of indigenous peoples in the Americas. In 1552, the Dominican friar Bartolomé de las Casas published the Brevísima relación de la destrucción de las Indias (A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies), an account of atrocities committed by landowners and some officials during the early period of colonization of New Spain, particularly in Hispaniola (today Haiti and the Dominican Republic). Las Casas, son of the merchant Pedro de las Casas who accompanied Columbus on his second voyage, described Columbus's treatment of the natives in his History of the Indies. Their description of Spanish savagery was used by writers of Spain's rivals as a convenient basis for attacks on Spain which would later be referred to as The Black Legend. They were already used in Flemish anti-Spanish propaganda during the Eighty Years' War. Today the degree to which Las Casas's descriptions of Spanish colonization represent a reasonable or wildly exaggerated picture is still debated among some scholars. For example, historian Lewis Hanke considers Las Casas to have exaggerated the atrocities in his accounts and thereby contributed to Black Legend propaganda. Historian Benjamin Keen on the other hand found them likely to be more or less accurate. In Charles Gibson's 1964 monograph The Aztecs under Spanish Rule, the first comprehensive study of the documentary sources of relations between Indians and Spaniards in New Spain (colonial Mexico), he concludes that the Black Legend "builds upon the record of deliberate sadism. It flourishes in an atmosphere of indignation which removes the issue from the category of objective understanding. It is insufficient in its understanding of institutions of colonial history."

This historical ill-treatment of Amerindians, also occurring in other European colonies in the Americas, was used as propaganda in works of competing European powers to create animosity against the Spanish Empire. The work of Las Casas was first cited in English with the 1583 publication The Spanish Colonie, or Brief Chronicle of the Actes and Gestes of the Spaniards in the West Indies, at a time when England was preparing for war against Spain in the Netherlands. The biased use of such works, including the distortion or exaggeration of their contents, is part of the anti-Spanish historical propaganda or Black Legend.

From the perspective of history and the colonization of the Americas, all European powers that colonized the Americas, such as England, Portugal, the Netherlands and others, were guilty of the ill-treatment of indigenous peoples. Colonial powers have been also accused of genocide in Canada, the United States, and Australia. These issues have received greater scholarly attention over recent years and have led to and evolution in historiographical evaluations of the effects of colonialism. "At least three generations of scholarship have produced a more balanced appreciation of Spanish conduct in both the Old World and the New, while the dismal records of other imperial powers have received a more objective appraisal."

The Netherlands

Spain's war with the United Provinces and in particular the victories and atrocities of the Duke of Alba contributed to the anti-Spanish propaganda. Sent in August 1567 to counter political unrest in a part of Europe where printing presses were a source of heterodox opinion, especially against the Roman Catholic Church, Alba took control of the book industry. Several printers were banished and at least one was executed. Book sellers and printers were prosecuted and arrested for publishing banned books, many of which were added to the Index Librorum Prohibitorum.

After years of unrest in the Low Countries, the summer of 1567 saw renewed violent outbursts of iconoclasm, in which Dutch 'Beeldenstorm' Calvinists defaced statues and decorations of Catholic monasteries and churches. The Battle of Oosterweel in March 1567 was the first Spanish military response to the many riots, and a prelude to or the start of the Eighty Years' War. The 80 Years' War can be seen to have started on 13 March 1567 with the defeat of the rebels at Oosterweel. In 1568 Alba had prominent Dutch nobles executed on the Grote Markt in Brussels, sparking strong anti-Spanish sentiment. In October 1572, after the Orange forces captured the city of Mechelen, its lieutenant attempted to surrender when he was informed that a larger Spanish army was approaching. They tried to welcome the Duke's forces by the singing of psalms, but Fadrique Álvarez de Toledo, son of the Governor of the Netherlands, and commander of the Duke's troops, allowed his men three days of pillage of the archbishopric city. Alba reported to his king that "not a nail was left in the wall". A year later, magistrates still attempted to retrieve precious church belongings that Spanish soldiers had sold in other cities. This sack of Mechelen was the first of the Spanish Furies; several events remembered by that name occurred in the four or five years to come. In November and December of the same year, with permission by the Duke, Fadrique had many people of Zutphen and of Naarden locked and burnt in their church.

In July 1573, after half a year of siege, the city of Haarlem surrendered. Then the garrison's men (except for the German soldiers) were drowned or had their throats cut by the duke's troops, and eminent citizens were executed. In 1576, Spanish troops attacked and pillaged Antwerp. The soldiers rampaged through the city, killing and looting; they demanded money from citizens and burned the homes of those who refused to (or could not) pay. Christophe Plantin's printing establishment was threatened with destruction three times, but was saved each time when a ransom was paid. Antwerp was economically devastated by the attack. A thousand buildings were torched and as many as 18,000 men, women and children murdered. Maastricht was besieged, sacked and destroyed twice in succession (in 1576 and 1579) by the Spanish. The siege of 1579 ended with the destruction and sacking of the city known as the 'Spanish Fury'. During the assault they killed not only many of the town's defenders but also many women and children. The Spanish soldiers deliberately drowned hundreds of civilians by throwing them off the bridge leading over the river Maas, an episode which bore similarities to the earlier events in Zutphen.

The propaganda created by the Dutch Revolt during the struggle against the Spanish Crown can also be seen as part of the Black Legend. The depredations against the Indians that De las Casas had described, were compared to the depredations of Alba and his successors in the Netherlands. The Brevissima relacion was reprinted no less than 33 times between 1578 and 1648 in the Netherlands (more than in all other European countries combined).

The Articles and Resolutions of the Spanish Inquisition to Invade and Impede the Netherlands imputed a conspiracy to the Holy Office to starve the Dutch population and exterminate its leading nobles, "as the Spanish had done in the Indies." Marnix of Sint-Aldegonde, a prominent propagandist for the cause of the rebels, regularly used references to alleged intentions on the part of Spain to "colonize" the Netherlands, for instance in his 1578 address to the German Diet.

Portugal

King Philip, at the time also king of Portugal, was accused of cruelty for his hanging of supporters of António, Prior of Crato, the rival contender for the throne of Portugal, on yardarms on the Azores islands, following the Battle of Ponta Delgada.

Reception in England

Other critics of Spain included Antonio Pérez, the fallen secretary of King Philip, who fled to France and England, where he published attacks on the Spanish monarchy under the title Relaciones (1594). The English referred to these books to justify privateering and wars against the Spanish.

Origins of Anti-Spanish sentiment

Anti-Spanish sentiment appeared in many parts of Europe as the power of the Spanish empire grew. With the Habsburg realm, Spain dominated much of Europe including present-day Belgium, the Netherlands, Austria and parts of Italy and Germany. In 1555 Pope Paul IV described Spaniards as "heretics, schismatics, accursed of God, the Offspring of Jews and Marranos, the very scum of the earth". During the Eighty Years' War English and Dutch propaganda depicted Spaniards as bloodthirsty barbarians. In the following centuries anti-Spanish stereotypes circulated widely, especially in English, Dutch and German-speaking parts of Europe. This propaganda would depict exaggerated versions of the evils of Spanish colonial practices and the Spanish Inquisition.

In the 18th century, despite the fact that he never visited Spain, philosopher Immanuel Kant stated that "The Spaniard's bad side is that he does not learn from foreigners; that he does not travel in order to get acquainted with other nations; that he is centuries behind in the sciences. He resists any reform; he is proud of not having to work; he is of a romantic quality of spirit, as the bullfight shows; he is cruel, as the former auto-da-fé shows; and he displays in his taste an origin that is partly non-European." Historian Walter Mignolo has argued that the Black Legend was closely tied to ideologies of race, both in the way that it used the Moorish history of Spain to depict Spaniards as racially tainted, and in the way that the treatment of Africans and Native Americans during Spanish colonial projects came to symbolize their moral character.

The historian Sverker Arnoldsson from the University of Gothenburg, in his book The Black Legend. A Study of its Origins, locates the origins of the Black Legend in medieval Italy, unlike previous authors who locate it in the 16th century. Arnoldsson cites studies by Benedetto Croce and Arturo Farinelli to affirm that Italy in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries was extremely hostile to Spain.

Arnoldsson's theories have been disputed by numerous historians. In general, they raise the following objections:

1. Just because the earliest writings against Spaniards were written in Italy, that is not sufficient reason to describe Italy as the origin of the Black Legend. It is a normal reaction in any society dominated by a foreign power.
2. The phrase "black legend" suggests a certain "tradition", which did not exist in Italian writings based primarily on a reaction to the recent presence of Spanish troops.

William S. Maltby further argues that there is no connection between the Italian criticisms of Spain and the later form of the black legend in the Netherlands and England.

Criticism

In recent years a group of historians including Alfredo Alvar and Lourdes Mateo Bretos have argued that the Black Legend does not currently exist, the Black Legend instead being merely the Spanish perception of how the world views Spain's legacy.

Carmen Iglesias has argued that the black legend would consist in those negative traits, that would be objectively the most repeated ones, that the Spanish consciousness sees in itself. Nonetheless she admits that the black legend also responds to highly manipulated propaganda driven by political interests.

Ricardo Garcia Carcel directly denies the existence of the Black Legend in his book The Black Legend (1991), arguing "It is neither a legend, insofar as the negative opinions of Spain have genuine historical foundations, nor is it black, as the tone was never consistent nor uniform. Gray abounds, but the color of these opinions was always viewed in contrast we have called the white legend."

Defenders

Among the main defenders and modern proponents of the Black Legend is the American historian Philip Wayne Powell. Other specialists in colonial history who have supported this view are Edward Peters, William S.Maltby, Richard Kagan, Margaret R. Greer, Helen Rawlings, Ronnie Hsia, Lu Ann Homza, Stanley G. Payne, Andrea Donofrio, Irene Silverblatt, Christopher Schmidt-Nowara, Charles Gibson (historian), and Joseph Pérez. Recently Spanish Historian María Elvira Roca Barea has published a wildly succesful essay equating the process of black legend formation that the Spanish Empire suffered with the process that other empires like Rome, the Ottoman Empire, and modern United Estates suffered as well.

Black Legend Today. Controversy

While some authors, like Henry Kamen, consider that the black legend existed during the XVI century but is a thing of the past, other authors consider that it continues afecting Spanish diplomatic and economic present, or even the entire present day of the Hispanic world. Philip Wayne Powell, considered it the root of current diplomatic problems and anti-latino sentiment in the United States, and he shows so in his work The Tree of Hate: Propaganda and Prejudices Affecting Relations with the Hispanic World (1971). The view of the black legend afecting modern day USA´s immigration policy has gained suporters in the current political climate.

Direct references to constructs from the times of the black legend were made in British and Canadian press during the "Fletan War" of 1992 between both countries. Spanish proponents of the prevalence of the black legend point out that the black legend aproach to Spain and Spanish history, as wella s to its anti-catholic elements are common in popular culture, such as in movies like Elizabeth, popular culture references to similar deeds by other colonial powers are scarce or idealized in movies such as Victoria & Abdul .

Spanish foreign minister Josep Borrell declared a re-emergence of the blakc legend across Europe in the way the Catalonian conflict has been covered, especially by English speaking press, especially regarding the unquestioning acceptance of unchecked numbers of injured that turned out to be false.

The black legend is, allegedly, a main contributor to the construct of white supremacism since it ereases both the ethical and intelectual contributions of Southern Europeans and reduce the power and competence achived by Native American Empires prior and during the Spanish conquest.

White Legend

The label "White Legend" is used by some historians to describe a historiographic approach that they consider to go too far in trying to counter the Black Legend, and which consequently ends up painting an uncritical or idealized image of Spanish colonial practices. Such an approach has been described as characteristic of Nationalist Spanish historiography during the regime of Francisco Franco, which associated itself with the imperial past couched in positive terms. Some, such as Benjamin Keen, have criticized the works of John Fiske and Lewis Hanke as going too far towards idealizing Spanish history. White legend may also refer to the propaganda spread within spain by ``Phillip II++ and his descendants, to present his actions to preserve his own patrimony in the Netherlands and America as religiously motivated. This propaganda would create the view of a prudent and pious monarch within Spain, helping to control the unrest that his agressive policies and wars in the Netherlands were generating.

See also

• Alhambra Decree
• Anti-Catholicism
• Atrocity propaganda
• Black armband view of history, a similar concept in Australia
• Black Legend of the Spanish Inquisition
• Blood libel
• Colonial mentality
• Cultural depictions of Philip II of Spain
• Population history of indigenous peoples of the Americas
• Encomienda
• Historical revisionism
• Historiography of Colonial Spanish America
• History of the west coast of North America
• Information warfare
• Laws of Burgos
• New Laws
• Spanish colonization of the Americas
• Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire
• Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire
• Spanish conquest of Yucatán
• Spanish Empire
• Valladolid debate

Notes

1. Elvira, Roca Barea María, and Arcadi Espada. Imperiofobia Y Leyenda Negra: Roma, Rusia, Estados Unidos Y El Imperio Español. Madrid: Siruela, 201
2. Maltby, William B. "The Black Legend" in Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture, vol. 1, pp. 346-348. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons 1996.
3. http://www.fgbueno.es. "Emilia Pardo Bazán, La España de ayer y la de hoy (La muerte de una leyenda), 18 de Abril de 1899". filosofia.org. Retrieved 5 July 2016. {{cite web}}: External link in |last= (help)
4. Gibson, Charles. 1958. "The Colonial Period in Latin American History" pages 13-14 defines the black legend as "The Accumulated tradition of propaganda and Hispanophobia according to which Spanish imperialism is regarded as cruel, bigoted, exploitative and self-righteous in excess of reality"
5. Juderías, Julián (2003; primera edición de 1914). La Leyenda Negra. Salamanca: Junta de Castilla y León.
6. Juderías, Julián, La Leyenda Negra (2003; first Edition of 1914) ISBN 84-9718-225-1
7. "el ambiente creado por los relatos fantásticos que acerca de nuestra patria han visto la luz pública en todos los países, las descripciones grotescas que se han hecho siempre del carácter de los españoles como individuos y colectividad, la negación o por lo menos la ignorancia sistemática de cuanto es favorable y hermoso en las diversas manifestaciones de la cultura y del arte, las acusaciones que en todo tiempo se han lanzado sobre España..."
8. Powell, Philip Wayne, 1971, "Tree of Hate" (first Ed.) ISBN 9780465087501
9. ...cuidadosa distorsión de la historia de un pueblo, realizada por sus enemigos, para mejor combatirle. Y una distorsión lo más monstruosa posible, a fin de lograr el objetivo marcado: la descalificación moral de ese pueblo, cuya supremacía hay que combatir por todos los mediossine die.»
10. "Mirror of the Cruel and Horrible Spanish Tyranny Perpetrated in the Netherlands, by the Tyrant, the Duke of Alba, and Other Commanders of King Philip II". World Digital Library. 1620. Retrieved 25 August 2013.
11. Stannard, David E. (1993). American Holocaust: The Conquest of the New World. Oxford University Press, USA. p. 74. ISBN 978-0-19-508557-0.
12. Hanke, Lewis, "A Modest Proposal for a Moratorium on Grand Generalizations: Some Thoughts on the Black Legend", The Hispanic American Historical Review 51, No. 1 (Feb., 1971), pp. 112-127
13. Keen, Benjamin (1969). "The Black Legend Revisited: Assumptions and Realities". The Hispanic American Historical Review. 49 (4): 703–19. doi:10.2307/2511162. JSTOR 2511162.
14. The Aztecs Under Spanish Rule: A History of the Indians of the Valley of Mexico, 1519-1810. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1964. p. 403
15. Maltby, William B. "The Black Legend" in Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture, vol. 1, pp. 346-348. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons 1996.
16. Arnade, Peter J. Beggars, iconoclasts, and civic patriots: the political culture of the Dutch Revolt. Cornell University Press, 2008 (Limited online by Google books). pp. 226–229. ISBN 978-0-8014-7496-5. Retrieved 31 July 2011.
17. ^ Elsen, Jean (February 2007). "De nood-en belegeringsmunten van de Nederlandse opstand tegen Filips II - Historisch kader" (PDF). Collection J.R. Lasser (New York). Nood- en belegeringsmunten, Deel II (in Dutch). Jean Elsen & ses Fils s.a., Brussels, Belgium. p. 4; 15. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 January 2012. Retrieved 1 August 2011. {{cite web}}: External link in |publisher= (help); Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
18. GDB (7 September 2004). "'Spaanse furie' terug thuis". journal Het Nieuwsblad, Belgium. Retrieved 31 July 2011.
19. pagan-live-style (2009–2011). "Catherine church Mechelen 3". deviantArt. Retrieved 3 August 2011. {{cite web}}: External link in |publisher= (help)
20. "Sold Items provided for Reference and Research Purposes — OHN Bellingham - Assassin, St Petersburg, Russia, 3 December 1806 - ALS". Berryhill & Sturgeon, Ltd. Retrieved 3 August 2011. {{cite web}}: External link in |publisher= (help)
21. "History - South-Limburg". Parkstad.com, Limburg, Netherlands. Archived from the original on 28 September 2011. Retrieved 3 August 2011. {{cite web}}: External link in |publisher= (help); Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
22. Burg, David F. "1567 Revolt of the Netherlands". A World History of Tax Rebellions - An Encyclopedia of Tax Rebels, Revolts, and Riots from Antiquity to the Present. Taylor and Francis, London, UK, 2003, 2005; Routledge, 2004 (Online by BookRags, Inc). ISBN 978-0-203-50089-7. ISBN 978-0-415-92498-6. Retrieved 4 August 2011. in Madrid, Alba was accused of following his own whims rather than Philip's wishes. According to Henry Kamen, Medinaceli reported to the king that "Excessive rigour, the misconduct of some officers and soldiers, and the Tenth Penny, are the cause of all the ills, and not heresy or rebellion." —— One of the governor's officers reported that in the Netherlands "the name of the house of Alba" was held in abhorrence {{cite book}}: External link in |publisher= (help)
23. Lamers, Jaqueline. "Gemeente Naarden – Keverdijk, diverse straten". Municipality of Naarden, Netherlands. Archived from the original on 27 September 2011. Retrieved 31 July 2011. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
24. Schmidt, p. 97
25. Schmidt, p 112
26. Swart, K. W. (1975). "The Black Legend During the Eighty Years War." In Britain and the Netherlands (pp. 36-57). Springer Netherlands.
27. Mignolo, W. D. (2007). "What does the Black Legend Have to do with Race?" Rereading the Black Legend: The Discourses of Religious and Racial Difference in the Renaissance Empires, 312-24.
28. Alvar, p.7
29. Maltby, p.7
30. Vaca de Osma, p.208
31. Jail and Matthew Garcia Bretos, The Black Legend (1991) & Matthew Garcia Carcel, Bretos, p.84
32. Opinion | Immigration - and the Curse Of the Black Legend Tony Horwitz - https://www.nytimes.com/2006/07/09/opinion/09horwitz.html
33. Borrell, El Cip Y La Leyenda Negra Luis Oz - http://www.elmundo.es/television/2018/06/21/5b2bbdb7ca4741f77d8b461d.html
34. Keen, Benjamin. 1969. "The Black Legend Revisited: Assumptions and realities". The Hispanic American Historical Review. volume 49. no. 4. pp.703-719
35. Molina Martínez, Miguel. 2012. "La Leyenda Negra revisitada: la polémica continúa", Revista Hispanoamericana. Revista Digital de la Real Academia Hispano Americana de Ciencias, Artes y Letras. 2012, nº2 Disponible en: < http://revista.raha.es/>. ISSN 2174-0445
36. Walsh, Anne L. (2007). Arturo Pérez-Reverte: narrative tricks and narrative strategies. Colección Támesis: Monografías (Volume 246). London: Tamesis Books. p. 117. ISBN 1-85566-150-0.

Further reading

• Ardolino, Frank. Apocalypse and Armada in Kyd's Spanish Tragedy (Kirksville, Missouri: Sixteenth Century Studies, 1995).
• Arnoldsson, Sverker. "La Leyenda Negra: Estudios Sobre Sus Orígines," Göteborgs Universitets Årsskrift, 66:3, 1960
• Díaz, María Elena (2004). "Beyond Tannenbaum". Law and History Review. 22 (2): 371–376. doi:10.2307/4141650.
• Edelmayer, Friedrich (2011). "The "Leyenda Negra" and the Circulation of Anti-Catholic and Anti-Spanish Prejudices". European History Online.
• Español Bouché, Luis, "Leyendas Negras: Vida y Obra de Julian Juderías", Junta de Castilla y Leon, 2007.
• Gibson, Charles. The Black Legend: Anti-Spanish Attitudes in the Old World and the New. 1971.
• Gledhill, John (1996). "Review: From "Others" to Actors: New Perspectives on Popular Political Cultures and National State Formation in Latin America". American Anthropologist. New Series. 98 (3): 630–633. doi:10.1525/aa.1996.98.3.02a00210.
• Griffin, Eric. "Ethos to Ethnos: Hispanizing 'the Spaniard' in the Old World and the New," The New Centennial Review, 2:1, 2002.
• Hadfield, Andrew. "Late Elizabethan Protestantism, Colonialism and the Fear of the Apocalypse," Reformation, 3, 1998.
• Hanke Lewis. The Spanish Struggle for Justice in the Conquest of America. 1949.
• Hanke, Lewis. Bartolomé de Las Casas: Bookman, Scholar and Propagandist. 1952.
• Hauben, Paul J. (1977). "White Legend against Black: Nationalism and Enlightenment in a Spanish Context". The Americas. 34 (1): 1–19. doi:10.2307/980809.
• Hillgarth, J. N. (1985). "Spanish Historiography and Iberian Reality". History and Theory. 24 (1): 23–43. doi:10.2307/2504941.
• Kamen, Henry, Empire: How Spain Became a World Power, 1492-1763. New York: HarperCollins. 2003. ISBN 0-06-093264-3
• Keen, Benjamin, "The Black Legend Revisited: Assumptions and Realities", Hispanic American Historical Review 49, no. 4 (November 1969): 703–19.
• Keen, Benjamin, "The White Legend Revisited: A Reply to Professor Hanke's 'Modest Proposal,'" Hispanic American Historical Review 51, no. 2 (May 1971): 336–55.
• LaRosa, Michael (1992–1993). "Religion in a Changing Latin America: A Review". Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs. 34 (4): 245–255. doi:10.2307/165811.
• Lock, Julian. "'How Many Tercios Has the Pope?' The Spanish War and the Sublimation of Elizabethan Anti-Popery," History, 81, 1996.
• Maltby, William S., The Black Legend in England. Duke University Press, Durham, 1971, ISBN 0-8223-0250-0.
• Maura, Juan Francisco. "La hispanofobia a través de algunos textos de la conquista de América: de la propaganda política a la frivolidad académica". Bulletin of Spanish Studies 83. 2 (2006): 213-240.
• Maura, Juan Francisco. "Cobardía, crueldad y oportunismo español: algunas consideraciones sobre la 'verdadera' historia de la conquista de la Nueva España". Lemir (Revista de literatura medieval y del Renacimiento) 7 (2003): 1-29.
• Mignolo, W. D. (2007). "What does the Black Legend Have to do with Race?" Rereading the Black Legend: The Discourses of Religious and Racial Difference in the Renaissance Empires, 312-24.
• Powell, Philip Wayne, Tree of Hate: Propaganda and Prejudices Affecting United States Relations with the Hispanic World. Basic Books, New York, 1971, ISBN 0-465-08750-7.
• Rabasa, José (1993). "Aesthetics of Colonial Violence: The Massacre of Acoma in Gaspar de Villagrá's "Historia de la Nueva México"". College Literature. 20 (3): 96–114.
• Sanchez, M.G., Anti-Spanish Sentiment in English Literary and Political Writing, 1553-1603 (Phd Diss; University of Leeds, 2004)
• Schmidt, Benjamin, Innocence Abroad. The Dutch Imagination and the New World, 1570-1670, Cambridge U.P. 2001, ISBN 978-0-521-02455-6
• Vigil, Ralph H. (1994). "Review: Inequality and Ideology in Borderlands Historiography". Latin American Research Review. 29 (1): 155–171.

• Use dmy dates from June 2013
• Anti-Catholicism in the United Kingdom
• Anti-Spanish sentiment
• Spanish Inquisition
• History of the Philippines (1521–1898)
• History of the Philippines (1898–1946)
• Spanish–American War
• Black propaganda
• Philippine society
• Political forgery
• Spanish Empire