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Emperor Yingzong of Ming 明英宗
Palace portrait on a hanging scroll, kept in the National Palace Museum, Taipei, Taiwan
Emperor of the Ming dynasty
First reign	7 February 1435 – 22 September 1449
Enthronement	7 February 1435
Predecessor	Xuande Emperor
Successor	Jingtai Emperor
Regents	See list Grand Empress Dowager Zhang (1435–1442) Yang Shiqi (1435–1442) Yang Rong (1435–1438) Yang Pu (1435–1442) Zhang Fu (1435–1442)
Second reign	11 February 1457 – 23 February 1464
Predecessor	Jingtai Emperor
Successor	Chenghua Emperor
Emperor Emeritus of the Ming dynasty
Tenure	22 September 1449 – 11 February 1457
Crown Prince of the Ming dynasty
Tenure	1428–1435
Predecessor	Crown Prince Zhu Zhanji
Successor	Crown Prince Zhu Jianshen
Born	29 November 1427 Xuande 2, 11th day of the 11th month (宣德二年十一月十一日)
Died	23 February 1464(1464-02-23) (aged 36) Tianshun 8, 17th day of the 1st month (天順八年正月十七日)
Burial	Yuling Mausoleum, Ming tombs, Beijing
Consorts	Empress Xiaozhuangrui ​ ​(m. 1442⁠–⁠1464)​ Empress Xiaosu ​(before 1464)​
Issue	Chenghua Emperor Zhu Jianlin, Prince Zhuang of De Zhu Jianshi Zhu Jianchun, Prince Dao of Xu Zhu Jianshu, Prince Huai of Xiu Zhu Jianze, Prince Jian of Chong Zhu Jianjun, Prince Jian of Ji Zhu Jianzhi, Prince Mu of Xin Zhu Jianpei, Prince Zhuang of Hui Princess Chongqing Princess Jiashan Princess Chun'an Princess Chongde Princess Guangde Princess Yixing Princess Longqing Princess Jiaxiang Ninth daughter Tenth daughter
Names Zhu Qizhen (朱祁鎮) Era dates Zhengtong (正統): 18 January 1436 – 13 January 1450 Tianshun(天順): 15 February 1457 – 26 January 1465 Posthumous name Emperor Fatian Lidao Renming Chengjing Zhaowen Xianwu Zhide Guangxiao Rui (法天立道仁明誠敬昭文憲武至德廣孝睿皇帝) Temple name Yingzong (英宗)
House	Zhu
Dynasty	Ming
Father	Xuande Emperor
Mother	Empress Xiaogongzhang

Emperor Yingzong of Ming (Chinese: 明英宗; pinyin: Míng Yīngzōng; 29 November 1427 – 23 February 1464), personal name Zhu Qizhen (simplified Chinese: 朱祁镇; traditional Chinese: 朱祁鎮; pinyin: Zhū Qízhèn), was the sixth and eighth emperor of the Ming dynasty. He ruled as the Zhengtong Emperor (simplified Chinese: 正统帝; traditional Chinese: 正統帝; pinyin: Zhèngtǒng Dì) from 1435 to 1449, and as the Tianshun Emperor (simplified Chinese: 天顺帝; traditional Chinese: 天順帝; pinyin: Tiānshùn Dì) from 1457 until his death in 1464.

He was the eldest son and successor of the Xuande Emperor. "Zhengtong", the era name of his first reign, literally means "right governance". During his first reign, the empire was at its height of prosperity and power. As the first child emperor of the Ming dynasty, Emperor Yingzong's rule was heavily influenced by high dignitaries at court. Initially, his grandmother, Grand Empress Dowager Zhang, along with the "Three Yangs" (Yang Shiji (楊士奇), Yang Yong (楊榮), and Yang Pu (楊溥)), held the highest positions of power. However, in 1442, the emperor began to listen more to the eunuch Wang Zhen.

In 1449, at Wang Zhen's suggestion, Yingzong personally led the army against the Mongol army of Esen Taishi. Unfortunately, at the Battle of Tumu, the Ming army was defeated and the emperor was captured. This event shocked the government and the country, leading the court to elevate Yingzong's brother, Zhu Qiyu, to the throne as the Jingtai Emperor. During his captivity, Yingzong had established good relations with Esen and was eventually released in 1450.

After Emperor Yingzong returned to his homeland, his brother felt threatened and ordered him to stay in the Southern Palace within the Forbidden City. He also restricted Yingzong's contact with the outside world. Essentially, Yingzong was placed under house arrest. In early 1457, the Jingtai Emperor fell ill and, since his only son had died in 1453, there was no heir to the throne. Taking advantage of this opportunity, Yingzong organized a palace coup and regained power in February 1457. The era name of his second reign, "Tianshun", literally means "obedience to Heaven". The following month, the Jingtai Emperor died.

Yingzong ruled for another seven years before his death in 1464 at the age of thirty-six. His eldest son, the Chenghua Emperor, then ascended to the imperial throne.

Childhood, accession to the throne

Zhu Qizhen was born on 29 November 1427, as the elder of the two sons of the Xuande Emperor. His mother, Lady Sun, was one of the emperor's concubines. On 20 February 1428, he was created crown prince, and in March of the same year, Xuande promoted Lady Sun to empress. The father was overjoyed by his son's birth and showed him love and affection. He also ensured that Zhu Qizhen received proper military training. In 1433, the Ministry of War assembled a detachment of 7,112 physically fit 11–12-year-old youths, as ordered by the emperor, and the prince was appointed as their commander. He also began his education in reading and writing, with his first teacher likely being the eunuch and former teacher, Wang Zhen.

The Xuande Emperor died on 31 January 1435 after a brief illness, less than two months. At the time of his father's death, Zhu Qizhen was only seven years old, prompting a proposal to place his uncle, Zhu Zhanshan, Prince of Xiang and Xuande's younger brother, on the throne. According to the 17th century Chinese historian Mao Zhiling, Zhu Zhanshan was supported by the Grand Empress Dowager Zhang, who was both his and Xuande's mother. However, Empress Dowager Sun quickly intervened and prevented Zhu Zhanshan's ascension, resulting in Zhu Qizhen being crowned as the new emperor. Despite this, Lady Zhang still held significant influence in the government.

In contrast, the editors of the History of Ming, the official history of the Ming dynasty completed in 1739, portrayed Empress Dowager Zhang as a supporter of Zhu Qizhen's rights. According to their version, she summoned all three grand secretaries — Yang Shiji, Yang Yong, and Yang Pu — to her and emphasized that her grandson Zhu Qizhen was now emperor. Thereupon, the secretaries expressed their allegiance to the young prince, followed by the entire court.

Grand Empress Dowager Zhang's regency

Emperor Yingzong's ascension to the throne was in accordance with the rules, as he was the eldest son of the deceased emperor and the officially created crown prince. However, the laws established by the founder of the dynasty, the Hongwu Emperor, enshrined a system of government in which a strong and decisive monarch was expected to make decisions independently, with the advice of ministers. This system did not account for the scenario of a child ruler, leaving no provisions or precedents for how to handle the situation. At court, the most respected and highest-ranking individual was the Grand Empress Dowager Zhang, who effectively, though not formally, became the regent. Empress Dowager Sun was also occasionally consulted, but she held a lower status than her mother-in-law.

Lady Zhang was the leader of the council, which consisted of three grand secretaries and three eunuchs. The secretaries, known as the "Three Yangs" — Yang Shiji, Yang Yong, and Yang Pu — had been in their positions for many years, with Yang Pu serving as grand secretary since 1424 and the other two since 1402. They were highly skilled, influential, and respected. The eunuchs, Wang Jin, Fan Hong, and Jin Ying, were in charge of the Directorate of Ceremonies, the most powerful office in the Imperial Palace. They had all held their positions under the previous emperor. The empress dowager acted as a mediator between the grand secretaries and the head eunuchs. The emperor's exclusion from decision-making was considered illegal, but it allowed for the successful rule of experienced statesmen, particularly the Three Yangs. This period of political stability was later seen as a golden age by future generations.

The eunuch Wang Zhen served as the teacher, tutor, and confidant of the emperor. He was from the northern Chinese province of Shanxi, just like Lady Zhang, and was significantly younger than the other members of the Imperial Council, being in his thirties. It quickly became evident that the emperor placed complete trust in him, leading to an increase in his power and the secretaries having to take his opinions into account. Lady Zhang, however, viewed Wang Zhen's influence on the emperor as dangerous and attempted to restrict him, even going so far as to order him to commit suicide in 1437. Despite this, the emperor, with the support of some officials, managed to prevent the order from being carried out.

The political landscape underwent significant changes in the early 1440s. In 1440, Yang Yong, a prominent figure at the age of sixty-nine, died. On 8 June 1442, the emperor entered into marriage with Lady Qian, and on 18 November 1442, just a few days before his fifteenth birthday, he assumed control of the government. Two days later, Grand Empress Dowager Zhang died.

Wang Zhen's predominance

Wang Zhen had finally gained his freedom. He possessed great talent, was direct, attentive, and charismatic, but over time, he became conceited. His power primarily stemmed from his personal influence over the emperor, who held his teacher in the highest regard. Wang Zhen was also a skilled politician. He formed alliances with Xu Xi (徐晞), who was later promoted to Minister of War, as well as Embroidered Uniform Guard Commander Ma Shun and his deputy and nephew Wang Shan, and Left Vice Minister of War Wang Ji, who previously organized the "youth-guards" (幼軍) of the young emperor, later also appointed as Minister of War. Wang Zhen also had control over the Embroidered Uniform Guard, which he did not hesitate to use against his opponents, and he also had influence among the ministers. With these advantages, Wang Zhen easily gained the upper hand in politics. While he had held back during Lady Zhang's lifetime, after her death, he began to push the grand secretaries, who were now in their seventies, out of active politics. Yang Shiji died in 1444, and two years later, Yang Pu also died. After their deaths, only Cao Nai (曹鼐) remained a strong figure among the grand secretaries. His colleague Ma Yu (馬愉) only handled routine work, and the new secretaries appointed in the late 1440s (Gao Gu (高穀), Chen Xun (陳循), and Miao Zhong (苗衷)) did not have a significant impact on politics.

So far, the system of grand coordinators (xunfu), who manage the "three provincial offices" (civil, military, and surveillance), has taken a definitive form in the provinces. They operate in all provinces except Fujian and in six of the nine border garrisons on the northern border. The immediate consequence of the introduction of grand coordinators was the transfer of command over the troops in the provinces to civilian hands, likely due to the decline in the quality of hereditary officers.

The court did not forget about culture either. During Emperor Yingzong's reign, the re-publishing of sets of Buddhist and Taoist classics was completed. Specifically, in 1440, the Buddhist collection Chinese Buddhist Canon (大藏經, Dàzàngjīng, "Great Storage of Scriptures") consisting of 6361 volumes in 636 books was published, with a preface written by the emperor. In 1445, the Taoist collection Zhengtong-era Daoist Canon (正統道藏, Zhèngtǒng dàocáng) was published in 481 books of 5305 volumes. Additionally, in 1443, a work on the moral patterns of On the Five Relationships (五倫書, Wǔlúnshū) with 62 volumes was published. The emperor also wrote a preface to the new edition of the Song work on acupuncture Illustrated Manual of Acupuncture Points on a Bronze Figure (铜人腧穴针灸图经, Tóngrén Shùxué Zhēnjiǔ Tújīng) in 3 volumes. This work included text and illustrations engraved in stone and a bronze sculpture with 360 acupuncture points. The original illustrations and statue, created during the Song dynasty, had eroded and faded, so both were remade.

Economy and finance

Economic downturn

In the mid-1430s, a sixty-year cold period began in the Northern Hemisphere, accompanied by sporadic floods and droughts that resulted in crop failures, leading to famines and epidemics. China was also struck by a series of natural disasters in the late 1430s and 1440s, with floods, droughts, epidemics, and famines occurring in succession. In 1448, the Yellow River breached its dams, causing the waters to flow into northern Jiangsu. The following year, another dam broke, diverting part of the Yellow River's flow into the Guo River and then the Huai River, eventually reaching the sea in southern Jiangsu. Flooding persisted into the 1450s, and the changing course of the Yellow River posed a threat to the water supply of Beijing.

The government attempted to assist the victims by remitting taxes in large quantities, particularly during the regency of Empress Dowager Zhang, who consistently showed concern for the impoverished. However, despite these efforts, dissatisfaction among the population continued to grow. This was largely due to the compulsory work system, which placed an unbearable burden on the people in some regions. As a result, artisans evaded state demands and peasants abandoned their land, leading to a significant decrease in population in certain areas. On the other hand, bandits and vagabonds multiplied.

The economic decline in China from the early 1440s to the mid-1460s resulted in a decrease in porcelain production, particularly for export. Even the emperor's ban on the private sale of blue-and-white porcelain in 1439, which aimed to protect the state monopoly, did not contribute to the growth of production. In fact, in January 1448, the ban was reinforced and extended to forbid the production of porcelain in any colors other than blue and white (such as yellow, purple, red, green, dark blue, and light blue) for private sale in Zhaozhou, where Jingdezhen, known for its porcelain, is located. These prohibitions may have been one of the reasons for the scarcity of porcelain from the Zhengtong, Jingtai and Tianshun eras (1436–1464).

The "Three Yangs" responded to the economic problems mentioned above by cutting state spending. This was made worse by the struggles in the southwest during the 1430s and 1440s, which led to a decline in mining in the region. As a result, they cancelled overseas expeditions and restricted official foreign trade. These austerity measures were easier for them to accept because they directly affected the economic power of the eunuchs in the imperial palace, who were competing with other groups for power. The eunuchs were the ones involved in maritime expeditions and had a vested interest in silver mining, which was also limited in the mid-1430s.

Money – the recognition of silver

The surviving land sales contracts concluded in Huizhou from 1368 to 1644 demonstrate the complex search for the most suitable currency during the early Ming period. Initially, prices were set in silver until 1375, after which baochao banknotes were predominantly used until 1425. However, there were instances where the price was set in grain from 1396 to 1436, and during the Xuande era (1426–1435), cloth was the preferred currency for price determination. Eventually, silver emerged as the clear winner, as all land contracts from 1456 to 1644 were priced in it.

By the end of the Xuande era, the government had recognized the failure to enforce pao-chao notes as the main currency and began tolerating silver. In 1433, the governor of Nanzhili, Zhou Chen, introduced the payment of land tax in silver instead of rice in the most tax-burdened prefectures. From 1436, the officers of the Beijing garrison were paid in silver. In the same year, the land tax in Nanzhili, Zhejiang, Jiangxi, and Huguang was also converted to silver; this transition was accompanied by a tax cut. According to historian Ray Huang, this was a concession to southern landowners and a reversal from Hongwu's policy of suppressing the influence of wealthy landowners. Another historian, Richard Von Glahn, believes that it was an attempt to get the rich people's silver out of their coffers. Additionally, the government reduced silver mining to a minimum.

After Wang Zhen gained influence in the government, the eunuchs pushed for the reopening of the silver mines under their supervision. However, due to the low productivity of mining and the high demands of the eunuchs, there were a series of mining uprisings in Fujian, Zhejiang, and Jiangxi. After Emperor Yingzong was captured in a war with the Mongols in 1449, the new government restricted mining once again. However, when Yingzong returned to power in 1457, the restrictions were lifted. Despite this, mining yields remained low.

The government's decision to allow payment in silver resulted in the rapid decline of banknotes, much to the dismay of the statesmen. By the 1430s, banknotes had practically disappeared from use, with the state only using them to pay employees to a limited extent and withdrawing them as a compulsory payment for trade fees. However, these small transactions were relatively isolated from the country's economy. While silver was used for large payments and taxes, copper coins remained the dominant currency for small transactions in cities.

Imprisonment by the Mongols

At the age of 21, in 1449, the Zhengtong Emperor, advised by Wang Zhen, personally directed and lost the Battle of Tumu Fortress against the Mongols under Esen Taishi (d. 1455). In one of the most humiliating battles in Chinese history, the Ming army, half million strong, led by Zhengtong, was crushed by Esen's forces, estimated to be 20,000 cavalry. His capture by the enemy force shook the empire to its core, and the ensuing crisis almost caused the dynasty to collapse had it not been for the capable governing of the minister Yu Qian. Yu Qian was responsible for the Defense of Beijing.

Although the Zhengtong Emperor was a prisoner of the Mongols, he became a good friend to both Tayisung Khan Toghtoa Bukha (1416–1453) and his grand preceptor (taishi) Esen. Meanwhile, to calm the crisis at home, his younger brother Zhu Qiyu was installed as the Jingtai Emperor. This reduced the Zhengtong Emperor's imperial status and he was granted the title of Tàishàng Huángdi (emperor emeritus).

Historians at the time, in an effort to avoid what is an obvious taboo of the country's head of state becoming a prisoner of war, referred to this chapter of Yingzong's life as the "Northern Hunt" (Chinese: 北狩).

House arrest and second reign

The Zhengtong Emperor was released one year later in 1450, but when he returned to China, he was immediately put under house arrest by his brother for almost seven years. He resided in the southern palace of the Forbidden City, and all outside contacts were severely curtailed by the Jingtai Emperor. His son, who later became the Chenghua Emperor, was stripped of the title of crown prince and replaced by the Jingtai Emperor's own son. This act greatly upset and devastated the former Zhengtong Emperor, but the heir apparent died shortly thereafter. Overcome with grief, the Jingtai Emperor fell ill, and the former Zhengtong Emperor decided to depose his brother by a palace coup. The emperor emeritus was successful in seizing the throne from the Jingtai Emperor when the latter was ill, after which he changed his regnal name to "Tianshun" (lit. "obedience to Heaven") and went on to rule for another seven years. Jingtai Emperor was demoted to the Prince of Cheng and put under house arrest and soon died, probably murdered.

On 6 August 1461, the Tianshun Emperor issued an edict warning his subjects to be loyal to the throne and not to violate the laws. This was a veiled threat aimed at the general Cao Qin (d. 1461), who had become embroiled in a controversy when he had one of his retainers kill a man whom Ming authorities were attempting to interrogate (to find out about Cao's illegal foreign business transactions). On 7 August 1461, Cao Qin and his cohorts of Mongol descent attempted a coup against the Tianshun Emperor. However, during the first hours of the morning of 7 August, prominent Ming generals Wu Jin and Wu Cong, who were alerted of the coup, immediately relayed a warning to the emperor. Although alarmed, the Tianshun Emperor and his court made preparations for a conflict and barred the gates of the palace. During the ensuing onslaught in the capital later that morning, the Minister of Works and the Commander of the Imperial Guard were killed, while the rebels set the gates of the Forbidden City on fire. The eastern and western gates of the imperial city were saved only when pouring rains came and extinguished the fires. The fight lasted for nearly the entire day within the city; during which three of Cao Qin's brothers were killed, and Cao himself received wounds to both arms. With the failure of the coup, in order to escape being executed, Cao fled to his residence and committed suicide by jumping down a well within the walled compound of his home.

The Tianshun Emperor died at the age of 36 in 1464 and was buried in the Yuling Mausoleum of the Ming tombs. Before he died, he had given an order, which was rated highly as an act of imperial magnanimity, that ended the practice of burying alive concubines and palace maids (so that they could follow emperors to the next world).

Family

Consorts and Issue:

• Empress Xiaozhuangrui, of the Qian clan (孝莊睿皇后 錢氏; 1426–1468)
• Empress Xiaosu, of the Zhou clan (孝肅皇后 周氏; 1430–1504)
  • Princess Chongqing (重慶公主; 1446–1499), first daughter
    • Married Zhou Jing (周景) in 1461, and had issue (one son)
  • Zhu Jianshen, the Chenghua Emperor (憲宗 朱見深; 9 December 1447 – 9 September 1487), first son
  • Zhu Jianze, Prince Jian of Chong (崇簡王 朱見澤; 2 May 1455 – 27 August 1505), sixth son
• Consort Jingzhuanganmuchen, of the Wan clan (靖莊安穆宸妃 萬氏; 1432–1468)
  • Zhu Jianlin, Prince Zhuang of De (德莊王 朱見潾; 7 May 1448 – 7 September 1517), second son
  • Zhu Jianshi (朱見湜; 2 August 1449 – 30 August 1451), third son
  • Princess Chun'an (淳安公主; 1453-1536), third daughter
    • Married Cai Zhen (蔡震) in 1466, and had issue (four sons, two daughters)
  • Princess Guangde (廣德公主; 1454–1484), personal name Yanxiang (延祥), fifth daughter
    • Married Fan Kai (樊凱; d. 1513) in 1472, and had issue (four sons, two daughters)
  • Zhu Jianjun, Prince Jian of Ji (吉簡王 朱見浚; 11 July 1456 – 16 August 1527), seventh son
  • Zhu Jianzhi, Prince Mu of Xin (忻穆王 朱見治; 18 March 1458 – 2 April 1472), eighth son
• Consort Duanjinganhehui, of the Wang clan (端靖安和惠妃 王氏; 1429–1485)
  • Princess Jiashan (嘉善公主; d. 1499), second daughter
    • Married Wang Zeng (王增) in 1466, and had issue (two daughters)
  • Zhu Jianchun, Prince Dao of Xu (許悼王 朱見淳; 6 April 1450 – 3 January 1453), fourth son
• Consort Zhuangxiduansu'an, of the Yang clan (莊僖端肅安妃 楊氏; 18 July 1414 – 2 November 1487)
  • Princess Chongde (崇德公主; d. 1489), fourth daughter
    • Married Yang Wei (楊偉) in 1466, and had issue (one son)
• Consort Zhuangjinganrongshu, of the Gao clan (莊靜安榮淑妃 高氏; 1429–1511)
  • Zhu Jianshu, Prince Huai of Xiu (秀懷王 朱見澍; 12 March 1452 – 13 October 1472), fifth son
  • Princess Longqing (隆慶公主; 6 November 1455 – 18 December 1480), seventh daughter
    • Married You Tai (遊泰; 1458–1533) in 1473, and had issue (one daughter)
• Consort Gongduanzhuanghuide, of the Wei clan (恭端莊惠德妃 魏氏; 1426–1469)
  • Princess Yixing (宜興公主; d. 1514), sixth daughter
    • Married Ma Cheng (馬誠) in 1473
  • Ninth daughter
  • Zhu Jianpei, Prince Zhuang of Hui (徽莊王 朱見沛; 2 March 1462 – 13 June 1505), ninth son
• Consort Gongheanjingshun, of the Fan clan (恭和安靜順妃 樊氏; 1414–1470)
  • Tenth daughter
• Consort Anherongjingli, of the Liu clan (安和榮靖麗妃 劉氏; 1426–1512)
• Consort Zhaosujingduanxian, of the Wang clan (昭肅靖端賢妃 王氏; 1430–1474)
• Consort Duanzhuangzhao, of the Wu clan (端莊昭妃 武氏; 1431–1467)
• Consort Gong'anhe, of the Gong clan (恭安和妃 宮氏; 1430–1467)
• Consort Rongjingzhen, of the Wang clan (榮靖貞妃 王氏; 1427–1507)
• Consort Gongjingzhuang, of the Zhao clan (恭靖莊妃 趙氏; 1446–1514)
• Consort Zhenshunyigongjing, of the Liu clan (貞順懿恭敬妃 劉氏; d. 1463)
• Consort Zhaojinggong, of the Liu clan (昭靜恭妃 劉氏; d. 1500)
• Consort Zhaoyixian, of the Li clan (昭懿賢妃 李氏)
• Consort Gongxicheng, of the Zhang clan (恭僖成妃 張氏; d. 1504)
• Consort Xikechong, of the Yu clan (僖恪充妃 余氏; d. 1503)
• Consort Huiheli, of the Chen clan (惠和麗妃 陳氏; d. 1500)
• Unknown
  • Princess Jiaxiang (嘉祥公主; d. 1483), eight daughter
    • Married Huang Yong (黃鏞; d. 1510) in 1477

Ancestry

Popular culture

• Portrayed by Kwon Bin in the 2016 KBS1 TV series Jang Yeong-sil.
• In the computer game Europa Universalis IV he is the emperor of the playable Ming dynasty at the game's start date of 1444.
• Portrayed by Wallace Huo in 2016 television series The Imperial Doctress
• Portrayed by Zhang Yixing in the 2019 television series《大明风华) Ming Dynasty

See also

• Chinese emperors family tree (late)
• Tumu Crisis
• Rebellion of Cao Qin
• Ming dynasty

Notes

1. Tianshun (天順) was also the name of a reign era in the Yuan dynasty.

References

Citations

1. ^ Goodrich & Fang (1976), p. 289.
2. Chan (1988), p. 303.
3. ^ Mote (2003), p. 626.
4. Heer (1986), p. 10.
5. ^ Goodrich & Fang (1976), p. 290.
6. ^ Twitchett & Grimm (1988), p. 305.
7. ^ Twitchett & Grimm (1988), p. 306.
8. Heer (1986), p. 10–11.
9. ^ Twitchett & Grimm (1988), p. 307.
10. ^ Heer (1986), p. 12.
11. ^ Twitchett & Grimm (1988), p. 308.
12. ^ Heer (1986), p. 11.
13. Chan (1988), p. 292.
14. ^ Dreyer (1982), p. 231.
15. ^ Goodrich & Fang (1976), p. 293.
16. Goodrich & Fang (1976), p. 294.
17. ^ Atwell (2002), p. 97.
18. ^ Twitchett & Grimm (1988), p. 310–311.
19. ^ Twitchett & Grimm (1988), p. 312.
20. Twitchett & Grimm (1988), p. 309.
21. ^ Atwell (2002), p. 90.
22. Atwell (2002), p. 91.
23. ^ Glahn (1996), p. 78–79. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFGlahn1996 (help)
24. ^ Glahn (1996), p. 75–76. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFGlahn1996 (help)
25. Glahn (1996), p. 75. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFGlahn1996 (help)
26. ^ Glahn (1996), p. 83. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFGlahn1996 (help)
27. Haskew, Michael E. (2008). Fighting Techniques of the Oriental World AD 1200–1860: Equipment, Combat Skills And Tactics, Christer Jørgensen. Amber Books. p. 12. ISBN 978-1905704965.
28. Wen chao yue kan, Volume 5. Beijing: 全国图书馆文献缩微复制中心. 2005. p. 128.
29. Han, Weiling. 明英宗“北狩”史料之蒙古风俗文化刍议 [The History of Ming Yingzong Emperor's "Northern Hunt": Debate over Mongolian Cultures and Customs]. 中国边疆民族研究 (in Simplified Chinese). 2017. Retrieved 19 November 2018. 明人讳称此事为英宗"北狩"。
30. ^ Robinson, 97.
31. ^ Robinson, 79.
32. Robinson, 101–102.
33. Robinson, 102.
34. Robinson, 105.
35. Robinson, 107–108.
36. Zhonghua quan guo fu nü lian he hui (1984). Women of China. Foreign Language Press.

Works cited

• Goodrich, L. Carington; Fang, Chaoying (1976). Dictionary of Ming Biography, 1368-1644. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-03801-1.
• Chan, Hok-lam (1988). "The Chien-wen, Yung-lo, Hung-hsi, and Hsüan-te reigns". In Mote, Frederick W.; Twitchett, Denis C (eds.). The Cambridge History of China Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521243327.
• Mote, Frederick W (2003). Imperial China 900-1800. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-01212-7.
• Heer, Ph. de (1986). The Care-taker Emperor : Aspects of the Imperial Institution in Fifteenth-century China as Reflected in the Political History of the Reign of Chu Chʾi-yü. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 9004078983.
• Twitchett, Denis C; Grimm, Tilemann (1988). "The Cheng-t'ung, Ching-t'ai, and T'ien-shun reigns, 1436—1464". In Mote, Frederick W.; Twitchett, Denis C (eds.). The Cambridge History of China Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521243327.
• Dreyer, Edward L (1982). Early Ming China: A Political History. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-1105-4.
• Atwell, William S (2002). Time, Money, and the Weather: Ming China and the “Great Depression” of the Mid-Fifteenth Century. The Journal of Asian Studies. ISSN 0021-9118.
• Von Glahn, Richard (1996). Fountain of Fortune: money and monetary policy in China, 1000–1700. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-20408-5.
• Robinson, David M. "Politics, Force and Ethnicity in Ming China: Mongols and the Abortive Coup of 1461," Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies (Volume 59: Number 1, June 1999): 79–123.

• 1427 births
• 1464 deaths
• 15th-century Chinese monarchs
• Child monarchs from Asia
• Ming dynasty emperors
• Monarchs taken prisoner in wartime
• Heads of government who were later imprisoned
• Ming dynasty Buddhists