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| {{ wiktionarypar |marijuana}} | |||
| '''Cannabis''' (also known as '''marijuana''' or '''ganja''' in its herbal form and ''']''' in its resinous form) is a ] product of the plant '']'' L. subsp. ''indica'' (= ''C. indica'' Lam.). The herbal form of the drug consists of dried mature ]s and subtending leaves of pistillate ("female") plants. The resinous form consists primarily of glandular trichomes collected from the same plant material. It has been reported that commercial hashish is often no more potent than high quality seedless marijuana.<ref name=baker1980a>Baker, P. B., K. R. Bagon, and T. A. Gough. 1980. . ''Bulletin on Narcotics'' '''4''': 47-54. Retrieved 25 Feb 2007</ref> However, carefully produced and screened hashish is up to three times as potent as the highest quality herb.<ref name=clarke1998a>Clarke, R. C. 1998. Hashish! Red Eye Press. Los Angeles, California.</ref> | |||
| The major biologically active ] in ''Cannabis'' is Δ<sup>9</sup>-], commonly referred to as THC. It has ] and ] effects when consumed, usually by smoking or ingestion. The minimum amount of THC required to have a perceptible psychoactive effect is about 5 mg. A related compound, Δ<sup>9</sup>-tetrahydrocannabidivarin, also know as THCV, is produced in appreciable amounts by certain drug strains. This ] has been described in the popular literature as having shorter-acting, flashier effects than THC, but recent studies suggest that it may actually inhibit the effects of THC. Relatively high levels of THCV are common in African dagga (marijuana), and in hashish from the northwest Himalayas.<ref name=clarke1998a/> | |||
| Humans have been consuming ''Cannabis'' since prehistory, although in the 20th century there was a rise in its use for ], ] or spiritual, and medicinal purposes. It is estimated that ''Cannabis'' is now regularly used by four percent of the world's adult population,<ref name="WDR2006chap2">United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. 2006. . World Drug Report, vol. 1. ISBN 92-1-148214-3 Retrieved on 10 Nov 2006</ref> with estimates of up to 20% or greater of the adult population in the United States having tried the drug, and 10-30% or greater using the herb in many European countries. The possession, use, or sale of psychoactive ''Cannabis'' products became ] in most parts of the world in the early 20th century. Since then, some countries have intensified the enforcement of ''Cannabis'' ] while others have reduced the priority of enforcement, almost to the point of legalization, as is the case in ]. The production of ''Cannabis'' for drug use remains illegal throughout most of the world through the 1961 ], the 1971 ], and the 1988 ], while simple possession of small quantities is either legal, or treated as an addiction rather than a criminal offense in a few countries. The laws in the United States vary from state to state, some having decriminalized the possession of small amounts of marijuana although it is still a federal crime. | |||
| == Ancient history == | |||
| Botanists have determined that ''Cannabis'' is native to central Asia, possibly extending southward into the ].<ref name=zuardi2006>Antonio Waldo Zuardi. 2006. . ''Revista Brasileira de Psiquiatria'' '''28'''(2): 153-157. Retrieved on 25 Feb 2007</ref> Evidence of the inhalation of ''Cannabis'' smoke can be found as far back as the ] age, as evidenced by charred seeds found in a ritual ] at an ancient burial site in present day ].<ref name=rudgley1999>Richard Rudgley. 1999. ''The Lost Civilizations of the Stone Age''. Touchstone, New York. ISBN 0-684-85580-1</ref> The most famous users of ''Cannabis'' were the ancient ]s of India, and the Hashshashins (hashish eaters) of present day Syria. The herb was called ''ganjika'' in ] (''ganja'' in modern Indian languages, named for the ] river).<ref name=leary1990>Timothy Leary. 1990. ''Flashbacks''. Tarcher/Putnam, New York. ISBN 0-87477-870-0 </ref><ref name="ganjikaEB">1911. . ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', 11th ed. Retrieved on 15 Jun 2006</ref> The ancient drug ], mentioned in the ]s as a sacred intoxicating hallucinogen, was sometimes associated with ''Cannabis''.<ref name=rudgley1998>Richard Rudgley. 1998. . The Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Substances. Little, Brown and Company, Great Britain. Retrieved on 25 Feb 2007</ref> | |||
| Citizens of the ] would partake in the ceremonial burning of massive ''Cannabis'' bonfires, directly exposing themselves and neighboring tribes to the billowing fumes, often for over 24 hours.<ref name="usaybia1965">Abu Usaybia. 1965. ''Uyunu al-Anba fi Tabaquat al-Atibba''. University of California Press, Berkeley.</ref><ref name="preble1967">Edward Preble and Gabriel V. Laury, 1967. Plastic cement: the ten cent hallucinogen. ''International Journal of the Addictions'' '''2''': 271-272.</ref> | |||
| ''Cannabis'' was also known to the ], who discovered it through the ]. Using it in some religious ceremonies, they called it ''qunubu'' or ''the drug for sadness''. ''Cannabis'' was also introduced by the ] to the ]ns and ]/]ns, whose ] (the ''kapnobatai'' - "those who walk on smoke/clouds") burned ''Cannabis'' flowers to induce a state of trance. The cult of ], believed to have originated in ], is also thought to have inhaled ''Cannabis'' smoke. In 2003, a leather basket filled with ''Cannabis'' leaf fragments and seeds was found next to a 2,500 to 2,800 year old ] ] in the northwestern ] Uygur Autonomous Region of ].<ref name=peoplesdaily>2006. . ''People's Daily Online'' (English). Retrieved 25 Feb 2007</ref><ref name=jiang2006a>Hong-En Jiang, Xiao Li, You-Xing Zhao, David K. Ferguson, Francis Hueber, Subir Bera, Yu-Fei Wang, Liang-Cheng Zhao, Chang-Jiang Liu, and Cheng-Sen Li. 2006. . ''Journal of Ethnopharmacology'' '''108'''(3): 414-422. Retrieved 25 Feb 2007</ref> | |||
| == Religious and spiritual use == | |||
| {{main|Spiritual use of cannabis}} | |||
| ] has an ancient history of ritual use and is found in ]s around the world. Hemp seeds discovered by archaeologists at ] suggest early ceremonial practices by the ] occurred during the 5th to 2nd century BC, confirming previous historical reports by ]. Some historians and etymologists have claimed that cannabis was used as a religious sacrament by ancient ], early ] and ] of the ] order. In ] and ], it has been used by some of the wandering spiritual ]s for centuries, and in modern times the ] has embraced it. Elders of the modern religious movement known as the ] consider cannabis to be the ], claiming it as an oral tradition from ] dating back to the time of ]. Like the Rastafari, some modern ] Christian sects have asserted that ''Cannabis'' is the Tree of Life. Other organized religions founded in the past century that treat cannabis as a sacrament are the ], the ], ], the ] and the ]. Many individuals also consider their use of cannabis to be spiritual regardless of organized religion. | |||
| == Medical use == | |||
| {{main|Medical cannabis}} | |||
| The ] states that ''Cannabis'' is an ideal therapeutic drug for ] and ] patients, who often suffer from ], and from nausea and resulting weight loss due to ] and other aggressive treatments. It is claimed that ''Cannabis'' makes these other treatments more tolerable. The nausea suppression and mild analgesic effects of ''Cannabis'' also provide a degree of relief for persons suffering from ], and it can also be used by ] sufferers for temporary relief of excessive sweating. | |||
| There are many claims regarding the use of ''Cannabis'' in a medical context, both for and against. On April 20, 2006 the United States ] (FDA) issued an intra-agency advisory warning against medical ''Cannabis'', restating the ]'s position that marijuana has a high potential for abuse, no currently accepted medical use, and a lack of accepted safety for use under medical supervision. The FDA also asserted that, "there is currently sound evidence that smoked marijuana is harmful." However, a recent epidemiological study funded by the ] (NIH) concluded that, "the association of these cancers with marijuana, even long-term or heavy use, is not strong and may be below practically detectable limits."<ref name=hashibe2006>Hashibe, M., H. Morgenstern, Y. Cui, D. P. Tashkin, Z.-F. Zhang, W. Cozen, T. M. Mack, and S. Greenland. 2006. . ''Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention'' 15(10): 1829-1834. Retrieved on Feb 26 2007</ref><ref name=Bates2006>Bates, K. L. 16 Oct 2006. . ''The University Record'' Online. University of Michigan. Retrieved on 26 Feb 2007</ref> Nevertheless, the official position of several medical organizations including the American Medical Association , the National Multiple Sclerosis Society , the American Glaucoma Society, the American Academy of Ophthalmology and the American Cancer Society is that they do not support smoking the herbal form of marijuana for medical use. On June 6, 2005, the U.S. Supreme Court handed down a decision which supported the Federal Government's position against "medical marijuana". Justices O'Connor, Rehnquist, and Thomas filed dissenting opinions. | |||
| Claims have been made that ''Cannabis'' reduces intraocular pressure (fluid pressure within the eye) and is therefore useful for ] patients.<ref name=zakrzewski>Zakrzewski, P. A. and L. Kus. 2003. . Hypothesis 1(1): 30-33. Retrieved 26 Feb 2007</ref> It is also reported to be beneficial for treating certain neurological illnesses such as ], ] and ]. Studies have found that the use of ''Cannabis'' can relieve tics in patients suffering from ] and/or ]. Patients treated with marijuana reported a significant decrease in both motor and vocal tics, some of 50% or more.<ref name="ocd-ts-99">{{cite journal|author=K.R. Muller, U. Schneider, H. Kolbe, H.M. Emrich|title=''Treatment of Tourette's Syndrome With Delta-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol''|journal=American Journal of Psychiatry|year=1999|volume=156|issue=3|url=http://www.marijuana.org/AmJoPsychMarch99.html}}</ref><ref name="ocd-ts-02">{{cite journal|author=K.R. Muller, U. Schneider, A. Koblenz, M. Jöbges, H. Kolbe, T. Daldrup, H.M. Emrich|title=''Treatment of Tourette's Syndrome with Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC): A Randomized Crossover Trial''|journal=Pharmacopsychiatry|year=2002|volume=35|issue=2|url=http://www.thieme-connect.com/ejournals/abstract/pharmaco/doi/10.1055/s-2002-25028}}</ref><ref name="ocd-ts-88">{{cite journal|author=R. Sandyk, G. Awerbuch|title=''Marijuana and Tourette's Syndrome''|journal=Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology|year=1988|volume=8|issue=6|url=http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/hemp/medical/mjtouret.htm}}</ref> Some decrease in obsessive-compulsive behavior were also found.<ref name="ocd-ts-99">{{cite journal|author=K.R. Muller, U. Schneider, H. Kolbe, H.M. Emrich|title=''Treatment of Tourette's Syndrome With Delta-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol''|journal=American Journal of Psychiatry|year=1999|volume=156|issue=3|url=http://www.marijuana.org/AmJoPsychMarch99.html}}</ref> A recent study has also concluded that cannabinoids found in ''Cannabis'' might have the ability to prevent ].<ref name="ADBlock">Ramíirez, B. G., C. Blázquez, T. Gómez del Pulgar, M. Guzmán, and M. L. de Ceballos. 2005. . ''Journal of Neuroscience'' '''25'''(8): 1904-1913. Retrieved on 27 Feb 2007</ref> | |||
| Currently the citizens of 11 states in the United States (upwards of 60 million people) have legalized ''Cannabis'' for medical use to some degree. Additionally, six states have enacted decriminalization policies toward the drug. Because the federal government does not acknowledge any medical uses for ''Cannabis'', federal enforcement of prohibition continues in these states. | |||
| The medical use of ''Cannabis'' is politically controversial, but physicians sometimes recommend it informally despite the risk of federal prosecution in the United States. A synthetic version of the major active compound in ''Cannabis'', THC, is available in capsule form as the prescription drug ] (Marinol) in many countries. THC has been shown to reduce arterial blockages.<ref name=steffens2005>Steffens, S., N. R. Veillard, C. Arnaud, G. Pelli, F. Burger, C. Staub, M. Karsak, A. Zimmer, J.-L. Frossard, and F. Mach. . ''Nature'' '''474'''(7034): 782-786. Retrieved 27 Feb 2007</ref> The prescription drug ], an extract of ''Cannabis'' administered as a sublingual spray, has been approved in ] for the treatment of ];<ref name="SativexC">Koch, W. 23 Jun 2005. . ''USA Today'' (online). Retrieved on 27 Feb 2007</ref> this medication may now be legally imported into the ] and ] on prescription. <ref name="SativexEu">{{cite web|url=http://stopthedrugwar.org/chronicle/411/sativex.shtml|title=Europe: Sativex Coming to England, Spain|accessdate=2006-03-25}}</ref> United States federal law currently registers ''Cannabis'' as a Schedule I drug (along with heroin and LSD), and Marinol as a Schedule III drug, despite the fact that they have the same active ingredient. | |||
| ==Correlation with use of other illicit drugs== | |||
| Since its origin in the 1950s, the "]" theory has been one of the central pillars of marijuana drug policy in the United States.<ref name=Rand>2 Dec 2002. . RAND Corporation. Retrieved on 27 Feb 2007</ref> Those who subscribe to this theory, which has since spread throughout the world, argue that ''Cannabis'' use may lead one 'through the gate and down the path' of drug addiction, and should therefore be treated as a serious matter. Some researchers conclude that this model of behavior has little basis in fact, whereas others have found truth in these claims.<ref name=journalwatch>Richard Saitz. 18 Feb 2003. ? ''Journal Watch''. Retrieved on 27 Feb 2007</ref> Despite the conflicting results of these studies, many researchers agree that the illegal status of ''Cannabis'' has a direct connection to the "gateway theory".<ref name=morral2002>Morral, A. R., D. F. McCaffrey, and S. M. Paddock. 2002. . ''Addiction'' '''97'''(12): 1493-1504.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mpp.org/site/c.glKZLeMQIsG/b.1146183/k.AE54/FAQ.htm|title=Marijuana Policy Project- FAQ|accessdate=2006-12-24}}</ref> The reasoning goes that ''Cannabis'' users are more likely than non-users to place themselves in situations where other illicit substances are being used. Also, in order to acquire ''Cannabis'' they are likely to become acquainted with people who sell dangerous drugs. Although it might be true that the majority of people who use other illicit drugs started their use of these substances with marijuana because it is widely available, several studies show that tobacco smoking is a better predictor of concurrent alcohol and illicit drug use than ''Cannabis''.<ref name=Torabi1993>Torabi, M. R., W. J. Bailey, and M. Majd-Jabbari. 1993. . ''Journal of School Health'' '''63'''(7): 302-306. Retrieved on 25 Feb 2007</ref> Keeping this argument in mind, certain activist groups such as ] contend that legalizing ''Cannabis'' would substantially reduce the use of more dangerous drugs by taking the distribution of marijuana out of the hands of criminals, and regulating it in a similar manner to ] or ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.norml.org/index.cfm?Group_ID=3383|title=Marijuana Decriminalization & Its Impact on Use|accessdate=2007-01-29}}</ref> Government agencies such as the ], however, claim that legalization would do far more harm than good, and would likely cause a rise in ''Cannabis'' use.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dea.gov/marijuana_position.html|title=The DEA Position on Marijuana|accessdate=2007-01-29}}</ref> | |||
| == New breeding and cultivation techniques == | |||
| {{main|Cannabis (drug) cultivation}} | |||
| It is often claimed by growers and breeders of herbal ''Cannabis'' that advances in breeding and cultivation techniques have increased the potency of ''Cannabis'' since the late 1960's and early '70's. However, potent seedless marijuana such as "Thai sticks" were already available at that time. In fact, the ] of producing high potency ganja (marijuana) has been practiced in India for centuries. Sinsemilla (Spanish for ''without seed''), is the dried, seedless inflorescences of female ''Cannabis'' plants. Because ] production drops off once pollination occurs, the male plants (which produce little THC themselves) are eliminated before they shed pollen to ensure that no pollination occurs. Advanced cultivation techniques such as ], ], ], and ] are frequently employed as a response (in part) to prohibition enforcement efforts that make outdoor cultivation more risky. These intensive horticultural techniques have led to fewer seeds being present in ''Cannabis'' and a general increase in potency over the past 20 years. | |||
| Many opponents of ''Cannabis'' use, both in and out of government, have exaggerated the increases in potency and ramifications thereof. In the United States, government advertisements encourage parents to disregard their own experiences with ''Cannabis'' when speaking to their children, on the premise that the <!-- don't change this, it is intentionally -->"pot"<!-- like in the ads to which I refer --><!-- could you cite those ads? --> of today is significantly stronger, and thus more dangerous, than that which they used in the past.<ref name="More potent">{{cite press release|publisher=]|date=]|url=http://www.dhhs.gov/news/press/2004pres/20040909b.html|title=Nation's Youth Turning Away from Marijuana, as Perceptions of Risk Rise; Most Adults with Substance Abuse Problems Are Employed|accessdate=2006-05-30}}</ref> In proposed revisions to ] in the U.K., the government is considering scheduling the more potent ''Cannabis'' material as a separate, more restricted substance. Many ''Cannabis'' proponents are vehemently opposed, reasoning that if one can smoke less ''Cannabis'' to achieve the same effect, then it is safer in the long run than smoking a less potent product. | |||
| There are two recognized types of herbal ''Cannabis'', "sativa" and "indica." So-called "sativa" strains are reputed to induce a noticeably more "cerebral" high, while "indica" strains induce more of a body high. These two drug types are often hybridized or crossed with early-maturing (but low THC) "ruderalis" strains to increase the range in desirable characteristics. | |||
| == Preparations for human consumption == | |||
| ] | |||
| Cannabis is prepared for human consumption in several forms: | |||
| * '']'' or '']'': the leaves and flowering tops of female plants | |||
| * '']'' or '']'': a concentrated resin composed of glandular trichomes and vegetative debris that has been physically extracted, usually by rubbing, sifting, or with ice | |||
| * '']'' or '']'': 1) the chopped flowering tops of female ''Cannabis'' plants, often mixed with tobacco; 2) Moroccan hashish produced in the Rif mountains;<ref name=kif>Anouk Zijlma. . Retrieved on 27 Feb 2007</ref> 3) sifted ''Cannabis'' trichomes consisting of only the glandular "heads" (often incorrectly referred to as "crystals" or "pollen") | |||
| * '']'': a beverage prepared by grinding ''Cannabis'' leaves in milk and boiling with spices and other ingredients | |||
| * '']'': an oily mixture resulting from chemical ] or ] of the THC-rich parts of the plant | |||
| * '']'': hash oil whipped to incorporate air, making it more like butter | |||
| These forms are not exclusive, and mixtures of two or more different forms of ''Cannabis'' are frequently consumed. Between the many different strains of ''Cannabis'' and the various ways that it is prepared, there are innumerable variations similar to the wide variety of mixed alcoholic beverages that are consumed. | |||
| === Smoking === | |||
| {{main|Cannabis smoking}} | |||
| ] | |||
| There are a wide variety of methods and apparatus for smoking ''Cannabis''. The most popular include the ], the ], the ], the ], the ] (more commonly called a "bowl" or "piece"), the ], the ], and the ] or "bat." ''Cannabis'' is sometimes smoked within a small enclosed area (such as a car) to trap the smoke, so that it is inhaled with every breath. This is often referred to as "]," "fishbowling," "baking," "jeaning," "clam-baking," "green-housing," creating a "potmosphere," or (in Australia), a "compression session." One can also smoke marijuana in a steam-filled environment (bathroom, sauna), with the added humidity intended to produce a greater high. | |||
| To create a joint, herbal ''Cannabis'' is rolled into a cigarette using ], when available. As a last resort, brown paper, newsprint, and other assorted paper products are sometimes used to roll a "spliff." ''Cannabis'' ]s, or ] can also be created by using the wrapper of an ordinary cigar ("Phillies Blunts" are a popular choice). | |||
| The classic ] is a tube with a small bowl (at the end of a thinner tube) inserted through the side, near the base. The bong is partially filled with water for the smoke to bubble through. The herb is placed in the bowl and ignited. After filling the tube with smoke, it is "cleared" by removing one's finger from a hole in the side. Homemade bongs are sometimes made with plastic soda bottles. Smoking marijuana through a bong concentrates the smoke, and it is often followed by fits of coughing and laughter. Variants include the ] (also known as a bucket bong), which consists of a cone atop a perforated or cut water bottle. This method of ''Cannabis'' smoking is one of the most efficient, as the presence of a chamber and "carburetor" hole reduce smoke waste. With a bong, one can consume greater amounts of ''Cannabis'' in one "hit" than withan ordinary pipe. | |||
| Pipes are usually made of ], wood, or non-reactive metals. Metal pipes are often made of interchangeable pieces. Glass pipes often have a "carburetor" hole, colloquially referred to as a ''carb,'' ''rush,'' ''choke,'' ''shotgun,'' or ''shooter'' (British use) that is covered for suction and then released to draw a mixture of smoke and air into the lungs. Some users prefer vertically held pipes (chillums), or improvised pipes (e.g., "tinnies" or "foilies") made from aluminium foil, small plumbing fittings, soda cans, crisp fruits or vegetables, or the cardboard tubes from bathroom-tissue or aluminium foil rolls. | |||
| A "one-hitter" is a device that enables a small amount of ''Cannabis'' to be burned and inhaled in a single breath. The ''Cannabis'' is loaded into one end of a small screenless tube (usually brass), and the entire amount is smoked at once. This is repeated for each hit. This method is useful for carefully ] the desired dose. One-hitters are often disguised to fool people into believing that one is smoking an authentic cigarette. This deception is more effective (but less healthy) if the ''Cannabis'' is mixed with a little tobacco. | |||
| === Vaporization === | |||
| With a '']'', herbal ''Cannabis'' is heated to a temperature of about 365 - 410 °F (185 - 210 °C), at which the active ingredients are released into ]eous form with little or no burning of the plant material (the boiling point of THC is 200°C at 0.02 mm Hg pressure, and somewhat higher at standard atmospheric pressure).<ref name=volcano>. Volcano<sup>tm</sup> Operating Manual. Storz & Bickel, Tuttlingen, Germany.</ref><ref name=merck1989>1989. ''The Merck Index'', 11th ed., Merck & Co., Rahway, New Jersey</ref> With this method the user inhales fewer toxic chemicals, at much lower levels than by smoking, although this may vary depending on the design of the vaporizer and the temperature at which it is set. Scientific studies have yielded varied results on the effectiveness of vaporizing as a method of ''Cannabis'' consumption. A study by ]/], using a ] vaporizer reported 95% THC and no toxins delivered in the vapor.<ref name="norml1">{{cite journal | |||
| | quotes = | |||
| | last = Gieringer | |||
| | first = Dale H. | |||
| | authorlink = | |||
| | coauthors = Joseph St. Laurent, Scott Goodrich | |||
| | date = | |||
| | year = 2004 | |||
| | month = | |||
| | title = Cannabis Vaporizer Combines Efficient Delivery of THC with Effective Suppression of Pyrolytic Compounds | |||
| | journal = Journal of Cannabis Therapeutics | |||
| | volume = 4 | |||
| | issue = 1 | |||
| | pages = 7-27 | |||
| | doi = 10.1300/J175v04n01_02 | |||
| | id = | |||
| | url = http://www.maps.org/mmj/Gieringer-vaporizer.pdf | |||
| | language = | |||
| | format = pdf | |||
| | accessdate = 2006-04-21 | |||
| }}</ref> However, an older study using vaporizers of a less sophisticated design showed substantially less reduction of toxins.<ref name="norml2">{{cite web|url=http://www.maps.org/news-letters/v06n3/06359mj1.html|title=Marijuana Water Pipe and Vaporizer Study|last=Gieringer|first=Dale|accessdate=2006-04-21}}</ref> | |||
| === Eating cannabis === | |||
| As an alternative to smoking, ''Cannabis'' may be consumed orally. Although ] is sometimes eaten raw or mixed with water, THC and other cannabinoids are more efficiently absorbed into the bloodstream when dissolved in ], or combined with butter or other ]s. The effects of ''Cannabis'' administered this way take longer to begin, but last longer. They are sometimes perceived as more physical than mental, although there are many claims to the contrary. An oral dose of ''Cannabis'' is often considered to give a more intense experience than the equivalent dose of smoked ''Cannabis.'' Some people report unpleasant experiences after ingesting ''Cannabis,'' because they experience a more intense effect than they are comfortable with. Smoking ''Cannabis'' results in a significant loss of THC and other cannabinoids in the exhaled smoke, by decomposition on burning, and in smoke that is not inhaled. In contrast, of all of the active constituents enters the body when ''Cannabis'' in ingested. It has been shown that the primary active component of ''Cannabis'', Δ9-THC, is converted to the more psychoactive ] by the liver.<ref name="11-hydroxy">{{cite journal| author=Paulo Borini; Romeu Cardoso Guimarães; Sabrina Bicalho Borini| year=2004| month=May| title= ''Possible hepatotoxicity of chronic marijuana usage''| journal=Sao Paulo Medical Journal| volume=122| issue=3| doi=10.1590/S1516-31802004000300007| url=http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?pid=S1516-31802004000300007&script=sci_arttext&tlng=en| accessdate=2006-05-02}}</ref> ] to the desired effect by ingestion is much more difficult than through inhalation. A common method of preparation involves blending ''Cannabis'' material with butter to create "]", which is used in preparing such culinary delights as ], ], ], "]s," and "]s". Before blending with melted butter, the plant material is often finely ground, almost to a powder. A more refined form of cannabutter is prepared by heating ''Cannabis'' material with butter and water for an extended period of time, without bringing to a complete boil. The vegetative material is then removed by filtering through a strainer or cheese cloth, and the water and butter are allowed to separate, leaving clarified cannabutter to be used in various recipes. However, some recipes do not contain butter and fall into a slightly different category; these delicacies include the "]," which require less work to prepare than more "conventional" recipes. ''Cannabis'' infusions (known as Bhang) containing ], spices, and other ingredients are commonly consumed in India and elsewhere, especially on festive occasions. In 2006, hollowed-out gumballs filled with ''Cannabis'' material and labeled as "Greenades" were distributed by high school students in the United States.<ref name="Greenades">{{cite news|url=http://www.prweb.com/releases/2006/7/prweb414446.htm|title=Greenades, Marijuana Gumballs, Identified by Maryland Police, Used by High School Students|publisher=]|date=]|accessdate=2006-09-15}}</ref> | |||
| As with other drugs taken orally, it is sometimes customary to ] before eating ''Cannabis'' to increase the effect, possibly because an empty stomach will enable the THC to enter the bloodstream more quickly. However, some people eat ordinary food before consuming the drug, because eating it on an empty stomach can cause nausea. The time to onset of effects is usually about an hour and may continue for a considerable length of time, whereas the effects of smoking herbal ''Cannabis'' are almost immediate. | |||
| ''Cannabis'' material can be ] in high-proof spirits (often ]) to create "]." This process is often employed to make use of low-potency stems and leaves. | |||
| ''Cannabis'' can also be consumed as a ]. Although THC is lipophilic and only slightly ] ] (with a solubility of 2.8 grams per litre<ref name="water solubility">{{cite web|url=http://lib1.bmcc.cuny.edu/studres/projectsakinde.html|title=The Medical Applications of Cannabinoids|author=Akinde Omotayo|publisher=]|accessdate=2006-09-15}}</ref>), enough THC can be dissolved to make a mildly psychoactive tea. However, water-based infusions are generally considered to be an inefficient use of the herb. | |||
| ''Cannabis'' "seeds" (technically called achenes) are high in ] and essential ]s, and are readily consumed by many species of birds. In many countries including the United States and Canada, possession of viable ''Cannabis'' seeds is illegal.<ref name="DEA">{{cite web|url=http://www.usdoj.gov/dea/agency/csa.htm|title=Controlled Substances Act|work=21 USCS § 801|publisher=United States Drug Enforcement Agency|accessdate=November 4|accessyear=2005}}</ref> However, they can be openly purchased throughout much of Europe, including the ].{{Fact|date=February 2007}} ''Cannabis'' seeds, which are not psychoactive, are also consumed by humans, and are a key ingredient in certain traditional recipes in Europe, and elsewhere. | |||
| == Immediate effects of consumption == | |||
| ] | |||
| The nature and intensity of the immediate (as opposed to long-term) effects of ''Cannabis'' consumption vary depending on such factors as dose, potency, cannabinoid (and possibly terpenoid) composition, method of consumption, length of time since last usage, the user's mental and physical state, and their surroundings. These last two factors are sometimes referred to as '']''. Smoking the same ''Cannabis'' material in different frames of mind (set) or in different locations (setting) can alter the effects themselves, or ones perception of the effects. What the user does while under the influence of ''Cannabis'' can also alter the effects. If the user is inactive they may feel relaxed and sleepy, whereas if the user engages in physical or mental activity they may feel energized. The effects of ''Cannabis'' consumption may be loosely classified as cognitive and physical. Anecdotal evidence suggests that so-called "sativa" drug varieties tend to produce greater cognitive or perceptual effects, while ''indica'' varieties tend to produce more physical effects. | |||
| === Active ingredients and unsubstantiated effects === | |||
| Of the 414 constituents of ''Cannabis'' reported in 1980, <ref name=turner1980>Turner, C. E., M. A. Elsohly, and E. G. Boeren. 1980. Constituents of ''Cannabis sativa'' L. XVII. A review of the natural constituents. ''Journal of Natural Products'' '''43'''(2): 169-234.</ref> the main active ingredient is Δ<sup>9</sup>-] ('''THC'''). THC is chemically unstable and will degrade over time to ] (CBN). Different ''Cannabis'' strains have different ratios of THC, cannabidiol (CBD), cannabinol, and other cannabinoids. Depending on these ratios, the quality and nature of the "high" may vary. | |||
| THC has an effect on the modulation of the ], which may have an effect on malignant cells, but there is insufficient scientific study to determine whether this might promote or limit the cause of ]. Cannabinoid receptors are also present in the human ], but there is insufficient scientific study to conclusively determine the effects of ''Cannabis'' on reproduction. It is however a widely-held belief that smoking ''Cannabis'' lowers the sperm count of men, in particular smoking stems and seeds. Mild to moderate ] to ''Cannabis'' may occur in some members of the population. A study has shown that holding ''Cannabis'' smoke in one's lungs for longer periods of time does not increase THC's effects on psychological test performance. | |||
| === Toxicity === | |||
| According to the ],<ref name=merck1996>1996. ''The Merck Index'', 12th ed., Merck & Co., Rahway, New Jersey</ref> the ] (dosage lethal to 50% of rats tested) of Δ<sup>9</sup>-THC by inhalation is 42 mg/kg of body weight. That is the equivalent of a 165 lb (75 kg) man inhaling the ] in 21, one-gram cigarettes of extremely high-potency (15% THC) marijuana all in one sitting, assuming no THC is lost through smoke loss or absorption by the lungs. For oral consumption, the LD<sub>50</sub> for male rats is 1270 mg/kg, and 730 mg/kg for females - equivalent to the THC in about a pound of 15% THC marijuana.<ref name="Erowid">{{cite web|url=http://www.erowid.org/plants/cannabis/cannabis_chemistry.shtml|title=Cannabis Chemistry|accessdate=2006-03-20|author=Erowid}}</ref> The ratio of ''Cannabis'' material required to saturate cannabinoid receptors to the amount required for a fatal overdose is 1:40,000. There have been no reported deaths or permanent injuries sustained as a result of a marijuana overdose. | |||
| == Health issues and the effects of cannabis == | |||
| {{main|Health issues and the effects of cannabis}}<!-- #######HIATEOC####### --> | |||
| Long-term marijuana use can lead to addiction for some people; that is, they use the drug compulsively even though it often interferes with family, school, work, and recreational activities. Of the estimated 6.9 million Americans classified with dependence on or abuse of illicit drugs, 4.2 million were dependent on or abused marijuana.<ref name=NSDUH2003>Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Office of Applied Studies. 2004. . NSDUH Series H-25, DHHS Pub. No. SMA 04-3964. Rockville, MD. Accessed on 4 Mar 2007</ref> In 2002, 15 percent of people entering drug abuse treatment programs reported that marijuana was their primary drug of abuse.<ref name=TEDS2004>Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Office of Applied Studies. 2004. ''Treatment Episode Data Set (TEDS): 1992-2002. National Admissions to Substance Abuse Treatment Services''. . DASIS Series: S-23, DHHS Pub. No. (SMA) 04-3965. Rockville, MD. Retrieved on 4 Mar 2007</ref> | |||
| Along with craving, withdrawal symptoms can make it hard for long-term marijuana smokers to stop using the drug.<ref name=Budney2003>Budney, A. J., Moore, B. A., Vandrey, R. G., and Hughes, J. R. 2003. . ''Journal of Abnormal Psychology'' '''112'''(3): 393-402. Retrieved 4 Mar 2007</ref> People trying to quit report irritability, difficulty sleeping, and anxiety.<ref name=Haney1999>Haney, M., Ward, A. S., Comer, S. D., Foltin, R. W., and Fischman, M. W. 1999. . ''Psychopharmacology'' '''141''': 395-404. Retrieved on 4 Mar 2007</ref><ref name=Budney2001>Budney, A. J., Hughes, J. R., Moore, B. A., and Novy, P. L. 2001. . ''Psychopharmacology'' '''143'''(3): 302-308. Retrieved 4 Mar 2007</ref> | |||
| In addition to its addictive liability, research indicates that early exposure to marijuana can increase the likelihood of a lifetime of subsequent drug problems. A recent study of over 300 fraternal and identical twin pairs, who differed on whether or not they used marijuana before the age of 17, found that those who had used marijuana early had elevated rates of other drug use and drug problems later on, compared with their twins, who did not use marijuana before age 17. This study re-emphasizes the importance of primary prevention by showing that early drug initiation is associated with increased risk of later drug problems, and it provides more evidence for why preventing marijuana experimentation during adolescence could have an impact on preventing addiction.<ref>Lynskey, M. T., Heath, A. C., Bucholz, K. K., Slutske, W. S., Madden, P. A. F, Nelson, E. C., Statham, D. J., and Martin, N. G. 2003. .'' JAMA'' '''289'''(4): 427-433. Retrieved on 4 Mar 2007</ref> | |||
| Cancer of the respiratory tract and lungs may be promoted by marijuana smoke.<ref name=tashkin1990>Tashkin, D. P. 1990. . ''Western Journal of Medicine'' '''152''': 525-530. Retrieved 4 Mar 2007</ref> A study comparing 173 cancer patients and 176 healthy individuals produced strong evidence that smoking cannabis increases the likelihood of developing cancer of the head or neck, and that the more cannabis smoked, the greater the increase.<ref name=zhang1999>Zhang, Z.-F., Morgenstern, H., Spitz, M. R., Tashkin, D. P., Yu, G.-P., Marshall, J. R., Hsu, T. C., and Schantz, S. P. 1999. . Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention 8(12):1071-1078. Retrieved 4 Mar 2007</ref> A statistical analysis of the data suggested that marijuana smoking doubled or tripled the risk of these cancers. | |||
| Cannabis has the potential to promote cancer of the lungs and other parts of the respiratory tract because it contains irritants and carcinogens.<ref name=sridhar1994>Sridhar, K. S., Raub, W. A., Weatherby, N. L. Jr., Metsch, L. R., Surratt, H. L., Inciardi, J. A., Duncan, R. C., Anwyl, R. S., and McCoy, C. B. 1994. Possible role of marijuana smoking as a carcinogen in the development of lung cancer at a young age. ''Journal of Psychoactive Drugs'' '''26'''(3): 285-288.</ref> In fact, marijuana smoke contains 50 percent to 70 percent more carcinogenic hydrocarbons than does tobacco smoke. <ref name=hoffman1975>Hoffman, D., Brunnemann, K. D., Gori, G. B., and Wynder, E. E. L. 1975. On the carcinogenicity of marijuana smoke. In: V. C. Runeckles (ed.), ''Recent Advances in Phytochemistry''. Plenum Press, New York.</ref> It also produces high levels of an enzyme that converts certain hydrocarbons into their carcinogenic form, levels that may accelerate the changes that ultimately produce malignant cells.<ref>Cohen, S. 1981. . ''Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences'' '''362'''(1): 119-124. Retrieved on 4 Mar 2007</ref> Marijuana users usually inhale more deeply and hold their breath longer than tobacco smokers do, which increases the lungs' exposure to carcinogenic smoke. These facts suggest that, puff for puff, smoking cannabis may increase the risk of cancer more than smoking tobacco does. | |||
| Some adverse health effects caused by cannabis may occur because THC impairs the immune system's ability to fight off infectious diseases and cancer. In laboratory experiments that exposed animal and human cells to THC or other cannabis ingredients, the normal disease-preventing reactions of many of the key types of immune cells were inhibited.<ref name=adams1996>Adams, I. B., and Martin, B. R. 1996. . ''Addiction'' '''91'''(11): 1585-1614. Retrieved 4 Mar 2007</ref> In other studies, mice exposed to THC or related substances were more likely than unexposed mice to develop bacterial infections and tumors.<ref name=zhu2000>Zhu, L. X., Sharma, M., Stolina, S., Gardner, B., Roth, M. D., Tashkin, D. P., and Dubinett, S. M. 2000. . ''Journal of Immunology'' '''165'''(1): 373-380. Retrieved on 4 Mar 2007</ref><ref name=klein2003>Klein, T. W., Newton, C., and Friedman, H. 2003. . ''Clinical Microbiology Reviews'' '''16''' (2): 209-219. Retrieved on 4 Mar 2007</ref> | |||
| One study has indicated that a person's risk of heart attack during the first hour after smoking marijuana is four times his or her usual risk, as compared with a nearly 24-fold risk for cocaine.<ref name=mittleman2001>Mittleman, M. A., Lewis, R. A., Maclure, M., Sherwood, J. B., and Muller, J. E. 2001. . ''Circulation'' '''103'''(23): 2805-2809. Retrieved on 5 Mar 2007</ref> The researchers suggest that a heart attack might occur, in part, because marijuana raises blood pressure and heart rate and reduces the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood. Nevertheless, the researchers acknowledged that acute myocardial infarctions triggered by smoking marijuana are "rare." | |||
| :''Editor's Note: The citations given in the above seven paragraphs were all referenced to a single source.<ref name=NIDAresearchreportrefs>National Institute on Drug Abuse. 2005. ''Marijuana Abuse. Research Report, Series 3''. . pp. 1-6. Retrieved on 5 Mar 2007</ref> It is not clear whether the original articles were read by the author of the above paragraphs, or whether the information presented represents the interpretation of the authors of the summary report.<ref name=NIDAresearchreport>National Institute on Drug Abuse. 2005. . NIH Pub. No. 05-3859. Retrieved on 5 Mar 2007</ref> Links to the original articles (or abstracts) are provided herein.'' | |||
| The most obvious confounding factor in cannabis research is the prevalent usage of other recreational drugs, including ] and ].<ref name=zhang1999/> Such complications demonstrate the need for studies on cannabis that have stronger controls, and investigations into the symptoms of cannabis use that may also be caused by ]. Most cannabis research the the USA is funded by government agencies that publish position papers that only cite research studies that report negative consequences of cannabis use.<ref name=NIDAresearchreport/><ref name=NIDAresearchreportrefs/> In light of this, some people question whether these agencies make an honest effort to present an accurate, unbiased summary of the evidence, or whether they "cherry-pick" their data. | |||
| Unlike tobacco, cannabis has not been shown to cause ], lung cancer, or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.<ref name="Tobacco">{{cite news|url=http://www.mapinc.org/drugnews/v05/n1106/a09.html?275821|title=Marijuana Smoking Does Not Cause Lung Cancer|org=Anderson Valley Advertiser|author=Fred Gardner|date=]}}</ref><ref name=tashkin1997>Tashkin, D. P., Simmons, M. S., Sherrill, D. L., and Coulson, A. H. 1997. . ''American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine'' '''155'''(1): 141-148. Retrieved on 5 Mar 2007</ref><ref name="UCLA study">{{cite news|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/05/25/AR2006052501729_pf.html|title=Study finds no marijuana-lung cancer link|publisher=]|date=]|accessdate=2006-07-13}}</ref><!-- #######need better citation from HIATEOC####### --> Other studies have suggested that cannabis may be less likely to cause birth defects or developmental delays in the children of users than other drugs.<ref name="BirthDefects">{{cite journal|author=J.S. Hayes, R. Lampart, M.C. Dreher, L. Morgan|title=''Five-year follow-up of rural Jamaican children whose mothers used marijuana during pregnancy''|journal=West Indian Medical Journal|year=1991|volume=40|issue=3|pages=120-3}}</ref><ref name="BirthDefects2">Dreher, M. C., Nugent, K., Hudgins, R. 1994. . ''Pediatrics'' '''93'''(2): 254-260. Retrieved on 5 Mar 2007</ref> According to a United Kingdom government report, using cannabis is less dangerous than both tobacco and alcohol in social harms, physical harm and addiction.<ref name="UK government report">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/31_07_06_drugsreport.pdf|title=UK government report|publisher=House of Commons Science and Technology Committee|date=]|accessdate=2006-08-29}}]</ref> | |||
| Cannabis has a complicated effect on memory, and its effects have been shown to vary from case to case. A ] Research Report on marijuana abuse mentions an unreferenced "series of studies" of rats exposed daily to an unspecified amount of THC for 30% of their typical lifespan that showed ] of the ], an area of the brain associated with ] and ].<ref name=NIDAresearchreport/> Similar findings in humans have not yet been established, and some studies even point to enhancement of particular types of memory.<ref name=iversen2003>Iversen, L. 2003. ''Cannabis'' and the brain. ''Brain'' '''126'''(6): 1252-1270. Retrieved on 5 Mar 2007</ref> Other studies have shown that cannabis has ] effects, further demonstrating its diverse effects on the nervous system. A 1998 report commissioned in France by Health Secretary of State ] and directed by Dr. Pierre-Bernard Roques determined that, "former results suggesting anatomic changes in the brain of chronic cannabis users, measured by ], were not confirmed by the accurate modern ]," (like ]). "Moreover, morphological impairment of the ] of rat after administration of very high doses of THC (Langfield ''et al.'', 1988) was not shown (Slikker ''et al.'', 1992)" (translated). He concluded that cannabis does not have any neurotoxicity as defined in the report, unlike alcohol and cocaine.<ref name=roques1998> ]-]. Released June 1998. . Hemp Info. Retrieved 5 Mar 2007</ref><ref name=lesverts>. (in French). Retrieved on 5 Mar 2007</ref><ref name=esculapepro>. (in French) Retrieved on 5 Mar 2007</ref> | |||
| Research between the use of cannabis and mental illness has also brought significant results. Cannabis use is generally higher among sufferers of schizophrenia, but the ] between the two has not been established.<ref name=henquet2005>Henquet, C., Krabbendam, L., Spauwen, J., Kaplan, C., Lieb, R., Wittchen, H.-U., and van Os, J. 2005. . ''BMJ'' '''330'''(7481): 11. Retrieved on 4 Mar 2007</ref><ref name =patton2002>Patton, G. C., Coffey, C., Carlin, J. B., Degenhardt, L., Lynskey, M., and Hall, W. 2002. . ''BMJ'' '''325'''(7374): 1195-1198. Retrieved 45 Mar 2007</ref> Another study concluded that sustained early-adolescent cannabis use among genetically predisposed individuals has been associated with a variety of mental illness outcomes; ranging from ] episodes to clinical ].<ref name=arseneault2002>Arseneault, L., Cannon, M., Poulton R., Murray R., Caspi, A., and Moffitt, T. E. 2002. . ''BMJ'' '''325'''(7374): 1212-213. Retrieved on 5 Mar 2007</ref><ref name=caspi2005>Caspi, A., Moffitt, T. E., Cannon, M., McClay, J., Murray, R., Harrington, H., Taylor, A., Arseneault, L., Williams, B., Braithwaite, A., Poulton, R., and Craig, I. W. 2005. . ''Society of Biological Psychiatry'' '''57''': 1117-1127. Retrieved on 5 Mar 2007</ref> | |||
| == Legality == | |||
| ] possession (small amount). Data is from multiple sources detailed on the ]. This map is a work in progress. Please give corrections and additions ].]] | |||
| ]. This map is a work in progress. Please give corrections and additions ].]] | |||
| {{main|Legal issues of cannabis}} | |||
| Since the 20th century, most countries have enacted laws against the cultivation, use, possession, or transfer of cannabis for recreational use. Naturally, these laws impact adversely on the cannabis plant's cultivation for non-recreational purposes, but there are many regions where, under certain circumstances, handling of cannabis is legal or licensed, and others where laws against its use, possession, or sale are not enforced. Many jurisdictions have also ''decriminalized'' possession of small quantities of cannabis, so that it is punished by ] or a ], rather than ]. By effectively removing the user from the criminal justice system, decriminalization focuses more on those who ] and sell the drug on the ]. However, this does not solve the problem of how a user will obtain the "legal amount" of cannabis, since buying or growing cannabis is still illegal. Increasingly, many jurisdictions also permit cannabis use for medicinal purposes. Some countries allow the sale through drug companies.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} However, simple possession can carry long jail sentences in some countries, particularly in ], where the sale of cannabis may lead to a sentence of life in prison or even execution. | |||
| ] laws; red represents states with ] laws; purple represents states with both.]] | |||
| ], ], on ], ].]] | |||
| ] used in the late 1930s and 1940s.]] | |||
| === Recent history === | |||
| Under the name ''cannabis'', 19th century medical practitioners sold the drug, (usually as a ]) popularizing the word amongst English-speakers. It was rumoured to have been used to treat ]'s ] pains as her personal physician, Sir John Russell Reynolds, was a staunch supporter of the benefits of cannabis.<ref name="Reynolds">{{cite web|url=http://jnnp.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/75/8/1148|title=Positive and negative cerebral symptoms: the roles of Russell Reynolds and Hughlings Jackson|accessdate=2006-03-25}}</ref> Cannabis was also openly available from shops in the US. By the end of the 19th century, its medicinal use began to fall as other drugs like ] took over its use as a pain reliever. | |||
| In 1894, the ''Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission'' commissioned by the UK Secretary of State and the government of India, was instrumental in the decision not to criminalize the drug in those countries. The ''Report'', which at over 500 pages remains one of the most complete collections of information on cannabis in existence, shows the stark contrast in the way that the American and British governments went about deciding whether to criminalize cannabis.<ref>Kaplan, J. (1969) "Introduction" of the ''Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission'' ed. by The Honorable W. Mackworth Young, ''et al.'' (Simla: Government Central Printing Office, 1894) LCCN 74-84211, pp. v-vi.</ref> | |||
| The name ''marijuana'' (] ''marihuana'', ''mariguana'') is associated almost exclusively with the plant's psychoactive use. The term is now well known in English largely due to the efforts of American drug prohibitionists during the 1920s and 1930s, which deliberately used a ] name for cannabis in order to turn the populace against the idea that it should be legal, playing upon attitudes towards race. (''See ]''). Those who ''demonized'' the drug by calling it marihuana omitted the fact that the "deadly marihuana" was identical to cannabis indica, which had at the time a reputation for pharmaceutical safety.<ref>{{cite journal | |||
| | quotes = Remarkably, neither of the preceding articles explain that the deadly marihuana is precisely identical to cannabis indica! This fact might well have surprised readers, given cannabis' reputation for pharmaceutical safety. | |||
| | last = Gieringer | |||
| | first = Dale H. | |||
| | authorlink = | |||
| | coauthors = | |||
| | date = 2006-06-17 | |||
| | year = 1999 | |||
| | month = | |||
| | title = The Origins of Cannabis Prohibition in California | |||
| | journal = Contemporary Drug Problems | |||
| | volume = 26 | |||
| | issue = 2 | |||
| | pages = | |||
| | doi = | |||
| | id = | |||
| | url = http://canorml.org/background/caloriginsmjproh.pdf | |||
| | language = | |||
| | format = | |||
| | accessdate = 2007-01-05 | |||
| }} p.13</ref> | |||
| Although cannabis has been used for its psychoactive effects since ancient times, it first became well known in the United States during the ] music scene of the late 1920s and 1930s. ] became a prominent and life-long devotee. It was popular in the blues scene as well, and eventually became a prominent part of 1960s counterculture. | |||
| === Decriminalization and legalization === | |||
| {{main|Legal issues of cannabis}} | |||
| In recent decades, a movement to ] cannabis has arisen in several countries. 12 US states have passed by majority vote of the citizenry, laws allowing some degree of medical use, while a further 6 states have taken steps to decriminalize it to some degree. This movement seeks to make simple possession of cannabis punishable by only confiscation or a fine, rather than prison. In the past several years, the movement has started to have some successes. These include ] legalizing possession of up to an ounce of cannabis,<ref name="Denver">{{cite news|url=http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2005-11-03-pot_x.htm|title=Denver votes to legalize marijuana possession|author=Patrick O'Driscoll|publisher=USA Today|date=]|accessdate=2006-03-11}}</ref> a broad coalition of ] in ], ] unveiling a pilot program to allow farmers to grow it legally,<ref name="NLfarming">{{cite web|url=http://www.twincities.com/mld/twincities/news/breaking_news/13313479.htm|title=Dutch Politicians Seek Marijuana Rules|accessdate=2006-02-25}}</ref> and ] voting in favor of a bill to decriminalize the possession of up to an ounce of cannabis.<ref name="Mass">{{cite web|url=http://www.heraldnews.com/site/news.cfm?newsid=16135095|title=Marijuana fight nears|accessdate=2006-02-17}}</ref> | |||
| In Alaska, cannabis was decided legal for in-home, personal use under the Ravin vs. State ruling in 1975. This ruling allowed up to four ounces of cannabis for these purposes. A 1991 voter ballot initiative recriminalized marijuana possession, but when that law was eventually challenged in 2004, the Alaska court's upheld the Ravin ruling, saying the popular vote could not trump the state constitution.In response to former Governor Frank Murkowski's successive attempt to re-criminalize cannabis, the ] filed a lawsuit against the state. On ], 2006, Superior Court Judge Patricia Collins awarded the Case Summary judgement to the ACLU. In her ruling, she said "No specific argument has been advanced in this case that possession of more than 1 ounce of cannabis, even within the privacy of the home, is constitutionally protected conduct under Ravin or that any plaintiff or ACLU of Alaska member actually possesses more than 1 ounce of cannabis in their homes." This does not mean that the legal possession threshold has been reduced to one ounce, as this was a mere case summary review filed by the ACLU, not a full case. Reinforcing ''Ravin'', Collins wrote "A lower court cannot reverse the State Supreme Court's 1975 decision in Ravin v. State" and "Unless and until the Supreme Court directs otherwise, ''Ravin'' is the law in this state and this court is duty bound to follow that law". The law regarding possession of cannabis has not changed in Alaska, and the Supreme Court has declined to review the case, therefore the law still stands at 4 ounces.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} | |||
| In 2002, Nevada voters defeated a ballot question which would legalize up to 3 ounces for adults 21 and older by 39% to 61%. In 2006, a similar Nevada ballot initiative, which would have legalized and regulated the cultivation, distribution, and possession of up to 1 ounce of marijuana by adults 21 and older, was defeated by 44% to 56%. | |||
| In 2001 in the United Kingdom, it was announced that cannabis would become a Class C drug, rather than a Class B, this change took effect on January 29, 2004. Since then there has recently been some controversy amongst UK politicians about the message this sends out, with some calling for its reclassification to Class B.<ref name="Blunkett">{{cite web|url=http://www.idmu.co.uk/homeoffpr.htm|title=Home Office- Class B to Class C|accessdate=2006-03-27}}</ref> | |||
| The ] voted to legalize the possession of cannabis under 5 grams on ], ].<ref name="mexicolegal"> {{cite news|first=Noel|last=Randewich|Author=Noel Randewich|url=http://news.yahoo.com/s/nm/20060428/ts_nm/mexico_drugs_dc|title=Mexico to decriminalize pot, cocaine and heroin|publisher=]|date=]|accessdate=2006-04-28}}</ref> However, as of ], ], Mexican President | |||
| ] has said that he will not sign this proposed law until Congress removes the parts that would decriminalize the possession of small quantities of drugs<ref name="mexicoillegal">{{cite news|url=http://news.yahoo.com/s/nm/20060504/ts_nm/mexico_drugs_dc_3|title=Mexico's Fox won't sign drug law|publisher=]|date=]|accessdate=2006-05-04}}</ref> and vetoed the bill on ], ],<ref name="veto">{{cite news|url=http://www.signonsandiego.com/news/mexico/20060504-9999-1n4fox.html|title=Mexican legal drug proposal rejected|publisher=Sign On San Diego|date=]|accessdate=2006-05-13}}</ref> sparking broad controversy over the bill.<ref name="deniespressure">{{cite news|url=http://www.dominicantoday.com/app/article.aspx?id=13096|title=Mexico denies drug law veto result of US pressure|publisher=Dominican Today|date=]|accessdate=2006-05-13}}</ref><ref name="consulateprotest">{{cite news|url=http://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/HL0605/S00095.htm|title=Protest at Mexican Consulate in New York, Friday|publisher=Scoop|date=]|accessdate=2006-05-13}}</ref><ref name="smokein">{{cite news|url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,194552,00.html|title=Drug Bill Veto Sparks Mexico City Marijuana Smoke-In|publisher=]|date=]|accessdate=2006-05-13}}</ref> In the early summer of 2006 Fox and the Mexican congress came to an agreement and legalized possession of small amounts (and also measured amounts of other drugs). On July 17, 2006, ] Social Solidarity Minister ], speaking of the urgent need for depenalising the consumption of light drugs, said that "a joint is less harmful than a litre of ]."<ref name=Paolo>{{cite news|url=http://www.agi.it/english/news.pl?doc=200607171332-1085-RT1-CRO-0-NF82&page=0&id=agionline-eng.italyonline|accessdat2--6-07-26|title=DRUG: FERRERO DECRIMINALIZE CONSUMPTION OF LIGHT DRUGS|date=]|publisher=Agenzia Giornalistica Italia}}</ref> In the ], two plants both less than 6 feet tall are allowed for personal use.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} In ] however, possession of cannabis is an offence, with fines ranging from $150 to $300 for possession and cultivation of small amounts. There is much confusion on the subject, with many people believing that possession of a certain amount is legal. In South Australia however, this is a myth. | |||
| === Legality in Hong Kong=== | |||
| {{worldview}}Cannabis is regulated under section 9 of Hong Kong's Chapter 134 ''Dangerous Drugs Ordinance''. | |||
| Cultivation and dealing with cannabis plant is illegal and a fine of $100,000 and to imprisonment for 15 years can be laid by the court. Anyone who supplies the substance without prescription can be fined $10,000(HKD). The penalty for trafficking or manufacturing the substance is a $5,000,000 (HKD) fine and life imprisonment. Possession of the substance for consumption without license from the Department of Health is illegal with a $1,000,000 fine and/or 7 years of jail time. | |||
| === Legality in the United States === | |||
| {{main|Legality of cannabis in the United States}} | |||
| {{seealso|Cannabis rescheduling in the United States}} | |||
| Under Federal law, it is illegal to possess, use, buy, sell, or cultivate marijuana anywhere in the United States. The ] classifies marijuana as a Schedule I drug, meaning it has a high potential for abuse and no accepted medical use. Under the ] of the ], Federal law in the United States preempts conflicting state and local laws. Nevertheless, some states and local governments have established laws attempting to decriminalize cannabis, which has reduced the number of "simple possession" offenders sent to jail, since federal enforcement agents rarely target individuals directly for such relatively minor offenses. Other state and local governments ask law enforcement agencies to limit enforcement of drug laws with respect to cannabis. In the 2006 election, amendment 44 of Colorado making it legal to possess less than 1 ounce of marijuana, failed and the election was 40-60, yet it is still a misdemeanor to possess up to one half pound, and is punished mainly by fines unless sale is established. | |||
| The National Center for Natural Products Research in ] is the only facility in the United States that is federally licensed by the ] to cultivate cannabis for scientific research. The Center is part of the School of Pharmacy at the University of Mississippi. | |||
| ==See also== | |||
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| == References == | |||
| === Notes === | |||
| {{reflist|2}} | |||
| === Bibliography === | |||
| * {{cite news|url=http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F10E1FFB35580C748EDDA90994DA404482|author=Howard Markel|title=For Addicts, Relief May Be an Office Visit Away|publisher=New York Times|date=]}} | |||
| * {{cite journal|url=http://www.ukcia.org/research/CannabisUseInAdolescenceAndRiskForAdultPsychosis.pdf|author=Louise Arsenault, Mary Cannon, Richie Poulton, Robin Murray, Avshalom Caspi, and Terrie E. Moffitt|title=Cannabis use in adolescence and risk for adult psychosis: longtudinal prospective study|year=2002|journal=British Medical Journal|volume=325|pages=1212 – 1213}} | |||
| * {{cite journal|url=http://www.ukcia.org/research/COMTgene.pdf|Author=|title=Moderation of the effect of adult-onset cannabis use on adult psychosis by a functional polymorphism in the Catchol-O-Methyltransferase gene: Longitudinal evidence of a gene X environment interaction|author=Avshalom Caspi, Terrie E. Moffitt, Mary Cannon, Joseph McClay, Robin Murray, HonaLee Harrington, Alan Taylor, Louise Arsenault, Ben Williams, Antony Braithwaite, Richie Poulton, and Ian W. Craig|year=2005|journal=Biol Psychiatry|volume=25|pages=1117 – 1127}} | |||
| * {{cite news|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,3561-1565337,00.html|title=One in four at risk of cannabis psychosis|first=Mark|last=Henderson|publisher=The Times|date=]}} | |||
| * Bruce Mirken and Neel Makwana (Aston Birmingham): {{cite news|url=http://www.alternet.org/drugreporter/21436/|date=]|title=Psychosis, Hype And Baloney|publisher=AlterNet}} | |||
| * {{cite journal|url=http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/docs/2000/108-10/correspondence.html#thc|title=Antitumor Effects of THC|journal=Environmental Health Perspectives|volume=108(10)|year=October 2000|pages=Correspondence|author=James Huff and Po Chan | id=PMID 11097557}} | |||
| * ''Cannabis: A History'' (2005). Martin Booth - ISBN 0-312-32220-8 | |||
| {{Cannabis resources}} | |||
| {{Cannabinoids}} | |||
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| == History == | |||
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| Cannabis was known as a medicinal and psychoactive compound in some early societies, and has been used continuously in many parts of the world. Other societies have developed a social ] surrounding the drug. <!-- repression in various Islamic centuries (11th, 13th, and others), early modern (ex-Ottoman) Greece, Egypt under Mehemet Ali (19th century), need sections --> | |||
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Revision as of 01:40, 6 March 2007
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