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| {{short description|1st-century Emperor of Ancient Rome}} | |||
| {{Other uses}} | |||
| {{Multiple issues| | |||
| {{Citations broken|date=March 2015}} | |||
| {{primary sources|date=June 2017}} | |||
| }} | |||
| {{Infobox royalty | |||
| | name = Nero | |||
| |title=]| image = Nero 1.JPG | |||
| | caption = Bust of Nero at the ], ] | |||
| | succession = ] | |||
| | reign = 13 October 54 – 9 June 68<br/>(13 years and 8 months) | |||
| | predecessor = ]<!--Not the place for relations; put in family parameters!--> | |||
| | successor = ]<!--Not the place for relations; put in family parameters!--> | |||
| | spouse = {{plainlist| | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| }} | |||
| | issue = ] | |||
| |regnal name=Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus<!--Not a repository; full name as Roman emperor, no dates.-->| house = ] | |||
| | father = {{plainlist| | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] (adoptive)}} | |||
| | mother = ] | |||
| |birth_name=Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus| birth_date = 15 December 37 AD | |||
| | birth_place = ], ] | |||
| | death_date = 9 June 68 AD (aged 30) | |||
| | death_place = Outside ] | |||
| | place of burial = Mausoleum of the Domitii Ahenobarbi, ], ] | |||
| | religion = ] | |||
| }} | |||
| {{Julio-Claudian dynasty}} | |||
| '''Nero''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|n|ɪər|oʊ}}; ]: ''Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus'';{{efn-lr|Classical Latin spelling and ] of the names of Nero: | |||
| # {{sqc|LVCIVS DOMITIVS AHENOBARBVS}}<br />{{IPA-la|'luː.ki.ʊs dɔ'mɪ.ti.ʊs a.eː.nɔ'bar.bʊs|IPA}} | |||
| # {{sqc|NERO CLAVDIVS CAESAR AVGVSTVS GERMANICVS}}<br />{{IPA-la|'nɛ.roː 'klau̯.di.ʊs ˈkae̯.sar au̯ˈgʊs.tʊs gɛr'maː.nɪ.kʊs|IPA}}}} 15 December 37 – 9 June 68 AD) was the last ] of the ].<ref name="Jarus">{{Cite web |url=https://www.livescience.com/40277-emperor-nero-facts.html |title=Emperor Nero: Facts & Biography |last=Jarus |first=Owen |date=2013-10-08 |website=Live Science |access-date=2018-08-16}}</ref><ref name="History.com">{{Cite web |url=https://www.history.com/topics/ancient-history/nero |title=Nero - Ancient History - HISTORY.com |website=HISTORY.com |access-date=2018-08-16}}</ref> He was ] his great-uncle ] and became Claudius' heir and successor.<ref name="Jarus" /> Like Claudius, Nero became emperor with the consent of the ]. Nero's mother, ], was likely implicated in Claudius' death and Nero's nomination as emperor. She dominated Nero's early life and decisions until he cast her off. Five years into his reign, he had her murdered.<ref name="Jarus" /> | |||
| During the early years of his reign, Nero was content to be guided by his mother, his tutor ] and his ], ]. As time passed, he started to play a more active and independent role in government and foreign policy. During his reign, the redoubtable general ] conducted a ] and negotiated peace with the ]. His general ] crushed a major revolt in Britain, led by the ] Queen ]. The ] was briefly annexed to the empire, and the ] began.<ref>Talmudic sources say that Nero refrained from attacking Jerusalem, and even converted to Judaism. (Gittin 56a)</ref> Nero focused much of his attention on diplomacy, trade and the cultural life of the empire, ordering theatres built and promoting athletic games. He made public appearances as an actor, poet, musician and charioteer. In the eyes of traditionalists, this undermined the dignity and authority of his person, status, and office. His extravagant, empire-wide program of public and private works was funded by a rise in taxes that was much resented by the middle and upper classes. Various plots against his life were revealed; the ringleaders, most of them Nero's own courtiers, were executed. | |||
| In 68 AD ], governor of the ]ish territory ], rebelled. He was supported by ], the governor of ]. Vindex's revolt failed in its immediate aim, but Nero fled Rome when Rome's discontented civil and military authorities chose Galba as emperor. He committed suicide on June 9, 68 AD, when he learned that he had been ] and condemned to death as a public enemy, making him the first Roman Emperor to commit suicide.<ref>Suetonius states that Nero committed suicide in Suetonius, ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Nero ; Sulpicius Severus, who possibly used Tacitus' lost fragments as a source, reports that it was uncertain whether Nero committed suicide, Sulpicius Severus, ''Chronica'' II.29, also see T.D. Barnes, "The Fragments of Tacitus' Histories", ''Classical Philology'' (1977), p. 228.</ref> His death ended the Julio-Claudian dynasty, sparking a brief period of civil wars known as the ]. | |||
| Nero's rule is usually associated with ] and extravagance.<ref>] criticized the excesses (''luxuria'') of Nero's public and private spending. See Kragelund, Patrick, "Nero's Luxuria, in Tacitus and in the Octavia", in ''The Classical Quarterly'', 2000, pp. 494–515. Kragelund is citing Tacitus, ''Annals'' I.16</ref><ref>References to Nero's matricide appear in the '']'' 5.490–520, ]'s '']'' ] and ]'s '']'' 3.ii.</ref> Most Roman sources, such as ] and ], offer overwhelmingly negative assessments of his personality and reign; ] claims that the Roman people thought him compulsive and corrupt. Suetonius tells that many Romans believed that the ] was instigated by Nero to clear the way for his planned palatial complex, the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero*.html|title=Suetonius • Vita Neronis|website=penelope.uchicago.edu}}</ref> According to Tacitus he was said to have seized Christians as scapegoats for the fire and burned them alive, seemingly motivated not by public justice but by personal cruelty.<ref name="annals-xv-44">Tacitus, ''Annals''. XV.44.</ref> Some modern historians question the reliability of the ancient sources on Nero's tyrannical acts.<ref>On fire and Christian persecution, see F.W. Clayton, "Tacitus and Christian Persecution", ''The Classical Quarterly'', pp. 81–85; B.W. Henderson, ''Life and Principate of the Emperor Nero'', p. 437; On general bias against Nero, see Edward Champlin, ''Nero'', Cambridge, MA: ], 2003, pp. 36–52 ({{ISBN|0-674-01192-9}}</ref> A few sources paint Nero in a more favorable light. There is evidence of his popularity among the Roman commoners, especially in the eastern provinces of the Empire, where a popular legend arose that Nero had not died and would return. At least three leaders of short-lived, failed rebellions presented themselves as "]" to enlist popular support. | |||
| ==Early life== | |||
| Nero was born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus on 15 December 37{{nbsp}}{{sc|AD}}{{nbsp}}in ].<ref name=OEGR>{{Cite encyclopedia| publisher = Oxford University Press| editor-first = Michael |editor-last=Gagarin| last = Barrett |first= Anthony A.| title = Nero| encyclopedia = The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome| date = 2010 |isbn=9780195388398 | doi = 10.1093/acref/9780195170726.001.0001 }}</ref><ref name=collins>{{Cite book| publisher = Da Capo Press| isbn = 978-0-306-81890-5| last = Dando-Collins| first = Stephen| title = The great fire of Rome: the fall of the emperor Nero and his city| location = Cambridge, MA| date = 2010}}</ref>{{rp|87}} He was the only son of ] and ]. His maternal grandparents were ] and ]; his mother, ]'s sister.<ref name=barrett>{{Cite book| publisher = Princeton University Press| isbn = 978-1-4008-8110-9| last1 = Barrett| first1 = Anthony A.| last2 = Fantham| first2 = Elaine| last3 = Yardley| first3 = John C.| title = The Emperor Nero: A Guide to the Ancient Sources| date = 2016-07-12}}</ref>{{rp|5}} He was ]' great-great grandson, descended from the first Emperor's only daughter, ].<ref name="malitz">{{Cite book|title=Nero|last=Malitz|first=Jürgen|date=2005|publisher=Blackwell Pub.|year=|isbn=978-1-4051-4475-9|location=Malden, MA|pages=3}}</ref>{{rp|2}} | |||
| The ancient biographer ], who was critical of Nero's ancestors, wrote that Augustus had reproached Nero's grandfather for his unseemly enjoyment of violent ] games. According to Jürgen Malitz, Suetonius tells that Nero's father was known to be "irascible and brutal", and that both "enjoyed chariot races and theater performances to a degree not befitting their position."<ref name=malitz/>{{rp|3}} | |||
| Nero's father, Domitius, died in 40. A few years before his death, Domitius had been involved in a political scandal that, according to Malitz, "could have cost him his life if ] had not died in the year 37."<ref name=malitz/>{{rp|3}} In the previous year, Nero's mother Agrippina had been caught up in a scandal of her own. Caligula's beloved sister ] had recently died and Caligula began to feel threatened by his brother-in-law ]. Agrippina, suspected of adultery with her brother-in-law, was forced to carry the ] after Lepidus' execution. Caligula then banished his two surviving sisters, Agrippina and ], to a remote island in the ].<ref name=malitz/>{{rp|4}} According to ''The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome'', Agrippina was exiled for plotting to overthrow Caligula.<ref name=OEGR/> Nero's inheritance was taken from him and he was sent to live with his paternal aunt ], the mother of ]' third wife ].<ref name=shotter>{{Cite book| publisher = Routledge| isbn = 978-1-134-36432-9| last = Shotter| first = David| title = Nero| date = 2012-10-02}}</ref>{{rp|11}} | |||
| Caligula's reign lasted from 37 until 41{{nbsp}}.<ref name=shotter/>{{rp|11}} He died from multiple stab wounds in January of 41 after being ambushed by his own ] on the ].<ref name=caligula>{{Cite encyclopedia| publisher = Oxford University Press| editor-last = Gagarin |editor-first=Michael |author-last=Hurley |author-first=Donna W. | title = Caligula| encyclopedia = The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome| doi = 10.1093/acref/9780195170726.001.0001 | year = 2010 | isbn = 9780195170726 }}</ref> Claudius succeeded Caligula as Emperor.<ref name=caligula/> Agrippina married Claudius in 49{{nbsp}}{{sc|AD}} and became his fourth wife.{{efn-lr|Tacitus wrote the following about Agrippina's marriage to Claudius: "From this moment the country was transformed. Complete obedience was accorded to a woman—and not a woman like Messalina who toyed with national affairs. This was a rigorous, almost masculine, despotism. In public, Agrippina was austere and often arrogant. Her private life was chaste—unless power was to be gained. Her passion to acquire money was unbounded; she wanted it as a stepping stone to supremacy."<ref name=shotter/>{{rp|11}}}}<ref name=OEGR/> By February 49, she had persuaded Claudius to adopt her son Nero.{{efn-lr|According to ''The Oxford Encyclopedia of Greece and Rome'' Nero was adopted in 50 AD.<ref name=OEGR/>}} After Nero's adoption, "Claudius" became part of his name: Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus.{{efn-lr|For further information see ].}}<ref name=emperor>{{Cite book| publisher = Routledge| isbn = 978-1-138-14015-8| last = Shotter| first = David| title = Nero Caesar Augustus: Emperor of Rome| location = S.l.| date = 2016}}</ref> Claudius had gold coins issued to mark the adoption.<ref name=blackwell>{{Cite book| publisher = John Wiley & Sons| isbn = 978-1-118-31653-5| last1 = Buckley| first1 = Emma| last2 = Dinter| first2 = Martin| title = A Companion to the Neronian Age| date = 2013-05-03}}</ref>{{rp|119}} Classics professor ] has written that "the coins, through their distribution and imagery alike, showed that a new Leader was in the making."<ref name=osgood>{{Cite book| publisher = Cambridge University Press| isbn = 978-0-521-88181-4| last = Osgood| first = Josiah| title = Claudius Caesar: Image and Power in the Early Roman Empire| date = 2011}}</ref>{{rp|231}} David Shotter noted that, despite events in Rome, Nero's step-brother ] was more prominent in provincial coinages during the early 50s.<ref name=emperor/>{{rp|52}} | |||
| Nero officially formally entered public life as an adult in 51{{nbsp}}{{sc|AD}}—he was around 14 years old.<ref name=emperor/>{{rp|51}} When he turned 16, Nero married Claudius' daughter (his own step-sister), ]. Between the years 51{{nbsp}}{{sc|AD}} and 53{{nbsp}}{{sc|AD}}, he gave several speeches on behalf of various communities including the Ilians; the ]ns, requesting a five-year tax reprieve after an earthquake; and the northern colony of ], after their settlement suffered a devastating fire.<ref name=osgood/>{{rp|231}} | |||
| ] of Nero and his mother, ], c. 54]] | |||
| ] celebrating young Nero as the future emperor, c. 50]] | |||
| ] died in 54{{nbsp}}{{sc|AD}}; many ancient historians claim that he was poisoned by ].<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/classical-quarterly/article/on-the-mushroom-that-deified-the-emperor-claudius/98E89EF6B7A5E62E59180071664BA4E9|title=On the Mushroom that Deified the Emperor Claudius|journal=The Classical Quarterly|first=Veronika|last=Grimm-Samuel|date=1 May 1991|volume=41|issue=1|pages=178–182|accessdate=18 September 2016|via=Cambridge Core|doi=10.1017/S0009838800003657}}</ref> Shotter has written that "Claudius' death in 54{{nbsp}}{{sc|AD}} has usually been regarded as an event hastened by Agrippina because of signs that Claudius was showing a renewed affection for his natural son," but he notes that among ancient sources ] was uniquely reserved in describing the poisoning as a rumor.<ref name=emperor/>{{rp|53}} Contemporary sources differ in their accounts. Tacitus says that ] prepared the poison, which was served to the Emperor by his food taster ]. Tacitus also writes that Agrippina arranged for Claudius' doctor ] to administer poison, in the event that the Emperor survived.<ref name=emperor/>{{rp|53}} Suetonius differs in some details, but also implicates Halotus and Agrippina.{{efn-lr|Suetonius wrote "It is commonly agreed that Claudius was killed by poison. There is, however, disagreement as to where and by whom it was administered. Some record that, when he was at a feast with priests on the citadel, it was given to him by his taster, the eunuch Halotus, others that it was given him at a family dinner by Agrippina herself, offering him the drug in a dish of mushrooms, a kind of food to which he was very partial...His death was concealed until all arrangements were in place with regard to his successor."<ref name=oxford>{{Cite book| publisher = Oxford University Press| isbn = 978-0-19-953756-3 | last1 = Catharine Edwards| last2 = Suetonius | title = Oxford World's Classics: Suetonius: Lives of the Caesars| date = 2008}}</ref>{{rp|193}}}} Like Tacitus, Cassius Dio writes that the poison was prepared by Locusta, but in Dio's account it is administered by Agrippina instead of Halotus. In ], ] does not mention mushrooms at all.<ref name=emperor/>{{rp|54}} Agrippina's involvement in Claudius' death is not accepted by all modern scholars.<ref>{{Cite book| publisher = Routledge| isbn = 978-1-317-69844-9| last = Garzetti| first = Albino| title = From Tiberius to the Antonines (Routledge Revivals): A History of the Roman Empire AD 14-192| date = 2014-06-17}}</ref>{{rp|589}} | |||
| Before Claudius' death, Agrippina had maneuvered to remove Britannicus' tutors and replace them with tutors she had selected. She was also able to convince Claudius to replace with a single commander, ], two prefects of the Praetorian guard who were suspected of supporting Brittanicus.<ref name=shotter/>{{rp|13}} Since Agrippina had replaced the guard officers with men loyal to her, Nero was able to assume power without incident.<ref name=OEGR/><ref name=cambridge>{{Cite book| publisher = Cambridge University Press| isbn = 978-1-107-67443-1| last = Bradley| first = Pamela| title = The Ancient World Transformed| date = 2014-08-19}}</ref>{{rp|417}} | |||
| ==Nero's reign (54 AD–68 AD)== | |||
| Most of what we know about Nero's reign comes from three ancient writers: ], ], and Greek historian ].<ref name="griffin">{{Cite book| publisher = Routledge| isbn = 978-0-415-21464-3| last = Griffin| first = Miriam T| title = Nero: the end of a dynasty| location = London| date = 2013}}</ref>{{rp|37}} | |||
| According to ancient historians, Nero's construction projects were overly extravagant and the large number of expenditures under Nero left Italy "thoroughly exhausted by contributions of money" with "the provinces ruined."<ref>Suetonius, ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Nero .</ref><ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' ].</ref> Modern historians, though, note that the period was riddled with deflation and that it is likely that Nero's spending came in the form of public-works projects and charity intended to ease economic troubles.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Thornton | first1 = Mary Elizabeth Kelly | year = 1971 | title = Nero's New Deal | url = | journal = Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association | volume = 102 | issue = | page = 629 }}</ref> | |||
| ===Early reign=== | |||
| ] | |||
| Nero became emperor in 54 {{sc|AD}}, aged sixteen years.{{nbsp}} This made him the youngest sole emperor until ], who became emperor aged 14 in 218.<ref name=britannica>{{cite web| title = Nero {{!}} Roman emperor| website = Encyclopedia Britannica| accessdate = 2017-07-02| url = https://www.britannica.com/biography/Nero-Roman-emperor}}</ref> The first five years of Nero's reign were described as ''Quinquennium Neronis'' by ]; the interpretation of the phrase is a matter of dispute amongst scholars.<ref name=malitz/>{{rp|17}} As Pharaoh of Egypt, Nero adopted the royal titulary ''Autokrator Neron Heqaheqau Meryasetptah Tjemaahuikhasut Wernakhtubaqet Heqaheqau Setepennenu Merur'' ("Emperor Nero, Ruler of rulers, chosen by Ptah, beloved of Isis, the sturdy-armed one who struck the foreign lands, victorious for Egypt, ruler of rulers, chosen of Nun who loves him").<ref>{{cite web |url=https://pharaoh.se/roman-emperor/Nero |title=Nero |website=The Royal Titulary of Ancient Egypt |access-date=March 13, 2018}}</ref> | |||
| Nero's tutor, Seneca, prepared Nero's first speech before the Senate. During this speech, Nero spoke about "eliminating the ills of the previous regime".<ref name=malitz/>{{rp|16}} ] writes that "he promised to follow the Augustan model in his principate, to end all secret trials ''intra cubiculum'', to have done with the corruption of court favorites and freedmen, and above all to respect the privileges of the Senate and individual Senators."<ref name=scullard>{{Cite book| publisher = Routledge| isbn = 978-0-415-58488-3| last = Scullard| first = H. H| title = From the Gracchi to Nero: a history of Rome 133 B.C. to A.D. 68| location = London| date = 2011}}</ref>{{rp|257}} His respect of the Senatorial autonomy, which distinguished him from Caligula and Claudius, was generally well received by the ].<ref name=malitz/>{{rp|18}} | |||
| Scullard writes that Nero's mother, Agrippina, "meant to rule through her son."<ref name=scullard/>{{rp|257}} Agrippina murdered her political rivals: Domitia Lepida, the aunt that Nero had lived with during Agrippina's exile; ], a great grandson of Augustus; and ].<ref name=scullard/>{{rp|257}} One of the earliest coins that Nero issues during his reign shows Agrippina on the coin's ] side; usually, this would be reserved for a portrait of the emperor. The Senate also allowed Agrippina two ] during public appearances, an honor that was customarily bestowed upon only magistrates and the ].<ref name=malitz/>{{rp|16}} In {{sc|AD}}{{nbsp}}55, Nero removed Agrippina's ally ] from his position in the treasury. Shotter writes the following about Agrippina's deteriorating relationship with Nero: "What Seneca and Burrus probably saw as relatively harmless in Nero—his cultural pursuits and his affair with the slave girl ]—were to her signs of her son's dangerous emancipation of himself from her influence."<ref name=shotter/>{{rp|12}} Britannicus was poisoned after Agrippina threatened to side with him.<ref name=shotter/>{{rp|12}} Nero, who was having an affair with Acte,{{efn-lr|Sources describe Acte as a slave girl (Shotter) and a freedwoman (Champlin and Scullard).}} exiled Agrippina from the palace when she began to cultivate a relationship with his wife Octavia.<ref name=scullard/>{{rp|257}} | |||
| Jürgen Malitz writes that ancient sources do not provide any clear evidence to evaluate the extent of Nero's personal involvement in politics during the first years of his reign. He describes the policies that are explicitly attributed to Nero as "well-meant but incompetent notions" like Nero's failed initiative to abolish taxes in 58{{nbsp}}{{sc|AD}}. Scholars generally credit Nero's advisors Burrus and Seneca with the administrative successes of these years. Malitz writes that in later years, Nero panicked when he had to make decisions on his own during times of crisis.<ref name=malitz/>{{rp|19}} | |||
| ===Matricide=== | |||
| ]]] | |||
| ''The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome'' cautiously notes that Nero's reasons for killing his mother in 59{{nbsp}}{{sc|AD}} are "not fully understood."<ref name=OEGR/> According to ], the source of conflict between Nero and his mother was Nero's affair with ]. In '']'' Tacitus writes that the affair began while Poppaea was still married to ], but in his later work '']'' Tacitus says Poppaea was married to ] when the affair began.<ref name=barrett/>{{rp|214}} In ''Annals'' Tacitus writes that Agrippina opposed Nero's affair with Poppaea because of her affection for his wife ]. Anthony Barrett writes that Tacitus' account in ''Annals'' "suggests that Poppaea's challenge drove over the brink."<ref name=barrett/>{{rp|215}} A number of modern historians have noted that Agrippina's death would not have offered much advantage for Poppaea, as Nero did not marry Poppaea until 62{{nbsp}}{{sc|AD}}.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Dawson | first1 = Alexis | year = | title = Whatever Happened to Lady Agrippina? | url = | journal = The Classical Journal | volume = 1969 | issue = | page = 254 }}</ref><ref name=barrett/>{{rp|215}} Barrett writes that Poppaea seems to serve as a "literary device, utilized because could see no plausible explanation for Nero's conduct and also incidentally to show that Nero, like Claudius, had fallen under the malign influence of a woman."<ref name=barrett/>{{rp|215}} According to ], Nero had his former freedman ] arrange a shipwreck; Agrippina survived the wreck, swam ashore and was executed by Anicetus, who reported her death as a suicide.<ref name=OEGR/><ref>Suetonius, ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Nero .</ref> | |||
| ===Decline=== | |||
| Modern scholars believe that Nero's reign had been going well in the years before Agrippina's death. For example, Nero promoted the exploration of the ] sources with a ].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8OgVKbssrT0C&pg=PT364 |title=A Companion to the Neronian Age |first=Emma |last=Buckley |first2=Martin |last2=Dinter |publisher=] |date=3 May 2013 |page=364 |isbn=9781118316535}}</ref> After Agrippina's exile, Burrus and Seneca were responsible for the administration of the Empire.<ref name=scullard/>{{rp|258}} However, Nero's "conduct became far more egregious" after his mother's death.<ref name=OEGR/>{{rp|22}} ]s suggests that Nero's decline began as early as 55{{nbsp}}{{sc|AD}} with the murder of his stepbrother Britannicus, but also notes that "Nero lost all sense of right and wrong and listened to flattery with total credulity" after Agrippina's death.<ref name="griffin"/>{{rp|84}} Griffin points out that Tacitus "makes explicit the significance of Agrippina's removal for Nero's conduct".<ref name="griffin"/>{{rp|84}}<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'', ]</ref> | |||
| In 62{{nbsp}}{{sc|AD}}, Nero's adviser ] died.<ref name=OEGR/> That same year Nero called for the first treason trial of his reign (''maiestas'' trial) against ].<ref name="griffin"/>{{rp|53}}<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' ].</ref> He also executed his rivals ] and ].<ref name=malitz/> Jürgen Malitz considers this to be a turning point in Nero's relationship with the ]. Malitz writes that "Nero abandoned the restraint he had previously shown because he believed a course supporting the Senate promised to be less and less profitable."<ref name=malitz/> | |||
| After Burrus' death, Nero appointed two new Praetorian Prefects: ] and ]. Politically isolated, Seneca was forced to retire.<ref name=scullard/>{{rp|26}} According to Tacitus, Nero divorced Octavia on grounds of infertility, and banished her.<ref name="griffin"/>{{rp|99}}<ref name="annals-xiv-60">Tacitus, ''Annals'' ].</ref> After public protests over Octavia's exile, Nero accused her of adultery with Anicetus and she was executed.<ref name="griffin"/>{{rp|99}}<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' ].</ref> | |||
| In 64{{nbsp}}{{sc|AD}}, Nero married ], a ].<ref name=Suetonius></ref><ref name="Dio"></ref><ref name="umich">{{cite web |url=http://www.umich.edu/~classics/news/newsletter/winter2004/weddings.html |title=Roman Same-Sex Weddings from the Legal Perspective |author=Frier, Bruce W. |publisher=University of Michigan |work=Classical Studies Newsletter, Volume X |year=2004 |accessdate=2012-02-24 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111230041201/http://www.umich.edu/~classics/news/newsletter/winter2004/weddings.html |archivedate=2011-12-30 |df= }}</ref><ref name="Champlin146">Champlin, 2005, p.146</ref> | |||
| ===Great Fire of Rome=== | |||
| {{Main|Great Fire of Rome}} | |||
| The Great Fire of Rome erupted on the night of 18 July to 19 July, ] 64. The fire started on the slope of the ] overlooking the ].<ref name=champlin122>Champlin, ''Nero'', p. 122</ref><ref name="tacitus-annals-xv-38">Tacitus, ''Annals'', ]</ref> | |||
| ] (1785)]] ], the main ancient source for information about the fire, wrote that countless mansions, residences and temples were destroyed.<ref name=champlin122/> Tacitus and ] have both written of extensive damage to the Palatine, which has been supported by subsequent archaeological excavations.<ref name=champlin>Champlin, ''Nero'', p. 125</ref> The fire is reported to have burned for over a week.<ref name=scullard/>{{rp|260}} It destroyed three of fourteen Roman districts and severely damaged seven more.<ref name=scullard/>{{rp|260}}<ref name="annals-xv-40">Tacitus, ''Annals'', ]</ref> | |||
| ] | |||
| Tacitus wrote that some ancient accounts described the fire as an accident, while others had claimed that it was a plot of Nero's. Tacitus is the only surviving source which does not blame Nero for starting the fire; he says he is "unsure." ], Suetonius and Cassius Dio all wrote that Nero was responsible for the fire. These accounts give several reasons for Nero's alleged arson like Nero's envy of ] and a dislike for the city's ancient construction. Suetonius wrote that Nero started the fire because he wanted the space to build his ].<ref>Champlin, ''Nero'', p.182</ref> This Golden House or ''Domus Aurea'' included lush artificial landscapes and a 30-meter-tall statue of himself, the ]. The size of this complex is debated (from 100 to 300 acres).<ref>Roth, Leland M. (1993). Understanding Architecture: Its Elements, History and Meaning, First, Boulder, CO: Westview Press, pp. 227–8. {{ISBN|0-06-430158-3}}.</ref><ref>Ball, Larry F. (2003). The Domus Aurea and the Roman architectural revolution. Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0-521-82251-3}}.</ref><ref>Warden reduces its size to under {{convert|100|acre|km2}}. Warden, P.G., "The Domus Aurea Reconsidered," Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 40 (1981) pp. 271–278.</ref> | |||
| Tacitus wrote that Nero accused Christians of starting the fire to remove suspicion from himself.<ref>Champlin, ''Nero'', p.121</ref> According to this account, many Christians were arrested and brutally executed by "being thrown to the beasts, crucified, and being burned alive".<ref>Champlin, ''Nero'', pp. 121-22</ref> | |||
| Suetonius and Cassius Dio alleged that Nero sang the "]" in stage costume while the city burned.<ref>Champlin, ''Nero'', p. 77</ref><ref>Suetonius, ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Nero, ; Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' .</ref> The popular legend that Nero played the ] while Rome burned "is at least partly a literary construct of ] propaganda which looked askance on the abortive Neronian attempt to rewrite Augustan models of rule."<ref name=blackwell/>{{rp|2}} | |||
| According to Tacitus, Nero was in Antium during the fire. Upon hearing news of the fire, Nero returned to Rome to organize a relief effort, which he paid for from his own funds.<ref name="annals-xv-39">Tacitus, ''Annals'', ]</ref> Nero's contributions to the relief extended to personally taking part in the search for and rescue of victims of the blaze, spending days searching the debris without even his bodyguards.{{Citation needed|date=May 2010}} After the fire, Nero opened his palaces to provide shelter for the homeless, and arranged for food supplies to be delivered in order to prevent starvation among the survivors.<ref name="annals-xv-39"/> | |||
| In the wake of the fire, he made a new urban development plan. Houses built after the fire were spaced out, built in brick, and faced by ] on wide roads.<ref name="annals-xv-43">Tacitus, ''Annals'', ]</ref> Nero also built a new palace complex known as the ] in an area cleared by the fire. To find the necessary funds for the reconstruction, ] were imposed on the provinces of the empire.<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' ].</ref> The cost to rebuild Rome was immense, requiring funds the state treasury did not have. Nero devalued the ] for the first time in the Empire's history. He reduced the weight of the ] from 84 per ] to 96 (3.80 grams to 3.30 grams). He also reduced the silver purity from 99.5% to 93.5%—the silver weight dropping from 3.80 grams to 2.97 grams. Furthermore, Nero reduced the weight of the ] from 40 per Roman pound to 45 (7.9 grams to 7.2 grams).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tulane.edu/~august/handouts/601cprin.htm |title=Roman Currency of the Principate |publisher=Tulane University |date= |accessdate=2011-07-13 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20010210220413/http://www.tulane.edu/~august/handouts/601cprin.htm |archivedate=2001-02-10 |df= }}</ref> | |||
| ===Later years=== | |||
| ] with countermark "X" of ]]] | |||
| ] on the reverse.]] | |||
| In 65{{nbsp}}{{sc|AD}}, ], a Roman statesman, organized a ] with the help of Subrius Flavus and Sulpicius Asper, a tribune and a centurion of the Praetorian Guard.<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' ].</ref> According to Tacitus, many conspirators wished to "rescue the state" from the emperor and restore the ].<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' ].</ref> The freedman Milichus discovered the conspiracy and reported it to Nero's secretary, ].<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' ].</ref> As a result, the conspiracy failed and its members were executed including ], the poet.<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' ].</ref> Nero's previous advisor ] was accused by Natalis; he denied the charges but was still ordered to commit suicide as by this point he had fallen out of favor with Nero.<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' ].</ref> | |||
| Nero was said to have kicked Poppaea to death in 65{{nbsp}}{{sc|AD}}, before she could have his second child.<ref>Farquhar, Michael (2001). ''A Treasure of Royal Scandals'', p.216. Penguin Books, New York. {{ISBN|0-7394-2025-9}}.</ref> Modern historians, noting the probable biases of Suetonius, Tacitus, and Cassius Dio, and the likely absence of eyewitnesses to such an event, propose that Poppaea may have died after miscarriage or in childbirth.<ref>Rudich, Vasily, ''Political Dissidence Under Nero'', pp. 135-136.</ref> Nero went into deep mourning; Poppaea was given a sumptuous ], ], and was promised a temple for her cult. A year's importation of incense was burned at the funeral. Her body was not cremated, as would have been strictly customary, but embalmed after the Egyptian manner and entombed;<!--Please don't link to ] or ]--> it is not known where.<ref>Counts, Derek B., "Regum Externorum Consuetudine: The Nature and Function of Embalming in Rome", ''Classical Antiquity'', Vol. 15 No. 2, Oct., 1996; pp. 189-190: 193, note 18 "We should not consider it an insult that Poppaea was not buried in the Mausoleum of Augustus, as were other members of the imperial | |||
| family until the time of Nerva." 196 (note 37, citing Pliny the elder, ''Natural History'', 12.83. DOI: 10.2307/25011039 {{Subscription required |via=]}}</ref> | |||
| ===The revolt of Vindex and Galba and the death of Nero=== | |||
| ].]] | |||
| In March 68, ], the governor of ], rebelled against Nero's tax policies.<ref name="Cassius-22">Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' .</ref><ref>Donahue.</ref> ], the governor of ], was ordered to put down Vindex's rebellion.<ref name="cassiusdio-lxiii-24">Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' .</ref> In an attempt to gain support from outside his own province, Vindex called upon ], the governor of ], to join the rebellion and further, to declare himself emperor in opposition to Nero.<ref name="Plutarch-galba-5">Plutarch, ''The Parallel Lives'', Life of Galba .</ref> | |||
| At the ] in May 68, Verginius' forces easily defeated those of Vindex and the latter committed suicide.<ref name="cassiusdio-lxiii-24"/> However, after putting down this one rebel, Verginius' legions attempted to proclaim their own commander as Emperor. Verginius refused to act against Nero, but the discontent of the legions of Germany and the continued opposition of Galba in Spain did not bode well for him. | |||
| While Nero had retained some control of the situation, support for Galba increased despite his being officially declared a public enemy ("hostis publicus"<ref>Albino Garzetti (2014): ''From Tiberius to the Antonines: A History of the Roman Empire AD 14-192'', p. 220 ()</ref>). The prefect of the ], ], also abandoned his allegiance to the Emperor and came out in support of Galba. | |||
| In response, Nero fled Rome with the intention of going to the port of ] and, from there, to take a fleet to one of the still-loyal eastern provinces. According to Suetonius, Nero abandoned the idea when some army officers openly refused to obey his commands, responding with a line from ]'s '']'': "Is it so dreadful a thing then to die?" Nero then toyed with the idea of fleeing to ], throwing himself upon the mercy of Galba, or appealing to the people and begging them to pardon him for his past offences "and if he could not soften their hearts, to entreat them at least to allow him the prefecture of Egypt". Suetonius reports that the text of this speech was later found in Nero's writing desk, but that he dared not give it from fear of being torn to pieces before he could reach the Forum.<ref name="penelope.uchicago.edu">Suetonius, ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Nero .</ref> | |||
| Nero returned to Rome and spent the evening in the palace. After sleeping, he awoke at about midnight to find the palace guard had left. Dispatching messages to his friends' palace chambers for them to come, he received no answers. Upon going to their chambers personally, he found them all abandoned. When he called for a gladiator or anyone else adept with a sword to kill him, no one appeared. He cried, "Have I neither friend nor foe?" and ran out as if to throw himself into the ].<ref name="penelope.uchicago.edu"/> | |||
| Returning, Nero sought a place where he could hide and collect his thoughts. An imperial freedman, ], offered his villa, located four miles outside the city. Travelling in disguise, Nero and four loyal ], ], ], ], and ], reached the villa, where Nero ordered them to dig a grave for him. | |||
| At this time, a courier arrived with a report that the Senate had declared Nero a public enemy and that it was their intention to execute him by beating him to death and that armed men had been sent to apprehend him for the act to take place in the Forum. The Senate actually was still reluctant and deliberating on the right course of action as Nero was the last member of the Julio-Claudian Family. Indeed, most of the senators had served the imperial family all their lives and felt a sense of loyalty to the deified bloodline, if not to Nero himself. The men actually had the goal of returning Nero back to the Senate, where the Senate hoped to work out a compromise with the rebelling governors that would preserve Nero's life, so that at least a future heir to the dynasty could be produced.<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' ].</ref> | |||
| Nero, however, did not know this, and at the news brought by the courier, he prepared himself for ], pacing up and down muttering ''Qualis artifex pereo'' ("What an artist dies in me").<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Buckley | first1 = Emma | last2 = Dinter | first2 = Martin T. | title = A Companion to the Neronian Age | publisher = John Wiley & Sons | year = 2013 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=qYb3JCWUNnkC&dq | accessdate = 2013-10-28 | isbn = 978-1-118-31659-7}}</ref> Losing his nerve, he begged one of his companions to set an example by killing himself first. At last, the sound of approaching horsemen drove Nero to face the end. However, he still could not bring himself to take his own life but instead he forced his private secretary, ], to perform the task.<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Bunson | first1 = Matthew | title = Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire | publisher = Infobase Publishing | year = 2009 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=T5tic2VunRoC&dq | accessdate = 2013-10-28 | isbn = 978-1-4381-1027-1}}</ref> | |||
| ].]] | |||
| ].]] | |||
| When one of the horsemen entered and saw that Nero was dying, he attempted to stop the bleeding, but efforts to save Nero's life were unsuccessful. Nero's final words were "Too late! This is fidelity!"<ref name="ReferenceA">Suetonius, ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Nero .</ref> He died on 9 June 68, the anniversary of the death of Octavia, and was buried in the Mausoleum of the Domitii Ahenobarbi, in what is now the ] (]) area of Rome.<ref name="ReferenceA">Suetonius, ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Nero .</ref> | |||
| With his death, the ] ended.<ref name=agrippina>{{Cite book| publisher = Batsford| last = Barrett| first = A. A| title = Agrippina: sister of Caligula, wife of Claudius, mother of Nero| location = London| date = 1996}}</ref>{{rp|19}} When news of his death reached Rome, the Senate posthumously declared Nero a public enemy to appease the coming Galba (as the Senate had initially declared Galba as a public enemy) and proclaimed Galba the new emperor. Chaos would ensue in the ].<ref name="tacitus-histories-I.2">Tacitus, ''Histories'' ].</ref> | |||
| ===After Nero=== | |||
| {{See also|Nero Redivivus legend|Pseudo-Nero}} | |||
| ] of Nero, c. after 68. Artwork portraying Nero rising to divine status after his death.]] | |||
| According to Suetonius and Cassius Dio, the people of Rome celebrated the death of Nero.<ref>Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' .</ref><ref>Suetonius, ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Nero .</ref> Tacitus, though, describes a more complicated political environment. Tacitus mentions that Nero's death was welcomed by Senators, nobility and the upper class.<ref name="histories-i-4">Tacitus, ''Histories'' ].</ref> The lower-class, slaves, frequenters of the arena and the theater, and "those who were supported by the famous excesses of Nero", on the other hand, were upset with the news.<ref name="histories-i-4"/> Members of the military were said to have mixed feelings, as they had allegiance to Nero, but had been bribed to overthrow him.<ref name="tacitus-histories-I.5">Tacitus, ''Histories'' ].</ref> | |||
| Eastern sources, namely Philostratus II and ], mention that Nero's death was mourned as he "restored the liberties of ] with a wisdom and moderation quite alien to his character"<ref>Philostratus II, ''The Life of Apollonius'' .</ref> and that he "held our liberties in his hand and respected them."<ref>Letter from Apollonius to Emperor Vespasian, Philostratus II, ''The Life of Apollonius'' .</ref> | |||
| Modern scholarship generally holds that, while the Senate and more well-off individuals welcomed Nero's death, the general populace was "loyal to the end and beyond, for Otho and Vitellius both thought it worthwhile to appeal to their nostalgia."<ref>M. T. Griffin, Nero (1984), p. 186; Gibbon, Edward, ''The History of The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'' Vol. I, Chap. III.</ref> | |||
| Nero's name was erased from some monuments, in what Edward Champlin regards as an "outburst of private zeal".<ref>Champlin (2003), p. 29.</ref> Many portraits of Nero were reworked to represent other figures; according to Eric R. Varner, over fifty such images survive.<ref name=pollini>John Pollini (September 2006), Review of ''Mutilation and Transformation: Damnatio Memoriae and Roman Imperial Portraiture'' by Eric R. Varner, '']''.</ref> This reworking of images is often explained as part of the way in which the memory of disgraced emperors was condemned posthumously<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.11141/ia.42.2|title = Sanctioning Memory: Changing Identity - Using 3D laser scanning to identify two 'new' portraits of the Emperor Nero in English antiquarian collections| journal=Internet Archaeology| issue=42|year = 2016|last1 = Russell|first1 = Miles| last2=Manley| first2=Harry}}</ref> (see ]).<ref name=pollini/> Champlin, however, doubts that the practice is necessarily negative and notes that some continued to create images of Nero long after his death.<ref>Champlin (2003), pp. 29–31.</ref> | |||
| The civil war during the ] was described by ancient historians as a troubling period.<ref name="tacitus-histories-I.2"/> According to Tacitus, this instability was rooted in the fact that emperors could no longer rely on the perceived legitimacy of the imperial bloodline, as Nero and those before him could.<ref name="histories-i-4"/> ] began his short reign with the execution of many of Nero's allies.<ref>Tacitus, ''Histories'' ].</ref> One such notable enemy included ], who claimed to be the son of Emperor ].<ref>Plutarch, ''The Parallel Lives'', The Life of Galba .</ref> | |||
| ] overthrew Galba. Otho was said to be liked by many soldiers because he had been a friend of Nero's and resembled him somewhat in temperament.<ref>Tacitus, ''Histories'' ].</ref> It was said that the common Roman hailed Otho as Nero himself.<ref name="suetonius-otho-7">Suetonius, ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Otho .</ref> Otho used "Nero" as a surname and reerected many statues to Nero.<ref name="suetonius-otho-7"/> ] overthrew Otho. Vitellius began his reign with a large funeral for Nero complete with songs written by Nero.<ref>Suetonius, ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Vitellius .</ref> | |||
| After Nero's suicide in 68, there was a widespread belief, especially in the eastern provinces, that he was not dead and somehow would return.<ref>Suetonius, ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Nero ; Tacitus, ''Histories'' ]; Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' .</ref> This belief came to be known as the ]. | |||
| The legend of Nero's return lasted for hundreds of years after Nero's death. ] wrote of the legend as a popular belief in 422.<ref name="augustine">Augustine of Hippo, ''City of God'' ..</ref> | |||
| At least ] emerged leading rebellions. The first, who sang and played the cithara or lyre and whose face was similar to that of the dead emperor, appeared in 69 during the reign of Vitellius.<ref name="tacitus-histories-II.8">Tacitus, ''Histories'' ].</ref> After persuading some to recognize him, he was captured and executed.<ref name="tacitus-histories-II.8"/> Sometime during the reign of ] (79–81), another impostor appeared in Asia and sang to the accompaniment of the lyre and looked like Nero but he, too, was killed.<ref>Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' .</ref> Twenty years after Nero's death, during the reign of ], there was a third pretender. He was supported by the Parthians, who only reluctantly gave him up,<ref>Suetonius, ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Nero .</ref> and the matter almost came to war.<ref name="tacitus-histories-I.2"/> | |||
| ==Military conflicts== | |||
| ===Boudicca's uprising=== | |||
| In Britannia in 59{{nbsp}}{{sc|AD}}, ], leader of the ] tribe, and a ] of Rome's during Claudius' reign, died. The client state arrangement was unlikely to survive the death of the former Emperor. Prasutagus' will leaving control of the Iceni to his wife ] was denied, and, when ] scourged Boudicca and raped her daughters, the Iceni revolted. They were joined by the ] tribe, and ] became the most significant provincial rebellion of the 1st century{{nbsp}}{{sc|AD}}.<ref name=shotter/>{{rp|32}}<ref name=scullard/>{{rp|254}} | |||
| Under Boudicca the towns of Camulodunum (Colchester), Londinium (London) and Verulamium (St Albans) were burned and a substantial body of legion infantry destroyed. The governor of the province ] assembled his remaining forces and ] and restored order but for a while Nero considered abandoning the province.<ref>Suetonius, ''Nero'' 18, 39-40</ref> | |||
| ] replaced Decianus as ]. Classicianus advised Nero to replace Paulinus, who continued to punish the population even after the rebellion was over.<ref name=scullard/>{{rp|265}} | |||
| Nero decided to adopt a more lenient approach to governing the province, and appointed a new governor, ].<ref name=shotter/>{{rp|33}} | |||
| ===Peace with Parthia=== | |||
| {{details|Roman–Parthian War of 58–63}} | |||
| Nero began preparing for war in the early years of his reign, after the ] king ] set his brother ] on the ] throne. Around 57{{nbsp}}{{sc|AD}} and 58{{nbsp}}{{sc|AD}} ] and his legions advanced on Tiridates and captured the Armenian capital ]. ] was chosen to replace Tiridates on the Armenian throne. When Tigranes attacked ], Nero had to send further legions to defend Armenia and Syria from Parthia. | |||
| The Roman victory came at a time when the Parthians were troubled by revolts; when this was dealt with they were able to devote resources to the Armenian situation. A Roman army under Paetus surrendered under humiliating circumstances and though both Roman and Parthian forces withdrew from Armenia, it was under Parthian control. The triumphal arch for Corbulo's earlier victory was part-built when Parthian envoys arrived in 63 AD to discuss treaties. | |||
| Given ''imperium'' over the eastern regions, Corbulo organised his forces for an invasion but was met by this Parthian delegation. An agreement was thereafter reached with the Parthians: Rome would recognize Tiridates as king of Armenia, only if he agreed to receive his ] from Nero. A coronation ceremony was held in Italy 66{{nbsp}}{{sc|AD}}. Dio reports that Tiridates said "I have come to you, my God, worshiping you as ]." Shotter says this parallels other divine designations that were commonly applied to Nero in the East including "The New ]" and "The New Sun." After the coronation, friendly relations were established between Rome and the eastern kingdoms of Parthia and Armenia. Artaxata was temporarily renamed Neroneia.<ref name=scullard/>{{rp|265–66}}<ref name=shotter/>{{rp|35}} | |||
| ===The First Jewish War=== | |||
| {{main|First Jewish-Roman War}} | |||
| In 66, there was a Jewish revolt in Judea stemming from Greek and Jewish religious tension.<ref>Josephus, ''War of the Jews'' ].</ref> In 67, Nero dispatched ] to restore order.<ref>Josephus, ''War of the Jews'' ].</ref> This revolt was eventually put down in 70, after Nero's death.<ref>Josephus, ''War of the Jews'' ].</ref> This revolt is famous for Romans breaching the walls of Jerusalem and destroying the Second ].<ref>Josephus, ''War of the Jews'' ].</ref> | |||
| ==Pursuits== | |||
| Nero studied poetry, music, painting and sculpture. He both sang and played the '']'' (a type of ]). Many of these disciplines were standard education for the Roman elite, but Nero's devotion to music exceeded what was socially acceptable for a Roman of his class.<ref name="griffin"/>{{rp|41–2}} Ancient sources were critical of Nero's emphasis on the arts, chariot-racing and athletics. Pliny described Nero as an "actor-emperor" (''scaenici imperatoris'') and Suetonius wrote that he was "carried away by a craze for popularity...since he was acclaimed as the equal of Apollo in music and of the Sun in driving a chariot, he had planned to emulate the exploits of Hercules as well."<ref name=champlin/>{{rp|53}} | |||
| In 67 {{sc|AD}} Nero participated in the ]. He had bribed organizers to postpone the games for a year so he could participate,<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/10759486|title=The ancient Olympic games|last=Judith.|first=Swaddling,|date=1984, ©1980|publisher=University of Texas Press|isbn=9780292703735|edition= 1st University of Texas Press |location=Austin|oclc=10759486}}</ref> and artistic competitions were added to the athletic events. Nero won every contest in which he was a competitor. During the games Nero sang and played his lyre on stage, acted in tragedies and raced chariots. He won a 10-horse chariot race, despite being thrown from the chariot and leaving the race. He was crowned on the basis that he would have won if he had completed the race. After he died a year later, his name was removed from the list of winners.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.randomhistory.com/history-of-olympic-controversies.html|title=Going for Gold: A History of Olympic Controversies|website=www.randomhistory.com|access-date=2018-01-11}}</ref> Champlin writes that though Nero's participation "effectively stifled true competition, seems to have been oblivious of reality."<ref name=champlin/>{{rp|54–5}} | |||
| Nero established the Neronian games in 60{{nbsp}}{{sc|AD}}. Modeled on Greek style games, these games included "music" "gymnastic" and "questrian" contents. According to Suetonius the gymnastic contests were held in the Saepta area of the ].<ref name=champlin/>{{rp|288}} | |||
| ==Historiography== | |||
| The history of Nero's reign is problematic in that no historical sources survived that were contemporary with Nero. These first histories, while they still existed, were described as biased and fantastical, either overly critical or praising of Nero.<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' ]; Josephus, ''Antiquities of the Jews'' ]; Tacitus, ''Life of Gnaeus Julius Agricola'' ]; Tacitus, ''Annals'' ].</ref> The original sources were also said to contradict on a number of events.<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' ]; Tacitus, ''Annals'' ].</ref> Nonetheless, these lost primary sources were the basis of surviving secondary and tertiary histories on Nero written by the next generations of historians.<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' ]; Josephus, ''Antiquities of the Jews'' ].</ref> A few of the contemporary historians are known by name. ], ] and ] all wrote condemning histories on Nero that are now lost.<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' ].</ref> There were also pro-Nero histories, but it is unknown who wrote them or for what deeds Nero was praised.<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' ]; Josephus, ''Antiquities of the Jews'' ].</ref> | |||
| The bulk of what is known of Nero comes from ], ] and ], who were all of the senatorial class. Tacitus and Suetonius wrote their histories on Nero over fifty years after his death, while Cassius Dio wrote his history over 150 years after Nero's death. These sources contradict one another on a number of events in Nero's life including the death of ], the death of ], and the Roman fire of 64, but they are consistent in their condemnation of Nero. | |||
| A handful of other sources also add a limited and varying perspective on Nero. Few surviving sources paint Nero in a favourable light. Some sources, though, portray him as a competent emperor who was popular with the Roman people, especially in the east.{{Citation needed|date=June 2009}} | |||
| ;Cassius Dio | |||
| ] (c. 155–229) was the son of ], a Roman senator. He passed the greater part of his life in public service. He was a senator under ] and governor of Smyrna after the death of ]; and afterwards suffect consul around 205, and also proconsul in Africa and Pannonia.{{citation needed|date=September 2017}} | |||
| Books 61–63 of Dio's ''Roman History'' describe the reign of Nero. Only fragments of these books remain and what does remain was abridged and altered by ], an 11th-century monk.{{citation needed|date=September 2017}} | |||
| ;Dio Chrysostom | |||
| ] (c. 40–120), a Greek philosopher and historian, wrote the Roman people were very happy with Nero and would have allowed him to rule indefinitely. They longed for his rule once he was gone and embraced imposters when they appeared: | |||
| {{quote|Indeed the truth about this has not come out even yet; for so far as the rest of his subjects were concerned, there was nothing to prevent his continuing to be Emperor for all time, seeing that even now everybody wishes he were still alive. And the great majority do believe that he still is, although in a certain sense he has died not once but often along with those who had been firmly convinced that he was still alive.<ref>Dio Chrysostom, ''Discourse'' XXI, On Beauty.</ref>}} | |||
| ;Epictetus | |||
| ] (c. 55–135) was the slave to Nero's scribe ].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.college.columbia.edu/core/content/epictetus|title=Epictetus - The Core Curriculum|website=www.college.columbia.edu|accessdate=29 September 2017}}</ref> He makes a few passing negative comments on Nero's character in his work, but makes no remarks on the nature of his rule. He describes Nero as a spoiled, angry and unhappy man.{{citation needed|date=September 2017}} | |||
| ] (c. 37–100) who accused other historians of slandering Nero.]] | |||
| ;Josephus | |||
| The historian ] (c. 37–100), while calling Nero a tyrant, was also the first to mention bias against Nero. Of other historians, he said: | |||
| {{quote|But I omit any further discourse about these affairs; for there have been a great many who have composed the history of Nero; some of which have departed from the truth of facts out of favour, as having received benefits from him; while others, out of hatred to him, and the great ill-will which they bore him, have so impudently raved against him with their lies, that they justly deserve to be condemned. Nor do I wonder at such as have told lies of Nero, since they have not in their writings preserved the truth of history as to those facts that were earlier than his time, even when the actors could have no way incurred their hatred, since those writers lived a long time after them.<ref>Josephus, ''Antiquities of the Jews'' ].</ref>}} | |||
| ;Lucan | |||
| Although more of a poet than historian, ] (c. 39–65) has one of the kindest accounts of Nero's rule. He writes of peace and prosperity under Nero in contrast to previous war and strife. Ironically, he was later involved in a conspiracy to overthrow Nero and was executed.<ref>Marcus Annaeus Lucanus, .</ref> | |||
| ;Philostratus | |||
| ] II "the Athenian" (c. 172–250) spoke of Nero in the ] (Books 4–5). Although he has a generally bad or dim view of Nero, he speaks of others' positive reception of Nero in the East.{{citation needed|date=September 2017}} | |||
| ;Pliny the Elder | |||
| The history of Nero by ] (c. 24–79) did not survive. Still, there are several references to Nero in Pliny's ''Natural Histories''. Pliny has one of the worst opinions of Nero and calls him an "enemy of mankind."<ref>Pliny the Elder, ''Natural Histories'' .</ref> | |||
| ;Plutarch | |||
| ] (c. 46–127) mentions Nero indirectly in his account of the Life of Galba and the Life of Otho, as well as in the Vision of Thespesius in Book 7 of the Moralia, where a voice orders that Nero's soul be transferred to a more offensive species.<ref>Plutach, ''Moralia,'' ed. by G. P. Goold, trans. by Phillip H. De Lacy and Benedict Einarson, Loeb Classical Library (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1959), 7: 269–99.</ref> Nero is portrayed as a tyrant, but those that replace him are not described as better. | |||
| ;Seneca the Younger | |||
| It is not surprising that ] (c. 4 BC–65), Nero's teacher and advisor, writes very well of Nero.<ref>Seneca the Younger, .</ref> | |||
| ;Suetonius | |||
| {{Main|Lives of the Twelve Caesars}} | |||
| ] (c. 69–130) was a member of the equestrian order, and he was the head of the department of the imperial correspondence. While in this position, Suetonius started writing biographies of the emperors, accentuating the anecdotal and sensational aspects.{{citation needed|date=September 2017}} | |||
| ;Tacitus | |||
| {{Main|Annals (Tacitus)}} | |||
| The ''Annals'' by ] (c. 56–117) is the most detailed and comprehensive history on the rule of Nero, despite being incomplete after the year 66{{nbsp}}{{sc|AD}}. Tacitus described the rule of the Julio-Claudian emperors as generally unjust. He also thought that existing writing on them was unbalanced: | |||
| {{quote|The histories of Tiberius, Caius, Claudius and Nero, while they were in power, were falsified through terror, and after their death were written under the irritation of a recent hatred.<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' ].</ref>}} | |||
| Tacitus was the son of a ], who married into the elite family of Agricola. He entered his political life as a senator after Nero's death and, by Tacitus' own admission, owed much to Nero's rivals. Realising that this bias may be apparent to others, Tacitus protests that his writing is true.<ref>Tacitus, ''History'' ].</ref> | |||
| ; Girolamo Cardano | |||
| In 1562 ] published in Basel his ''Encomium Neronis'', which was one of the first historical references of the ] to portray Nero in a positive light.{{citation needed|date=September 2017}} | |||
| ==Nero in Jewish and Christian tradition== | |||
| ===Jewish tradition=== | |||
| At the end of 66{{nbsp}}{{sc|AD}}, conflict broke out between Greeks and Jews in ] and Caesarea. According to the ], Nero went to Jerusalem and shot arrows in all four directions. All the arrows landed in the city. He then asked a passing child to repeat the verse he had learned that day. The child responded, "I will lay my vengeance upon Edom by the hand of my people Israel" (] ). Nero became terrified, believing that God wanted the ] to be destroyed, but would punish the one to carry it out. Nero said, "He desires to lay waste His House and to lay the blame on me," whereupon he fled and converted to Judaism to avoid such retribution.<ref>Talmud, ] ] 56a-b</ref> ] was then dispatched to put down the rebellion. | |||
| The Talmud adds that the sage ] lived in the time of the ], and was a prominent supporter of the ] ] against Roman rule. Rabbi Meir was considered one of the greatest of the ] of the third generation (139-163). According to the Talmud, his father was a descendant of Nero who had converted to Judaism. His wife ] is one of the few women cited in the ]. He is the third-most-frequently-mentioned sage in the Mishnah.<ref>Drew Kaplan, ''Drew Kaplan's Blog'' (5 July 2011).</ref> | |||
| Roman and Greek sources nowhere report Nero's alleged trip to Jerusalem or his alleged conversion to Judaism.<ref>Isaac, Benjamin (2004) The Invention of Racism in Classical Antiquity pp. 440–491. Princeton.</ref> There is also no record of Nero having any offspring who survived infancy: his only recorded child, ], died aged 4 months. | |||
| ===Christian tradition=== | |||
| ]. A Christian woman is martyred in this re-enactment of the myth of ].]] | |||
| ] | |||
| Non-Christian historian ] describes Nero extensively torturing and executing Christians after the fire of 64.<ref name="annals-xv-44"/> ] also mentions Nero punishing Christians, though he does so because they are "given to a new and mischievous superstition" and does not connect it with the fire.<ref>Suetonius ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', .</ref> | |||
| Christian writer ] (c. 155–230) was the first to call Nero the first persecutor of Christians. He wrote, "Examine your records. There you will find that Nero was the first that persecuted this doctrine".<ref>Tertullian ''Apologeticum'', lost text quoted in , ], '']'', II.25.4.</ref> ] (c. 240–320) also said that Nero "first persecuted the servants of God".<ref name="lactantius">.</ref> as does ].<ref>.</ref> However, Suetonius writes that, "since the Jews constantly made disturbances at the instigation of Chrestus, the ]] expelled them from Rome" ("''Iudaeos impulsore Chresto assidue tumultuantis Roma expulit''").<ref>Suetonius ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Claudius .</ref> These expelled "Jews" may have been early Christians, although Suetonius is not explicit. Nor is the Bible explicit, calling Aquila of Pontus and his wife, Priscilla, both expelled from Italy at the time, "Jews".<ref>].</ref> | |||
| ====Martyrdoms of Peter and Paul==== | |||
| The first text to suggest that Nero ordered the execution of an apostle is a letter by ] to the Corinthians traditionally dated to around 96 A.D.<ref name="Champlin2009">{{cite book|author=Edward Champlin|title=Nero|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=30Wa-l9B5IoC&pg=PA123|date=1 July 2009|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-02936-1}}</ref>{{rp|123–}} The apocryphal ], a Christian writing from the 2nd century, says, "the slayer of his mother, who himself (even) this king, will persecute the plant which the Twelve Apostles of the Beloved have planted. Of the Twelve one will be delivered into his hands"; this is interpreted as referring to Nero.<ref name="ascension">.</ref> | |||
| ] ] of ] (c. 275–339) was the first to write explicitly that Paul was beheaded in Rome during the reign of Nero.<ref>Eusebius, .</ref> He states that Nero's persecution led to Peter and Paul's deaths, but that Nero did not give any specific orders. However, several other accounts going back to the 1st century have Paul surviving his two years in Rome and travelling to ], before facing trial in Rome again prior to his death.<ref>In the , in the , in the , and in .</ref> | |||
| Peter is first said to have been ] in Rome during Nero's reign (but not by Nero) in the ] ] (c. 200).<ref>.</ref> The account ends with Paul still alive and Nero abiding by God's command not to persecute any more Christians. | |||
| By the 4th century, a number of writers were stating that Nero killed Peter and Paul.<ref>] wrote that Nero "crucified Peter, and slew Paul.", Lactantius, ; ] wrote Nero knew Paul personally and had him killed, John Chrysostom, ; ] says Nero killed Peter and Paul, Sulpicius Severus, .</ref> | |||
| ====The Antichrist==== | |||
| {{Main|Antichrist|The Beast (Revelation)|Number of the Beast}} | |||
| The ], Book 5 and 8, written in the 2nd century, speak of Nero returning and bringing destruction.<ref>.</ref><ref name="GriffinGriffin2002">{{cite book|author1=Miriam T. Griffin|author2=Tutor in Ancient History and Fellow Miriam T Griffin|title=Nero: The End of a Dynasty|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vuQXk4DC08gC&pg=PA15|date=11 September 2002|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-61044-0|pages=15–}}</ref> Within Christian communities, these writings, along with others,<ref>] and ] also say that Nero is the Antichrist, ; .</ref> fueled the belief that Nero would return as the Antichrist. In 310, ] wrote that Nero "suddenly disappeared, and even the burial place of that noxious wild beast was nowhere to be seen. This has led some persons of extravagant imagination to suppose that, having been conveyed to a distant region, he is still reserved alive; and to him they apply the Sibylline verses". Lactantius maintains that it is not right to believe this.<ref name="lactantius"/><ref name="Champlin2009"/>{{rp|20–}} | |||
| In 422, ] wrote about 2 Thessalonians 2:1–11, where he believed Paul mentioned the coming of the Antichrist. Although he rejects the theory, Augustine mentions that many Christians believed Nero was the Antichrist or would return as the Antichrist. He wrote, "so that in saying, 'For the mystery of iniquity doth already work,'<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?book_id=60&chapter=2&verse=7&version=9&context=verse|title=2 Thessalonians 2:7 – Passage Lookup – King James Version|publisher=BibleGateway.com|accessdate=2010-11-09}}</ref> he alluded to Nero, whose deeds already seemed to be as the deeds of Antichrist."<ref name="augustine"/> | |||
| Some modern biblical scholars<ref>, Catherine A. Cory.</ref><ref>, Alan John Philip Garrow.</ref> such as Delbert Hillers (]) of the ] and the editors of the ''Oxford Study Bible'' and ''Harper Collins Study Bible'', contend that the number ] in the ] is a code for Nero,<ref>Hillers, Delbert, "Rev. 13, 18 and a scroll from Murabba'at", Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 170 (1963) 65.</ref> a view that is also supported in ] Biblical commentaries.<ref>The New Jerome Biblical Commentary. Ed. Raymond E. Brown, Joseph A. Fitzmyer, and Roland E. Murphy. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1990. 1009.</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Just, S.J., Ph.D.|first=Prof. Felix|title=''The Book of Revelation, Apocalyptic Literature, and Millennial Movements'', University of San Francisco, USF Jesuit Community|url=http://catholic-resources.org/Bible/Apocalyptic.htm|doi=|accessdate=2007-05-18}}</ref> | |||
| ==Ancestry== | |||
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| |1= 1. '''Nero''' | |||
| |2= 2. ] | |||
| |3= 3. ] | |||
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| |5= 5. ] | |||
| |6= 6. ] | |||
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| |17= 17. ] | |||
| |18= <!--18. ???--> | |||
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| |26= 26. ] | |||
| |27= 27. ] | |||
| |28= 28. ] | |||
| |29= <!--29. ???--> | |||
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| |31= 31. ] | |||
| }} | |||
| ==See also== | |||
| *] | |||
| ==Notes== | |||
| {{notelist-lr}} | |||
| ==References== | |||
| {{Reflist|30em}} | |||
| ==Bibliography== | |||
| '''Primary sources''' | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| '''Secondary sources''' | |||
| * Benario, Herbert W. at ''De Imperatoribus Romanis''. | |||
| * {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?isbn=0674018222 |title=Nero |author=Champlin, Edward |authorlink=Edward Champlin |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-674-01822-8}} | |||
| * ]. ''Nero''. London: Stacey International, 2010 ({{ISBN|1-906768-14-5}}). | |||
| * Donahue, John, at ''De Imperatoribus Romanis''. | |||
| * Grant, Michael. ''Nero''. New York: Dorset Press, 1989 ({{ISBN|0-88029-311-X}}). | |||
| * Griffin, Miriam T. ''Nero: The End of a Dynasty''. New Haven, CT; London: ], 1985 (hardcover, {{ISBN|0-300-03285-4}}); London; New York: Routledge, 1987 (paperback, {{ISBN|0-7134-4465-7}}). | |||
| * Holland, Richard. ''Nero: The Man Behind the Myth''. Stroud: Sutton Publishing, 2000 (paperback {{ISBN|0-7509-2876-X}}). | |||
| *{{fr}} Minaud, Gérard, ''Les vies de 12 femmes d'empereur romain - Devoirs, Intrigues & Voluptés '', Paris, L'Harmattan, 2012, ch. 4, '' La vie de Poppée, femme de Néron'', p. 97–120 ({{ISBN|978-2-336-00291-0}}). | |||
| * {{cite journal | |||
| |title = Heirs and Rivals to Nero | |||
| |last = Rogers | |||
| |first = Robert Samuel | |||
| |journal = ] | |||
| |issn = 0065-9711 | |||
| |volume = 86 | |||
| |year = 1955 | |||
| |pages = 190–212 | |||
| |doi = 10.2307/283618 | |||
| |jstor = 283618 | |||
| |via = ] | |||
| |registration = y | |||
| |ref = harv | |||
| }} | |||
| * Warmington, Brian Herbert. ''Nero: Reality and Legend''. London: Chatto & Windus, 1969 (hardcover, {{ISBN|0-7011-1438-X}}); New York: W.W Norton & Company, 1970 (paperback, {{ISBN|0-393-00542-9}}); New York: Vintage, 1981 (paperback, {{ISBN|0-7011-1454-1}}). | |||
| * (Russian) Mikhail Berman-Tsikinovsky "The Pisonian Conspiracy"(Заговор Пизона)docudrama based on Tacitus Annals 15 and other sources. Failed conspiracy against Nero led to tragic death of 26 year old Great Roman poet ] and his famous uncle Seneca, executed by Nero order. Moscow, Wagrius plus, 2008. {{ISBN|978-598525-045-9}} | |||
| * Nero: The Actor-Emperor | |||
| * entry in historical sourcebook by Mahlon H. Smith | |||
| * basic data & select quotes posted by | |||
| * . | |||
| * | |||
| * entry in the . | |||
| * {{cite EB1911|author=Pelham, Henry Francis|authorlink=Henry Francis Pelham|wstitle=Nero|volume=19|pages=390–393}} | |||
| {{reflist|group=lower-roman}} | |||
| ==External links== | |||
| {{Wikiquote}} | |||
| {{Commons category|Nero}} | |||
| * {{cite journal | doi = 10.11141/ia.32.5 | title = Finding Nero: shining a new light on Romano-British sculpture | issue=32 | year=2013 | journal=Internet Archaeology | last1 = Russell | first1 = Miles | last2 = Manley | first2 = Harry}} | |||
| * | |||
| * , '']'' online | |||
| * , ].org | |||
| * , ].co.uk | |||
| * , '']'' online | |||
| * , '']'' online | |||
| *]: ]-documentary ] | |||
| {{S-start}} | |||
| {{S-hou|]|15 December|37|9 June|68}} | |||
| {{S-off}} | |||
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| {{s-non|reason=Dynasty ended }} | |||
| {{s-bef|before=],<br/>and ''ignotus''|as=Suffect consuls}} | |||
| {{s-ttl|title=] of the ]|years=55|regent1=]}} | |||
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| {{s-bef|before=], and<br/>]|as=Suffect consuls}} | |||
| {{s-ttl|title=] of the ]|years=57–58 |regent1=] (57) |regent2=] (58)}} | |||
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| {{s-ttl|title=] of the ]|years=68<br/>''sine collega''}} | |||
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