Genetically modified organism: Difference between revisions

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	{{Unreferenced\|date=June 2006}}]

	A '''genetically modified organism''' (GM) is an ] whose ]tic material has been ] using techniques in ] generally known as ]. Recombinant DNA technology is the ability to combine ] ]s from different sources into one molecule in a ]. Thus, the expression of certain traits, the ] of the organism, or the ]s it produces, can be altered through the modification of its genes.

	The term generally does not cover organisms whose genetic makeup has been altered by conventional ] or by "]" breeding, as these methods predate the discovery of the recombinant DNA techniques. Technically speaking, however, such techniques are by definition genetic modification.

	==History==

	The general principle of producing a GMO is to add genetic material into an organism's ] to generate both new and useful ]s. The origins of this ] were a series of sequential scientific advances from the discovery of ] to the production of the first recombinant ] (''E .coli'') expressing a ] gene in 1973.<ref>Cohen, ricola
	S., Chang, A., Boyer, H. & Helling, R. (1973) Construction of Biologically Functional Bacterial Plasmids In Vitro. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 70, 3240-3244 </ref> This led to concerns in the scientific community about the possible risks from genetic engineering and led to biologists meeting at the ] in ], ]. The recommendations laid out from this conference were that government oversight of recombinant DNA research should be established until the technology was deemed safe.<ref>Berg, P., Baltimore, D., Brenner, S., Roblin, R.O. III, Singer, M.F., "Summary statement of the Asilomar Conference on recombinant DNA molecules," Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 72, pp. 1981-1984 (1975), also Science 188, p. 991 (1975).</ref><ref>"Guidelines for research involving recombinant DNA molecules," Federal Register 41, no. 131, pp. 27911-27943 (1976).</ref> ] then founded the first company to use recombinant DNA technology, ], and in 1978 the company announced that it had produced a strain of '']'' that could produce the human protein ].<ref>Genentech: Press Releases - News Release September 6, 1978
	</ref>

	In 1986, field tests of a bacterium genetically engineered to protect plants from frost damage (]) at a small biotechnology company called Advanced Genetic Sciences of ], ], were repeatedly delayed by opponents of biotechnology. Also in 1986, a proposed field test of a microbe genetically engineered for a pest resistance protein by Monsanto was dropped.

	==Uses of GMOs==

	Examples of GMOs are diverse, and include transgenic experimental ]s such as ], several fish species, transgenic ]s, or various ]s altered for the purposes of genetic research or for the production of ]s. The term "genetically modified organism" does not necessarily imply, but does include, transgenic substitution of genes from another ], and ] is actively being conducted in this field. For example, genes for ] proteins can be co-expressed with complex proteins in cultured cells to facilitate study by ]s, and modified organisms are used in researching the mechanisms of ] and other ].

	Increasingly large numbers of pharmecuticals are produced using GMOs.
	]: the first genetically modified animal to be sold as a ].]]
	===Transgenic animals===
	Transgenic animals are animals produced with externally introduced genes. Transgenic animals can be used in many fields and as models to test the effect of certain genes on health. They can be used to produce "enhanced" versions of an animal. They can also be used as ]s: animals that produce an extra substance we want. Imagine having a transgenic cow that is modified to produce ] in large quantities in its milk. This insulin can then be purified from the cows milk and used in ] for treating patients with ].

	An example are transgenic flies, which are flies produced with externally introduced genes. Transgenic flies can be used in many fields and as models to test the effect of certain genes on health and development, similar to the usage of transgenic animals. As the fly genome is in general simpler than that of ], the effect of introducing an external gene is usually more pronounced than in ].

	==Controversy over GMOs==

	{{See also\|Genetically modified food controversies}}

	Genetic modification (GM) is the subject of controversy in its own right . Some see the science itself as intolerable meddling with "natural" order, while others recognize the inability of modern science to fully comprehend all of the potential negative ramifications of gene manipulation.

	While some would like to see it banned, others push simply for required labeling of ]. Other controversies include the definition of patent and property pertaining to products of genetic engineering and the possibility of unforeseen global side effects as a result of modified organisms proliferating. The basic ethical issues involved in genetic research are discussed in the article on ].

	In 2004, ], ] became the first county in the ] to ban the production of GMOs. The measure passed with a 57% majority. In 2005, a ] of the government of ] in ] began work to assess a proposal to ban the production of GMOs in the province. PEI has already banned GM potatoes, which account for most of its crop. In California, ] and ] counties have also imposed bans on GM crops, while ordinances to do so were unsuccessful in ], ], ], and ] counties. Supervisors in the ]-rich counties of ], ], ], ], ], and ] have passed resolutions supporting the practice .

	Currently, there is little international consensus regarding the acceptability and effective role of modified "complete" organisms such as plants or animals. A great deal of the modern research that is illuminating complex biochemical processes and disease mechanisms makes vast use of genetic engineering.

	The practice of genetic modification as a scientific technique is not restricted in the United States. Individual genetically modified crops (such as soybeans) are studied before being brought to market, but generally only by the companies providing the modification. This "test by those being tested" practice is common in the United States, where many in the ] are ex-employees of ], the largest gene-manipulation firm. Most countries in ], ], ] (among others) have taken the opposite position, stating that genetic modification has not been proven safe, and therefore that they will not accept ] from the United States or any other country. This issue has been brought before the ], which determined that not allowing GMOs into the country creates an unnecessary obstacle to international trade. Consequently, genetic modification within agriculture is an issue of some strong debate in the United States, the ], and some other countries.

	Some critics have raised the concern that conventionally bred crop plants can be cross-pollinated (bred) from the pollen of modified plants. Pollen can be dispersed over large areas by wind, animals, and insects. Recent research with creeping bentgrass has lent support to the concern when modified genes were found in normal grass up to 21 km (13 miles) away from the source, and also within close relatives of the same genus ('']'') . GM proponents point out that outcrossing, as this process is known as, is not new. The same thing happens with any new open-pollinated crop variety—newly introduced traits can potentially cross out into neighbouring crop plants of the same species and, in some cases, to closely related wild relatives. Defenders of GM technology point out that each GM crop is assessed on a case by case basis to determine if there is any risk associated with the outcrossing of the GM trait into wild plant populations. The fact that a GM plant may outcross with a related wild relative is not, in itself, a risk unless such an occurrence has consequences. If, for example, a herbicide resistance trait was to cross into a wild relative of a crop plant it can be predicted that this would not have any consequences except in areas where herbicides are sprayed, such as a farm. In such a setting the farmer can manage this risk by rotating herbicides. If patented genes are outcrossed, even accidentally, to other commercial fields and a person deliberately selects the outcrossed plants for subsequent planting then the patent holder has the right to control the use of those crops. This was supported in ] in the case of ]. The documentary '']'' covers the GMO and Monsanto controversy in more depth.

	An often cited controversy is a hypothetical Technology Protection technology (dubbed ] by ]). This yet-to-be-commercialised technology would allow the production of first generation crops that would not generate seeds in the second generation because the plants yield sterile ]s. The patent for this so-called "terminator" gene technology is owned by Delta and Pine Land and the ]. Delta and Pine Land was bought by ] in August 2006. In addition to the commercial protection of proprietary technology in selfpollinating crops such as soybean (a generally contentious issue) another purpose of the terminator gene is to prevent the escape of genetically modified traits from crosspollinating crops into wild-type species by sterilizing any resultant hybrids. The terminator gene technology created a backlash amongst those who felt the technology would prevent re-use of seed by farmers growing such terminator varieties in the developing world and was ostensibly a means to exercise ] claims. Use of the terminator technology would also prevent "volunteers", or crops that grow from unharvested seed, a major concern that arose during the ] debacle.

	==In popular culture==

	Genetically modified characters, whether as heroes, villains, or backdrop, feature prominently in many works of fiction, in particular ] and ], where it is used as a ] to explain differences in a character or setting, such as explaining increased longevity or eradication of disease in a fictional civilization.

	In the ], Peter Parker was bitten by a super-spider, enhanced with the genes of many different spiders. The abilities of all these spiders were then transferred from the super-spider, into Peter, turning him into Spider-Man.

	The videogame character ] was originally a science experiment who was fused with the DNA of ], causing him to have the genes of aliens as well as hedgehogs. This however, was not revealed until the game '']''.

	In the ] books by James Patterson, the main characters are human/bird transgenics.

	In ], mankind turns to GELFs, Genetically Engineered LifeForms, after the robot revolution leaves them with nothing.

	]'s novel ] is heavily based around the concept of transgenics.

	The TV series ] features transgenic ] who where enhanced with animal DNA.

	==See also==

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	==References==
	<references/>
	Anderson, K. and Lee Ann Jackson. 2005. Some Implications of GM Food Technology Policies for Sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of African Economies 14(3):385-410; doi:10.1093/jae/eji013

	Heong, KL, YH Chen, DE Johnson, GC Jahn, M Hossain, RS Hamilton. 2005. Debate Over a GM Rice Trial in China. Letters. Science, Vol 310, Issue 5746, 231-233 , 14 October 2005.

	Huang, J., Ruifa Hu, Scott Rozelle, Carl Pray. 2005. Insect-Resistant GM Rice in Farmers' Fields: Assessing Productivity and Health Effects in China. Science (29 April 2005) Vol. 308. no. 5722, pp. 688 – 690. DOI: 10.1126/science.1108972

	==External links==
	===General===
	*{{cite book \|last=Zaid \|first=A \|authorlink= \|coauthors= H.G. Hughes, E. Porceddu, F. Nicholas\|title= Glossary of Biotechnology for Food and Agriculture - A Revised and Augmented Edition of the Glossary of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering. Available in English, French, Spanish and Arabic\|url= http://www.fao.org/biotech/index_glossary.asp\|year=2001\|publisher=] \|location=], ]\|id= ISBN 92-5-104683-2}}
	* — News and events about GMOs from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
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	* — Provided by '']''.
	* - Information about GMOS and GE
	* Detection method for GMO in food and feed by using GMO-microarray
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	* — for balanced news
	* - A scientific article on the advances and problems in making reliable risk-assessment of transgenic fish.
	*], — A philosophical approach to the question of GMOs and their relation to human agricultural history.
	* - Information about research projects on the biological safety of genetically modified plants.
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	* The Italian hub on biosafety and GMOs

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Revision as of 11:49, 26 March 2007

eg elliott