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| | full name = Zhu Yijun (朱翊鈞) | | full name = Zhu Yijun (朱翊鈞) | ||
| | era name = ] (萬曆) | | era name = ] (萬曆) | ||
| | era dates = 2 February 1573 – 27 August 1620{{ |
| era dates = 2 February 1573 – 27 August 1620{{efn|Following the death of the emperor, the Wanli era was normally due to end on 21 January 1621. However, the Wanli Emperor's successor, the ], died within a month, before 22 January 1621, which should have been the start of the Taichang era. The ], who succeeded the Taichang Emperor, decided that the Wanli era would be considered as having ended on the last day of the seventh month (equivalent to 27 August 1620), to enable the Taichang era to be applied retrospectively for the remaining five months in that year. Dates before 1582 are given in the ], not in the ]. Dates after 1582 are given in the ].}} | ||
| | posthumous name = '''Emperor''' Fantian Hedao Zhesu Dunjian Guangwen Zhangwu Anren Zhixiao '''Xian''' (範天合道哲肅敦簡光文章武安仁止孝'''顯皇帝''') | | posthumous name = '''Emperor''' Fantian Hedao Zhesu Dunjian Guangwen Zhangwu Anren Zhixiao '''Xian''' (範天合道哲肅敦簡光文章武安仁止孝'''顯皇帝''') | ||
| | succession = ] | | succession = ] | ||
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| | p = Wànlì Dì | | p = Wànlì Dì | ||
| }} | }} | ||
| The '''Wanli Emperor''' (4 September 1563 – 18 August 1620), personal name '''Zhu Yijun''' ({{zh |t = 朱翊鈞 |p = Zhū Yìjūn }}), ] '''Yuzhai''' (禹齋),<ref>(Ming) Shen Defu (沈德符). ''Compilation of Wanli era catastrophes'' (萬曆野獲編), Volume 1: "又云世宗號堯齋，其後穆宗號舜齋，今上因之亦號禹齋，以故己卯『應天命禹』一題，乃暗頌兩朝，非諂江陵也。未知信否。"</ref> was the 14th ], reigned from 1572 to 1620. "]", the ] of his reign, literally means "ten thousand calendars". He was the third son of the ]. His reign of 48 years (1572–1620) was the longest among all the Ming dynasty emperors<ref name="Mote2003" /> and it witnessed several successes in his early and middle reign, followed by the decline of the dynasty as the emperor withdrew from his active role in government around 1600. | The '''Wanli Emperor''' (4 September 1563 – 18 August 1620), also known by his ] as the '''Emperor Shenzong of Ming''' ({{zh|c=明神宗|link=no}}), personal name '''Zhu Yijun''' ({{zh |t = 朱翊鈞 |p = Zhū Yìjūn }}), ] '''Yuzhai''' (禹齋),<ref>(Ming) Shen Defu (沈德符). ''Compilation of Wanli era catastrophes'' (萬曆野獲編), Volume 1: "又云世宗號堯齋，其後穆宗號舜齋，今上因之亦號禹齋，以故己卯『應天命禹』一題，乃暗頌兩朝，非諂江陵也。未知信否。"</ref> was the 14th ], reigned from 1572 to 1620. "]", the ] of his reign, literally means "ten thousand calendars". He was the third son of the ]. His reign of 48 years (1572–1620) was the longest among all the Ming dynasty emperors<ref name="Mote2003" /> and it witnessed several successes in his early and middle reign, followed by the decline of the dynasty as the emperor withdrew from his active role in government around 1600. | ||
| The Wanli Emperor ascended the throne at the age of nine. During the first ten years of his reign, the young emperor was assisted and effectively led by grand secretary and skilled administrator, ]. With the support of the emperor's mother, ], and the imperial eunuchs led by Feng Bao, the country experienced economic and military prosperity, reaching a level of power not seen since the early 15th century. The emperor held great respect and appreciation for his grand secretary. However, as time passed, various factions within the government openly opposed Zhang, causing his influential position in the government and at court to become a burden for the monarch. In 1582, Zhang died and within months, the emperor dismissed Feng Bao. He then gained discretion and made significant changes to Zhang's administrative arrangements. | |||
| ⚫ | == |
||
| Zhu Yijun ascended the throne at the age of eight and adopted the ] "Wanli", thus he is historically known as the Wanli Emperor. For the first ten years of his reign, he was aided by a notable statesman, ], who governed the country as Wanli's regent. During this period, the Wanli Emperor deeply respected Zhang as a mentor and a valued minister. Archery competitions, equestrianism and calligraphy were some of the pastimes of Wanli.<ref name="MoteTwitchett1988">{{cite book|author1=Frederick W. Mote|author2=Denis Twitchett|title=The Cambridge History of China: Volume 7, The Ming Dynasty, 1368-1644|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tyhT9SZRLS8C&q=archery&pg=PA514|date=26 February 1988|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-24332-2|pages=514–}}</ref> Shortly after Wanli's ascension, a new star appeared in the sky, and Zhang warned him to consider his misbehaviour, as was tradition with the appearance of new stars in the sky, which was considered to be a ].<ref>''Science and Civilization in China'', v.3 pp.425-6; cf. '']''.</ref> It is generally agreed that this 'new star' was ], a supernova observed independently by many individuals across the globe. | |||
| The Wanli era was marked by a significant boom in industry, particularly in the production of silk, cotton, and porcelain. Agriculture also experienced growth, and there was a notable increase in both interregional and foreign trade. This development had the strongest impact in Jiangnan, where cities such as ], ], ], and ] flourished. However, despite the overall economic growth of the empire, the state's finances remained in a poor state. While wealthy merchants and ] enjoyed a life of splendor, the majority of peasants and day laborers continued to live in poverty. | |||
| As Zhang Juzheng was appointed Senior Grand Secretary (''Shǒufǔ'') in 1572, he launched a reform by the name of "abiding by ancestors' rules". He started from rectifying administration with a series of measures such as reducing redundant personnel and enhancing assessment of officials' performance. This improved officials' quality and efficiency of administration, and based on such facts he launched relevant reforms in the fields of land, finance, and military affairs. In essence, Zhang Juzheng's reform was a rectification of social maladies without offending the established political and fiscal system of the Ming dynasty. Although it did not eradicate political corruption and land annexation, it positively relieved social contradictions. More over, Zhang efficiently protected the dynasty from Japan, Jurchens and Mongols so he could save national defense expenditure. By the 1580s, Zhang stored an astronomical amount of silver, worth 10 years of the state's total tax revenue. The first ten years of Wanli's regime led to a renaissance, economically, culturally and militarily, an era known in historiography as the Wanli Restoration (萬曆中興). | |||
| In the military field, the closing decade of the 16th century was marked by three major campaigns, all of which were successful. The first of these was the ], which resulted in the rebels taking control of the city and its surrounding area after eliminating the commanding generals. The rebels had a significant force of 20,000 to 30,000 soldiers, while the city itself had a population of 300,000. In response, the Ming government assembled a force of 40,000 soldiers to quell the rebellion. By mid-October 1592, the city had been conquered and Ming troops were able to be moved to the opposite side of the empire, to Korea. In the same year, the de facto ruler of Japan, ], launched an ] with 200,000 soldiers. In response, the Wanli Emperor immediately sent 3,000 men, but they were unable to withstand the Japanese forces. As a result, the emperor increased the Chinese army in Korea to 40,000 soldiers. The combined Korean-Chinese forces gained the upper hand, and the Japanese were pushed out of most of Korea and forced to retreat to the southeast coast by 1593. Four years later, in 1597, the Japanese launched a second invasion, but were ultimately defeated and forced to withdraw after the death of Hideyoshi the following year. The third major conflict during this time was the suppression of ] in southwest China from 1587 to 1600. Due to the ongoing war with Japan, Ming forces were only able to concentrate in the southwest from 1599. However, once they were able to do so, a Ming army of over 200,000 soldiers was able to quickly defeat and suppress the rebellion within a few months. | |||
| During the first ten years of the Wanli era, the Ming dynasty's economy and military power prospered in a way not seen since the ] and the ] from 1402 to 1435. After Zhang's death, the Wanli Emperor felt free to act independently, and reversed many of Zhang's administrative improvements. In 1584, the Wanli Emperor issued an edict confiscating all of Zhang's personal wealth and purging his family members. Especially after 1586 when he had conflicts with ministers about his heir, Wanli decided to not hold the council for 20 years. The Ming dynasty's decline began in the interim. | |||
| Over time, the emperor grew increasingly disillusioned with the constant moralizing attacks and counterattacks from officials, causing him to become increasingly isolated. In the 1580s and 1590s, he attempted to promote his third son, ] (the son of his favorite concubine, ]), as crown prince, but faced strong opposition from officials. This led to ongoing conflicts between the emperor and his ministers for over fifteen years. Eventually, the emperor gave in and appointed his eldest son, Zhu Changluo (later the ]), as crown prince in October 1601. In 1596, the Wanli Emperor attempted to establish a parallel administration composed of eunuchs, separate from the officials who had traditionally governed the empire. However, this effort was abandoned in 1606. As a result, the governance of the country remained in the hands of Confucian intellectuals, who were often embroiled in disputes with each other. The opposition ] continued to criticize the emperor and his followers, while pro-government officials were divided based on their regional origins. | |||
| ==Middle reign (1582–1600)== | |||
| After Zhang Juzheng's death, the Wanli Emperor decided to take complete personal control of the government. During this early part of his reign, he showed himself to be a competent and diligent emperor. Overall, the economy continued to prosper and the empire remained powerful, however there was a political schism between Utilitarian factions and Purist Factions. Unlike the last 20 years of his reign, the Wanli Emperor at this time would attend court and discuss affairs of state.]The first 18 years of the Wanli era would be dominated by three military campaigns: | |||
| * ]: In the northern frontier regions, a Ming general rebelled and allied with the Mongols to attack the Ming Empire. The Wanli Emperor sent his troops to deal with the situation, resulting in overall success. | |||
| * ]: ] of Japan sent 200,000 soldiers in his first expedition to invade Korea. The Wanli Emperor made three strategic moves. First, he sent a 3,000-strong army to support the Koreans. Second, if Koreans entered Ming territory, he gave them sanctuary. Third, he instructed the ] area to prepare for possible invasion. The first two battles fought with the Japanese were defeats since Ming troops were outnumbered and ill-prepared to fight the 200,000-strong Japanese army. The emperor then sent a bigger army of 80,000 men, with more success. This resulted in negotiations that favored the Ming. Two years later, in 1596, Japan once again invaded. However, that same year Toyotomi died and the remaining Japanese leadership lost their will to fight. Combined with the naval victories of Guangdong commander ] and Korean admiral ] and the bogging down of Japanese forces in the Korean mainland, the demoralised Japanese army withdrew, with peace negotiations following. | |||
| * ]: Around the same time as the Korean campaign, a rebellion was brewing in the ] in southwestern China, led by Yang Yinglong.<ref>{{cite book |last=Herman |first = John E. |title=Amid the Clouds and Mist: China's Colonization of Guizhou, 1200-1700 |year=2007 |publisher=Harvard University Asia Center |isbn=978-0674025912 |pages=164, 165, 281 |edition=illustrated |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=MWxwAAAAMAAJ&q=bozhou+yang }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Ness |first=John Philip |title=The Southwestern Frontier During the Ming Dynasty |year=1998 |publisher=University of Minnesota |pages=139, 140 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=GI9U6sj_NWMC&q=bozhou+yang }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The country of streams and grottoes |year=1987 |isbn=0674175433 |pages=126, 132, 133 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=XqFQAQAAIAAJ&q=bozhou+yang |last1=von Glahn |first1=Richard L. |last2=Glahn |first2=Richard Von |publisher=Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Swope |first=Kenneth |title=The Three Great Campaigns of the Wanli Emperor, 1592-1600: court, military and society in late sixteenth-century China |year=2001 |publisher=University of Michigan |pages=387, 411, 442 |isbn=9780493331492 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Y7wfAQAAMAAJ&q=bozhou+yang }}</ref> The Miao army ravaged Ming prefectures and districts while the Ming army was occupied in Korea, perhaps as many as 200,000 men were under the command of Yang Yinglong while the Ming could muster tens of thousands within the region. It was only when the Ming government shifted its full attention to the rebellion did the suppression begin to see some successes.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Swope |first1=Kenneth M. |editor1-last=Aung-Thwin |editor1-first=Michael Arthur |editor2-last=Hall |editor2-first=Kenneth R. |title=New Perspectives on the History and Historiography of Southeast Asia: Continuing Explorations |year=2011 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1136819643 |pages=122–125 |chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvWrAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA124 |chapter=6 To catch a tiger The Eupression of the Yang Yinglong Miao uprising (1578-1600) as a case study in Ming military and borderlands history}}</ref> After the Korean campaign ended, the Wanli Emperor sent Li Huolong and Guo Zhizhang to lead the offensive. In the end, the Ming forces defeated Yang Yinglong, who committed suicide, and captured Yang's family, who were transported to the capital to be executed, thus quelling the rebellion. | |||
| In the final years of the Wanli Emperor's reign, the Jurchens grew stronger on the northeastern frontiers and posed a significant threat. In 1619, they defeated the Ming armies in the ] and captured part of ]. | |||
| After the last of these three wars were concluded, the Wanli Emperor withdrew from active participation in court, a practice which he continued throughout the rest of his reign. | |||
| ==Childhood and accession to the throne== | |||
| ==Late reign (1600–1620)== | |||
| Zhu Yijun was born on 4 September 1563 to ], the heir to the throne of the Ming dynasty, and one of his concubines, Lady Li. He was the third son of Zhu Zaiji, but unfortunately, both of his older brothers died in early childhood before 1563. He did have a younger brother, Zhu Yiliu (朱翊鏐; 1568–1614), who was created Prince of Lu in 1571. | |||
| During the later years of the Wanli Emperor's reign, he became thoroughly alienated from his imperial role and, in effect, went on strike. He refused to attend morning meetings, see his ministers or act upon memoranda. He also refused to make necessary personnel appointments, and as a result the whole top echelon of the Ming administration became understaffed. He did, however, pay close attention to the construction of his own tomb, a magnificent structure that took decades to complete. | |||
| There are several reasons why the Wanli Emperor deliberately neglected his duties as emperor. One was that he became disenchanted with the moralistic attacks and counterattacks of officials, rooted in an abstract Confucian orthodoxy.<ref name="Huang">Huang, Ray(1981) ''1587, a Year of No Significance: The Ming Dynasty in Decline.'' New Haven: Yale University Press. {{ISBN|0-300-02518-1}}</ref> A more important reason, though, was a dispute about the imperial succession. The emperor's favorite consort was ], and throughout the 1580s and 1590s, the emperor very much wanted to promote his son by her (]) as crown prince, even though he was only the emperor's third son and not favored for the succession. Many of his powerful ministers were opposed, and this led to a clash between sovereign and ministers that lasted more than 15 years. In October 1601, the Wanli Emperor finally gave in and promoted Zhu Changluo – the future ] – as crown prince. Although the ministers seem to have triumphed, the Wanli Emperor adopted a policy of passive resistance, refusing to play his part in allowing the government to function adequately, leading to serious problems both within China itself and on the borders.<ref>{{Cite book |editor-last=Goodrich |editor-first=Carrington L. |name-list-style=amp |editor2-last=Fang |editor2-first=Chaoying |title=Dictionary of Ming Biography |location=New York |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=1976 |isbn=0-231-03801-1 }}</ref> Additionally, the emperor continued to express his objection to the choice of Zhu Changluo as ], even delaying the burial of ] by two years, before allowing her to be buried appropriately for the wife of the crown prince.]The area known as ] in northeastern China was gradually conquered by the ] chieftain ]. Nurhaci would go on to create the Later Jin (the precursor of the ]), which would now become an immediate threat to the Ming dynasty. By this time, after 20 years of imperial dysfunction, the Ming army was in decline. The Jurchens were fewer in number, but they were able to upset the Ming. For instance, in the ] in 1619, the Ming government sent out an army of 200,000 against the Later Jin army of 60,000, with Nurhaci controlling six banners and 45,000 troops as the central attack, while ] and ] each controlled 7,500 troops and one banner and attacked from the sides. After five days of battle, the Ming army suffered casualties of over 100,000, with 70% of their food supply stolen. | |||
| Zhu Zaiji became ] in 1567 and reigned as the Longqing Emperor, but he died five years later on 5 July 1572. Zhu Yijun then ascended the throne two weeks later on 19 July 1572. Before his death, the Longqing Emperor instructed minister ] to take charge of state affairs and become a devoted adviser to the young emperor. | |||
| When the ] transmitted some descriptions of China to the Russians in 1614, the name "Taibykankan" was used to refer to the Wanli Emperor by the Oirats.<ref name="Perdue2009">{{cite book|author=Peter C Perdue|title=China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J4L-_cjmSqoC&q=bogda+khan&pg=PA100|date=30 June 2009|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-04202-5|pages=100–}}</ref> | |||
| The Wanli Emperor was known for his restless and energetic nature during his youth.{{sfnp|Huang|1988|p=514}} He was described as a quick learner,{{sfnp|Swope|2008|p=74}} intelligent,{{sfnp|Huang|1988|p=514}}{{sfnp|Swope|2008|p=74}} and perceptive, always staying well-informed about the happenings in the empire.{{sfnp|Huang|1988|p=514}} Zhang Juzheng assigned eight teachers to educate the Wanli Emperor in Confucianism, history, and calligraphy. The history lessons focused on teaching him about good and bad examples of governance, and Zhang Juzheng personally compiled a collection of historical stories for the emperor to learn from. However, the Wanli Emperor's fascination with calligraphy concerned Zhang, who feared that this "empty pastime" would distract him from his duties as a statesman. As a result, Zhang gradually stopped the Wanli Empror's calligraphy lessons.{{sfnp|Duindam|2016|pp=64–65}} From 1583 to 1588, the Wanli Emperor visited several mausoleums near Beijing and paid attention to the training of the palace guard.{{sfnp|McMahon|2016|p=127}} However, his mother, Zhang Juzheng,{{sfnp|Huang|1988|p=514}} and high-ranking officials in Beijing were worried that he would become a ruler similar to the ] (reigned 1505–1521),{{sfnp|McMahon|2016|p=127}} and discouraged him from traveling outside the Forbidden City and pursuing his interests in the military, horse riding, and archery.{{sfnp|Huang|1988|p=514}}{{sfnp|McMahon|2016|p=127}} Under their pressure, the Wanli Emperor stopped leaving Beijing after 1588 and stopped participating in public sacrifices after 1591. He also canceled the morning audience (held before dawn) and the evening study of Confucianism (after sunset).{{sfnp|McMahon|2016|p=128}} In his youth, the Wanli Emperor was obedient to his mother and showed respect towards eunuchs and grand secretaries. However, as he grew older, he became cynical and skeptical towards rituals and bureaucrats.{{sfnp|McMahon|2016|p=127}} His opposition to ritualized royal duties linked him to his grandfather the ] (reigned 1521–1567), but he lacked the Jiajing Emperor's decisiveness and flamboyance. Instead of the Jiajing Emperor's passion for Taoism, the Wanli Emperor leaned towards Buddhism.{{sfnp|McMahon|2016|p=127}} | |||
| In 1615, the Ming imperial court was hit by yet another scandal. A man named Zhang Chai (張差), armed with only a wooden staff, managed to chase away the ]s guarding the gates and broke into Ciqing Palace (慈慶宮), then the crown prince's living quarters. Zhang Chai was eventually subdued and thrown into prison. Initial investigation found him to be a lunatic, but upon further investigation by a magistrate named Wang Zhicai (王之寀), Zhang Chai confessed to being party to a plot instigated by two eunuchs working under ]. According to Zhang Chai's confession, the two had promised him rewards for assaulting the Crown Prince, thus implicating the Emperor's favorite concubine in an assassination plot. Presented with the incriminating evidence and the gravity of the accusations, the Wanli Emperor, in an attempt to spare Noble Consort Zheng, personally presided over the case. He laid the full blame on the two implicated eunuchs who were executed along with the would-be assassin. Although the case was quickly hushed up, it did not quash public discussion and eventually became known as the "Case of the Wooden Staff Assault" (梃擊案), one of three notorious 'mysteries' of the late Ming dynasty. | |||
| In the first period of his rule, he displayed a strong commitment to the well-being of his people, actively combating corruption and striving to improve border defense. His mother, a devout Buddhist, had a significant influence on him, leading him to rarely impose the death penalty. However, one punished official claimed that his leniency was sometimes excessive. Despite this, he was not afraid to use violence against offending officials, although he did not make it a regular practice. He was known to be both vulnerable and vengeful, but also generous.{{sfnp|Huang|1988|p=514}} However, since the mid-1580s, he began to gain weight{{sfnp|McMahon|2016|p=128}} and his health deteriorated. In 1589, he cited long-term dizziness, accompanied by fevers, heatstroke, eczema, diarrhea, and general weakness as reasons for his absence from audiences. It is believed that his health issues were linked to his regular use of opium.{{sfnp|Zheng|2005|pp=18–19}} | |||
| Zhang Juzheng and his mother raised the Wanli Emperor to be modest in material possessions and exemplary in behavior, which he saw as a humiliation that he never forgot. However, upon learning that Zhang Juzheng himself lived in luxury, the Wanli Emperor was deeply affected. This display of double standards hardened his attitude towards officials and made him cynical about moral challenges. Two years after Zhang Juzheng's death, his family was accused of illegal land dealings, and the Wanli Emperor severely punished them by confiscating their property and sending Zhang's sons to the border troops.{{sfnp|Huang|1988|p=515}} | |||
| ==Wanli as emperor== | |||
| ⚫ | ===Zhang Juzheng's government (1572–1582)=== | ||
| At the end of the Longqing Emperor's reign, the Grand Secretariat and Government were headed by Senior Grand Secretary and Minister of Rites ]. However, after the Wanli Emperor's accession, the eunuch Feng Bao (馮保), head of the Directorate of Ceremonies (the most important eunuch office in the imperial palace), worked with Grand Secretary Zhang Juzheng to depose Gao Gong. Zhang Juzheng then took over as head of the Grand Secretariat and remained in power for ten years until his death in 1582.{{sfnp|Huang|1988|pp=521–522}} In response to the Mongol raids in the 1550s, Zhang aimed to "enrich the country and strengthen the army", using legalistic methods rather than Confucian ones.{{sfnp|Swope|2009|p=23}} He sought to centralize the government and increase the emperor's authority at the expense of local interests by streamlining the administration and strengthening the military.{{sfnp|Swope|2008|p=73}} This included closing local academies and placing the investigating censors under the Grand Secretariat's control.{{sfnp|Swope|2008|p=73}} Zhang had the support of eunuchs, particularly Feng Bao, and the emperor's mother,{{sfnp|Huang|1988|p=523}} who acted as regent. He was able to handpick his colleagues in the grand secretariat and informally control the ] and the ], appointing his followers to important positions in central offices and regions. This gave him significant influence in the government, although he did not have the authority to issue orders or demands.{{sfnp|Huang|1988|p=523}} Zhang also attempted to redirect the control officials from seeking revenge against each other and instead focus on collecting taxes and suppressing bandits. As a result, the efficiency of the Ming state administration improved between 1572 and 1582,{{sfnp|Huang|1988|p=525}} reaching a level that had only been achieved in the early days of the empire.{{sfnp|Huang|1988|p=526}} | |||
| Zhang Juzheng implemented a series of reforms during his time in office, including the conversion of tax payments from goods to silver (known as the ]), changes to the military peasant system,{{sfnp|Swope|2009|p=23}} and between 1572 and 1579, revised the accounts of county offices regarding corvée labor and various fees and surcharges.{{sfnp|Huang|1988|p=525}} In 1580–1582, a new ] was also created.{{sfnp|Huang|1988|pp=527–528}} These reforms were formalized across the empire with the publication of revised lists of taxpayers' duties, now converted to a unified payment in silver.{{sfnp|Huang|1988|p=525}} As part of the administrative reforms, unnecessary activities were abolished or limited, the number of Confucian students receiving state support was reduced, and provincial authorities were urged to only require one-third of the previous amount of corvée labor. Additionally, the services provided by post offices were reduced. Despite these changes, taxes remained at their original level and tax arrears were strictly enforced. Zhang Juzheng was able to accumulate a surplus of income over expenditure.{{sfnp|Huang|1988|p=524}} This was a significant achievement, as the Ming state typically operated without reserves in the 16th century. However, Zhang Juzheng's administration was able to save money and improve tax collection, resulting in considerable reserves. In 1582, the granaries around the capital held nine years' worth of grain, the the treasury of the Ministry of Revenue contained 6 million ''liang'' (about 223 tons) of silver, the Court of the Imperial Stud (太僕寺) held another 4 million, and an additional 2.5 million was available in Nanjing. Smaller reserves were also available to provincial administrations in ], ], and ]. Despite these achievements, there were no institutional changes during Zhang Juzheng's time in office. He simply made existing processes more efficient under the slogan of returning to the order from the beginnings of the empire.{{sfnp|Huang|1988|p=522}} | |||
| As a proponent of peace with the Mongols, Zhang Juzheng rejected the proposal of Minister of War ] for a pre-emptive strike against them. Instead, he ordered ], commander of the northeastern border, to maintain an armed peace.{{sfnp|Huang|1988|p=524}} This decision not only allowed for a reduction in the border army, but also resulted in the return of surplus soldiers to their family farms.{{sfnp|Huang|1988|p=525}} Zhang Juzheng not only rejected the notion that military affairs were less important than civilian ones, but also challenged the dominance of civilian dignitaries over military leaders. He appointed capable military leaders such as Qi Jiguang, Wang Chonggu (王崇古), Tan Lun, Liang Meng-lung, and ] to positions of responsibility. Additionally, he implemented a combination of defensive and offensive measures to strengthen border defenses and fostered peaceful relations with neighboring countries by opening border markets, particularly in the northwest.{{sfnp|Swope|2008|p=72}} | |||
| Zhang Juzheng's actions were within the bounds of existing legislation, but critics viewed them as an abuse of power to promote his followers and exert illegitimate pressure on officials. However, open criticism was rare until his father's death in 1577. According to the law, Zhang was supposed to leave office due to mourning, but the emperor chose to keep him in office. This was not unprecedented, but criticism of disrespect for parents was widespread.{{sfnp|Huang|1988|p=526}} Despite the fact that the most vocal critics were punished with beatings, Zhang Juzheng's reputation was damaged. In an attempt to suppress opposition, Zhang then enforced an extraordinary self-evaluation of all high-ranking officials,{{sfnp|Huang|1988|p=527}} resulting in the elimination of around fifty opponents.{{sfnp|Huang|1988|p=537}} | |||
| Zhang Juzheng died on 9 July 1582. After his death, he was accused of the typical offenses of high officials, including bribery, living in luxury, promoting unqualified supporters, abusing power, and silencing critics.{{sfnp|Huang|1988|p=528}} After Zhang Juzheng's death, his followers among the officials were dismissed,{{sfnp|Swope|2009|p=24}} and in the beginning of 1583, Feng Bao also lost his position.{{sfnp|Pang|2015|p=26–28}} However, the emperor protected the officers, which boosted their morale to a level not seen since the mid-15th century. The Wanli Emperor's more aggressive military policy was based on Zhang's successes,{{sfnp|Swope|2008|p=73}} as he attempted to replace static defense with more offensive tactics and appointed only officials with military experience to lead the Ministry of War.{{sfnp|Swope|2009|p=24}} The emperor also shared Zhang Juzheng's distrust of local and regional authorities and opposition to factional politics.{{sfnp|Swope|2008|p=73}} Like Zhang Juzheng, the Wanli Emperor preferred to solve real problems rather than engage in "empty talk"{{efn|''Xuyan'', 虛言.}} and factional conflicts.{{sfnp|Swope|2008|p=75}} | |||
| ===Anti-Zhang opposition government (1582–1596)=== | |||
| After Zhang's death, a coalition formed between the emperor's mother,{{sfnp|Luk|2016|pp=70–77}} grand secretaries, the Ministry of Personnel, and the Censorate to ensure efficient administration of the empire. This alliance was opposed by the opposition, who deemed it illegal.{{sfnp|Zhao|2002|pp=135–136}} However, with the absence of a strong statesman in the Grand Secretariat, there was no one to bring the administration under control.{{sfnp|Huang|1988|pp=528–529}} Both the emperor and opposition officials feared the concentration of power in the Grand Secretariat and worked to prevent it.{{sfnp|Zhao|2002|pp=115–116}} From 1582 to 1591, the Grand Secretariat was briefly led by Zhang Siwei and then for eight years by ]. Shen Shixing attempted to find compromises between the monarch and the bureaucracy, while also tolerating criticism and respecting the decisions of ministries and the censors. However, his efforts to create a cooperative and cohesive atmosphere were unsuccessful.{{sfnp|Zhao|2002|pp=135–136}} In 1590, the Grand Secretariat's alliance with the leadership of the Ministry of Personnel and the Censorate fell apart, causing Shen Sh'sing to lose much of his influence.{{sfnp|Zhao|2002|pp=143–145}} He was eventually forced to resign in 1591 due to his approach to the succession issue, which had lost him the confidence of opposition officials.{{sfnp|Huang|1988|pp=528–529}} | |||
| After 1582, the emperor chose the leaders of the Grand Secretariat from among the opponents of Zhang Juzheng (after Shen Shixing, the position was held by Wang Jiaping (王家屏), Wang Xijue, and Zhao Zhigao (趙志皋) until 1601). Except for the short-lived Wang Jiaping, all of Zhang's successors (including Shen Yiguan (沈一貫), Zhu Geng (朱賡), Li Tinhji (李廷機), ], and Fang Congzhe (方從哲)) fell out of favor and were either accused by censors during their lifetime or posthumously.{{sfnp|Huang|1988|p=529}} | |||
| The anti-Zhang opposition, led by ], was successful in condemning him and purging his followers from the bureaucracy after his death.{{sfnp|Miller|2009|p=28}} However, this also created an opportunity for the censors to criticize higher-ranking officials, which angered the monarch and caused dissatisfaction because the critics did not offer any positive solutions.{{sfnp|Huang|1988|p=515}} As a result, Zhang's opponents became embroiled in numerous disputes, hindering the restoration of a strong centralized government.{{sfnp|Miller|2009|p=28}} From 1585, the censors also began to criticize the emperor's private life.{{sfnp|Huang|1988|p=515}} This criticism was fueled by the emperor's reluctance to impose harsh punishments, which emboldened the critics.{{sfnp|Huang|1988|p=516}} In response, the Wanli Emperor tried to silence their informers among his servants{{sfnp|Huang|1988|p=515}} and gradually stopped responding to comments about himself.{{sfnp|Huang|1988|p=516}} However, in 1588, the Wanli Emperor's censors accused him of accepting a bribe from one of his eunuchs, which shocked the emperor and caused him to withdraw from cooperating with officials. He reduced his contact with them to a minimum and canceled the morning audience. He only appeared in public at celebrations of military victories and communication with the bureaucracy was done through written reports, to which he may or may not have responded. Towards the end of his reign, he also hindered personnel changes in offices, leaving positions vacant and allowing officials to leave without his written consent–which was illegal, but went unpunished.{{sfnp|Huang|1988|p=517}} As a result, by 1603, nine positions of regional inspectors (out of 13) were vacant for a long time, and in 1604, almost half of the prefects and over half of the ministers and deputy ministers in both capitals were vacant.{{sfnp|Huang|1988|p=553}} The emperor also deliberately left many positions vacant in the eunuch offices of the palace, particularly the position of head of the Directorate of Ceremonies, in an attempt to weaken communication between eunuchs and officials.{{sfnp|Huang|1988|p=554}} This also resulted in significant financial savings from unoccupied seats.{{sfnp|Huang|1988|p=553}} | |||
| The emperor's lack of involvement in official positions did not affect the administration's responsibility for tax collection.{{sfnp|Huang|1988|p=553}} In times of military or other serious issues, he sought advice from responsible officials in Ministries and the Censorate, and was not hesitant to appoint capable individuals outside of the traditional hierarchy to handle the situation. However, he had a lack of trust in the regular administration and often found ways to bypass it.{{sfnp|Swope|2008|p=82}} While he may have left some memoranda unanswered, he actively responded to others. Despite leaving some high positions vacant, the authorities were able to function under the guidance of deputies and the country's administration continued to run smoothly. Assistance was provided to those affected by famine, rebellions were suppressed, border conflicts were resolved, and infrastructure was maintained.{{sfnp|Huang|1988|pp=552–553}} | |||
| Hundreds of memoranda arrived on the Wanli Emperor's desk daily, but he only read and decided on a handful of them. The rest were handled by commissioned eunuchs, who were equipped with the imperial "red brush". These eunuchs mostly confirmed the recommendations and proposals of the grand secretaries, but occasionally made different decisions if they believed the emperor would not agree with the grand secretaries' proposals.{{sfnp|Jang|2008|p=138}} | |||
| Despite his desire to reform the civil service, the emperor was unable to do so, and he also did not want to simply confirm the decisions of the officials. Both sides–the emperor and the bureaucrats–wanted the other to behave properly, but their efforts were unsuccessful and only served to paralyze each other.{{sfnp|Huang|1988|p=517}} As a result of these disputes at the center, the state's control over the countryside weakened.{{sfnp|Miller|2009|p=28}} | |||
| ===Succession dispute (1586–1614)=== | |||
| In 1586, the issue of succession arose when the emperor elevated his favorite concubine, ], to the rank of "Imperial Noble Consort" (''Huang Guifei''),{{sfnp|Huang|1988|p=516}}{{sfnp|Brook|2010|p=101}} placing her only one rank below the empress and above all other concubines, including ], mother of the emperor's eldest son ] (1582–1620). This made it clear to those around him that he favored the son of Lady Zheng, ] (1586–1641)–his third son (the second had died in infancy)–over Zhu Changluo as his successor. This caused a division among the bureaucracy; some officials defended the rights of the first son based on legal primogeniture, while others aligned themselves with Lady Zheng's son.{{sfnp|Huang|1988|p=516}} In response to the widespread support for the eldest son's rights among officials, the emperor postponed his decision.{{sfnp|Huang|1988|p=516}} He justified the delay by stating that he was waiting for a son from the empress.{{sfnp|McMahon|2016|p=130}} When asked to appoint Zhu Changluo as the crown prince at the age of eight so that his education could officially begin, the emperor again defended himself by saying that princes were traditionally taught by eunuchs.{{sfnp|Duindam|2016|pp=63–64}} | |||
| In 1589, the emperor agreed to appoint Zhu Changluo as his successor. However, this decision was opposed by Lady Zheng, causing a wave of controversy and, two years later, even arrests when a pamphlet accusing her of conspiring with high officials against the emperor's eldest son spread in Beijing. In an attempt to improve her public image, the emperor made efforts to portray Lady Zheng in a favorable light.{{sfnp|Brook|2010|p=101}} This reached its peak in 1594 when he supported her efforts to aid the victims of a famine in Henan. He ordered all Beijing officials of the fifth rank and above to contribute to her cause from their incomes.{{sfnp|Brook|2010|p=102}} | |||
| The failure to appoint a successor sparked frequent protests from both opposition-minded officials and high dignitaries, such as Grand Secretaries Shen Shixing (in office 1578–91) and Wang Xijue (in office 1584–91 and 1593–94).{{sfnp|Huang|1988|p=516}} The rights of Zhu Changluo were also supported by the empress{{sfnp|McMahon|2016|pp=131–132}} and the emperor's mother.{{sfnp|McMahon|2016|p=130}} However, it wasn't until 1601, after facing pressure from another round of protests and requests, that Wanli finally appointed Zhu Changluo as crown prince.{{sfnp|McMahon|2016|p=130}}{{sfnp|Dardess|2002|p=9}} At the same time, Zhu Changxun was given the title of Prince of Fu,{{sfnp|Huang|1988|p=517}} but he was kept in Beijing instead of being sent to the province as originally planned when he turned eighteen in 1604. This fueled rumors that the question of succession was still unresolved.{{sfnp|Huang|1988|p=550}} It wasn't until 1614, after numerous appeals and protests against inaction, that the emperor finally sent the prince to his provincial seat.{{sfnp|Dardess|2002|p=9}}{{sfnp|Huang|1988|p=517; 550}} This decision was only made after the emperor's mother firmly advocated for it.{{sfnp|McMahon|2016|p=130}} | |||
| Related to the succession debates was the "Case of the Wooden Staff Assault" (梃擊案), which greatly damaged the ruler's reputation. In late May 1615, a man with a wooden staff was detained at the crown prince's palace. From the subsequent investigation, it was discovered that the man, Zhang Chai (張差), was mentally unstable{{sfnp|Dardess|2002|p=10}} and had attempted to use his wooden staff to settle a dispute with two eunuchs. Initially, it was decided that he would be executed to resolve the issue.{{sfnp|Huang|1988|p=554}} However, Wang Zhicai (王之寀), a prison official, intervened and disputed the claim that Zhang Chai was insane. He pushed for a public investigation involving the Ministry of Justice. This new version of events suggested that Zhang Chai was actually of sound mind and had been invited into the palace by two eunuchs close to Lady Zheng and her brother. This raised suspicions that their true intention was to assassinate the crown prince and replace him with Lady Zheng's son.{{sfnp|Huang|1988|p=555}} This caused quite a stir at court. In response, the Wanli Emperor took the unprecedented step of summoning all civilian and military officials employed in Beijing and appearing before them with his family–the crown prince, his sons and daughter. He scolded the officials for doubting his relationship with the crown prince, whom he trusted and relied on. The crown prince himself confirmed their close relationship and requested an end to the matter. Ultimately, the emperor decided to execute Zhang Chai and the two eunuchs involved in the case.{{sfnp|Dardess|2002|p=15}} However, officials from the Ministry of Justice opposed the execution and demanded further investigation. A compromise was reached through the mediation of the grand secretaries–Zhang Chai was executed the following day, while the suspected eunuchs were to be interrogated. The interrogation did take place, but both eunuchs remained under the supervision of the emperor's eunuchs. On the fifth day after the emperor's speech, the officials were informed that the eunuchs had died.{{sfnp|Huang|1988|p=555}} The case then quieted down. | |||
| ==Legacy and death== | ==Legacy and death== | ||
| ]Some scholars believe that the Wanli Emperor's reign was a significant factor contributing to the decline of the Ming dynasty. He refused to play the emperor's role in government, and delegated many responsibilities to eunuchs, who made up their own faction. The official administration was so dissatisfied that a group of scholars and political activists loyal to the thoughts of ] and against those of ] created the ], a political group who believed in upright morals and tried to influence the government according to strict Neo-Confucian principles.]. ] dragged the remains of the Wanli Emperor and Empresses to the front of the tomb, where they were posthumously "denounced" and burned.<ref name="nytimes.com">, ''The ]'', Sheila Melvin, Sept. 7, 2011.</ref>]]His reign also experienced heavy fiscal and military pressures, especially during the final years of the Wanli era when the Jurchens began to conduct raids on the northern border of the Ming Empire. Their depredations ultimately led to the fall of the Ming dynasty in 1644. The fall of the Ming dynasty was not a result of the last Ming emperor's ]'s rule, but instead due to the lingering consequences of the Wanli Emperor's gross neglect of his duties as emperor. | ]Some scholars believe that the Wanli Emperor's reign was a significant factor contributing to the decline of the Ming dynasty. He refused to play the emperor's role in government, and delegated many responsibilities to eunuchs, who made up their own faction. The official administration was so dissatisfied that a group of scholars and political activists loyal to the thoughts of [[Zhu | ||
| The Wanli Emperor died in 1620 and was buried in the ] among the ] on the outskirts of Beijing. His tomb is one of the biggest in the vicinity and one of only two that are open to the public. The tomb was excavated in 1956, and remains the only imperial tomb that had been excavated since the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949. | The Wanli Emperor died in 1620 and was buried in the ] among the ] on the outskirts of Beijing. His tomb is one of the biggest in the vicinity and one of only two that are open to the public. The tomb was excavated in 1956, and remains the only imperial tomb that had been excavated since the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949. | ||
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| == Notes == | == Notes == | ||
| {{ |
{{Notelist}} | ||
| == References == | == References == | ||
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| {{Reflist}} | {{Reflist}} | ||
| === |
===Works cited=== | ||
| {{ |
{{Refbegin}} | ||
| * {{cite book|chapter=The Lung-ch'ing and Wan-li reigns, 1567—1620|title=The Cambridge History of China Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1|first=Ray|last=Huang|editor-first2=Frederick W.|editor-last2=Mote|editor-first1=Denis C|editor-last1=Twitchett|year=1988|publisher=Cambridge University Press|url=|location=Cambridge|pages=511–584|isbn=0521243335}} | |||
| * {{cite book|chapter=Bestowing the Double-edged Sword: Wanli as Supreme Military Commander|title=Culture, Courtiers, and Competition: The Ming Court (1368–1644)|first=Kenneth M|last=Swope|editor-first=David M|editor-last=Robinson|year=2008|publisher=Harvard University Asia Center|url=|volume=1|location=Cambridge, Mass|pages=61–115|isbn=0521243327}} | |||
| * {{cite book|title=Dynasties: A Global History of Power, 1300-1800|first=Jeroen|last=Duindam|year=2016|publisher=Cambridge University Press|url=|location=Cambridge|isbn=1-107-06068-0}} | |||
| * {{cite book|title=Celestial Women: Imperial Wives and Concubines in China from Song to Qing|first=Keith|last=McMahon|year=2016|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|url=|location=Lanham, Maryland|isbn=9781442255029}} | |||
| * {{cite book|title=The Social Life of Opium in China|first=Yangwen|last=Zheng|year=2005|publisher=Cambridge University Press|url=https://archive.org/details/sociallifeofopiu0000zhen|location=Cambridge|isbn=9780521846080}} | |||
| * {{cite book|title=Eunuchs in the Ming Dynasty|first=Shih-shan Henry|last=Tsai|year=1996|publisher=State University of New York Press|edition=SUNY series in Chinese local studies|url=https://archive.org/details/eunuchsinmingdyn0000tsai|location=New York|isbn=0791426874}} | |||
| * {{cite book|title=A Dragon's Head and a Serpent's Tail: Ming China and the First Great East Asian War, 1592-1598|first=Kenneth M|last=Swope|year=2009|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|edition=Campaigns and Commanders Series|url=|location=Norman, Oklahoma|isbn=978-0-8061-4056-8}} | |||
| ⚫ | * {{cite journal|title=The Confiscating Henchmen: The Masquerade of Ming Embroidered-Uniform Guard Liu Shouyou (ca. 1540-1604)|first=Huiping|last=Pang|year=2015|journal=Ming Studies|pages=24–45|url=|volume=72|issue=|issn=0147-037X}} | ||
| * {{cite book|chapter=Heavenly Mistress and the Nine-lotus Bodhisattva: Visualizing the Celestial Identities of Two Empresses in Ming China (1368-1644)|title=Women, Gender and Art in Early Modern Asia, c. 1500-1900|first=Yu-ping|last=Luk|editor-first=Melia Belli|editor-last=Bose|year=2016|publisher=Routledge/Ashgate|url=|location=London|pages=63–91|isbn=}} | |||
| * {{cite journal|title=A Decade of Considerable Significance: Late-Ming Factionalism in the Making, 1583-1593|first=Jie|last=Zhao|year=2002|journal=T'oung Pao Second Series|pages=112–150|url=|volume=88|issue=1/3|issn=}} | |||
| * {{cite book|title=State versus Gentry in Late Ming Dynasty China, 1572-1644|first=Harry|last=Miller|year=2009|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|url=|location=New York|isbn=978-0-230-61134-4}} | |||
| * {{cite book|chapter=The Eunuch Agency Directorate of Ceremonial and the Ming Imperial Publishing Enterprise|title=Culture, Courtiers, and Competition: The Ming Court (1368-1644)|first=Scarlett|last=Jang|editor-first=David M|editor-last=Robinson|year=2008|publisher=Harvard University Asia Center|url=|location=Cambridge (Massachusetts)|pages=116–185|isbn=978-0-674-02823-4}} | |||
| * {{cite book|title=The troubled empire: China in the Yuan and Ming dynasties|first=Timothy|last=Brook|year=2010|publisher=Harvard University Press|url=|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|isbn=978-0-674-04602-3}} | |||
| * {{cite book|title=Blood and History in China: The Donglin Faction and Its Repression, 1620-1627|first=John W|last=Dardess|year=2010|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|url=|location=Honolulu|isbn=9780824825164}} | |||
| * Huang Ray, 1587, a Year of No Significance: The Ming Dynasty in Decline. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981. {{ISBN|0300-025181}} | * Huang Ray, 1587, a Year of No Significance: The Ming Dynasty in Decline. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981. {{ISBN|0300-025181}} | ||
| {{Refend}} | |||
| ⚫ | * |
||
| {{refend}} | |||
| {{-}} | {{-}} | ||
Revision as of 10:02, 8 January 2024
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| Wanli Emperor 萬曆帝 | |||||||||||||||||
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.jpg) Palace portrait on a hanging scroll, kept in the National Palace Museum, Taipei, Taiwan | |||||||||||||||||
| Emperor of the Ming dynasty | |||||||||||||||||
| Reign | 19 July 1572 – 18 August 1620 | ||||||||||||||||
| Enthronement | 19 July 1572 | ||||||||||||||||
| Predecessor | Longqing Emperor | ||||||||||||||||
| Successor | Taichang Emperor | ||||||||||||||||
| Regents |
See list
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| Born | 4 September 1563 Jiajing 42, 17th day of the 8th month (嘉靖四十二年八月十七日) Shuntian Prefecture, North Zhili | ||||||||||||||||
| Died | 18 August 1620(1620-08-18) (aged 56) Wanli 48, 21st day of the 7th month (萬曆四十八年七月二十一日) Hongde Hall, Forbidden City | ||||||||||||||||
| Burial | Dingling Mausoleum, Ming tombs, Beijing | ||||||||||||||||
| Consorts |
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| Issue |
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| House | Zhu | ||||||||||||||||
| Dynasty | Ming | ||||||||||||||||
| Father | Longqing Emperor | ||||||||||||||||
| Mother | Empress Dowager Xiaoding | ||||||||||||||||
| Wanli Emperor | |||||||
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| Traditional Chinese | 萬曆帝 | ||||||
| Simplified Chinese | 万历帝 | ||||||
| Literal meaning | "Ten Thousand Calendars" Emperor | ||||||
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The Wanli Emperor (4 September 1563 – 18 August 1620), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Shenzong of Ming (Chinese: 明神宗), personal name Zhu Yijun (Chinese: 朱翊鈞; pinyin: Zhū Yìjūn), art name Yuzhai (禹齋), was the 14th emperor of the Ming dynasty, reigned from 1572 to 1620. "Wanli", the era name of his reign, literally means "ten thousand calendars". He was the third son of the Longqing Emperor. His reign of 48 years (1572–1620) was the longest among all the Ming dynasty emperors and it witnessed several successes in his early and middle reign, followed by the decline of the dynasty as the emperor withdrew from his active role in government around 1600.
The Wanli Emperor ascended the throne at the age of nine. During the first ten years of his reign, the young emperor was assisted and effectively led by grand secretary and skilled administrator, Zhang Juzheng. With the support of the emperor's mother, Lady Li, and the imperial eunuchs led by Feng Bao, the country experienced economic and military prosperity, reaching a level of power not seen since the early 15th century. The emperor held great respect and appreciation for his grand secretary. However, as time passed, various factions within the government openly opposed Zhang, causing his influential position in the government and at court to become a burden for the monarch. In 1582, Zhang died and within months, the emperor dismissed Feng Bao. He then gained discretion and made significant changes to Zhang's administrative arrangements.
The Wanli era was marked by a significant boom in industry, particularly in the production of silk, cotton, and porcelain. Agriculture also experienced growth, and there was a notable increase in both interregional and foreign trade. This development had the strongest impact in Jiangnan, where cities such as Suzhou, Songjiang, Jiaxing, and Nanjing flourished. However, despite the overall economic growth of the empire, the state's finances remained in a poor state. While wealthy merchants and gentry enjoyed a life of splendor, the majority of peasants and day laborers continued to live in poverty.
In the military field, the closing decade of the 16th century was marked by three major campaigns, all of which were successful. The first of these was the rebellion of a large garrison at Ningxia, which resulted in the rebels taking control of the city and its surrounding area after eliminating the commanding generals. The rebels had a significant force of 20,000 to 30,000 soldiers, while the city itself had a population of 300,000. In response, the Ming government assembled a force of 40,000 soldiers to quell the rebellion. By mid-October 1592, the city had been conquered and Ming troops were able to be moved to the opposite side of the empire, to Korea. In the same year, the de facto ruler of Japan, Hideyoshi Toyotomi, launched an invasion of Korea with 200,000 soldiers. In response, the Wanli Emperor immediately sent 3,000 men, but they were unable to withstand the Japanese forces. As a result, the emperor increased the Chinese army in Korea to 40,000 soldiers. The combined Korean-Chinese forces gained the upper hand, and the Japanese were pushed out of most of Korea and forced to retreat to the southeast coast by 1593. Four years later, in 1597, the Japanese launched a second invasion, but were ultimately defeated and forced to withdraw after the death of Hideyoshi the following year. The third major conflict during this time was the suppression of Yang Yinglong's rebellion in southwest China from 1587 to 1600. Due to the ongoing war with Japan, Ming forces were only able to concentrate in the southwest from 1599. However, once they were able to do so, a Ming army of over 200,000 soldiers was able to quickly defeat and suppress the rebellion within a few months.
Over time, the emperor grew increasingly disillusioned with the constant moralizing attacks and counterattacks from officials, causing him to become increasingly isolated. In the 1580s and 1590s, he attempted to promote his third son, Zhu Changxun (the son of his favorite concubine, Lady Zheng), as crown prince, but faced strong opposition from officials. This led to ongoing conflicts between the emperor and his ministers for over fifteen years. Eventually, the emperor gave in and appointed his eldest son, Zhu Changluo (later the Taichang Emperor), as crown prince in October 1601. In 1596, the Wanli Emperor attempted to establish a parallel administration composed of eunuchs, separate from the officials who had traditionally governed the empire. However, this effort was abandoned in 1606. As a result, the governance of the country remained in the hands of Confucian intellectuals, who were often embroiled in disputes with each other. The opposition Donglin movement continued to criticize the emperor and his followers, while pro-government officials were divided based on their regional origins.
In the final years of the Wanli Emperor's reign, the Jurchens grew stronger on the northeastern frontiers and posed a significant threat. In 1619, they defeated the Ming armies in the Battle of Sarhu and captured part of Liaodong.
Childhood and accession to the throne
Zhu Yijun was born on 4 September 1563 to Zhu Zaiji, the heir to the throne of the Ming dynasty, and one of his concubines, Lady Li. He was the third son of Zhu Zaiji, but unfortunately, both of his older brothers died in early childhood before 1563. He did have a younger brother, Zhu Yiliu (朱翊鏐; 1568–1614), who was created Prince of Lu in 1571.
Zhu Zaiji became emperor of the Ming dynasty in 1567 and reigned as the Longqing Emperor, but he died five years later on 5 July 1572. Zhu Yijun then ascended the throne two weeks later on 19 July 1572. Before his death, the Longqing Emperor instructed minister Zhang Juzheng to take charge of state affairs and become a devoted adviser to the young emperor.
The Wanli Emperor was known for his restless and energetic nature during his youth. He was described as a quick learner, intelligent, and perceptive, always staying well-informed about the happenings in the empire. Zhang Juzheng assigned eight teachers to educate the Wanli Emperor in Confucianism, history, and calligraphy. The history lessons focused on teaching him about good and bad examples of governance, and Zhang Juzheng personally compiled a collection of historical stories for the emperor to learn from. However, the Wanli Emperor's fascination with calligraphy concerned Zhang, who feared that this "empty pastime" would distract him from his duties as a statesman. As a result, Zhang gradually stopped the Wanli Empror's calligraphy lessons. From 1583 to 1588, the Wanli Emperor visited several mausoleums near Beijing and paid attention to the training of the palace guard. However, his mother, Zhang Juzheng, and high-ranking officials in Beijing were worried that he would become a ruler similar to the Zhengde Emperor (reigned 1505–1521), and discouraged him from traveling outside the Forbidden City and pursuing his interests in the military, horse riding, and archery. Under their pressure, the Wanli Emperor stopped leaving Beijing after 1588 and stopped participating in public sacrifices after 1591. He also canceled the morning audience (held before dawn) and the evening study of Confucianism (after sunset). In his youth, the Wanli Emperor was obedient to his mother and showed respect towards eunuchs and grand secretaries. However, as he grew older, he became cynical and skeptical towards rituals and bureaucrats. His opposition to ritualized royal duties linked him to his grandfather the Jiaqing Emperor (reigned 1521–1567), but he lacked the Jiajing Emperor's decisiveness and flamboyance. Instead of the Jiajing Emperor's passion for Taoism, the Wanli Emperor leaned towards Buddhism.
In the first period of his rule, he displayed a strong commitment to the well-being of his people, actively combating corruption and striving to improve border defense. His mother, a devout Buddhist, had a significant influence on him, leading him to rarely impose the death penalty. However, one punished official claimed that his leniency was sometimes excessive. Despite this, he was not afraid to use violence against offending officials, although he did not make it a regular practice. He was known to be both vulnerable and vengeful, but also generous. However, since the mid-1580s, he began to gain weight and his health deteriorated. In 1589, he cited long-term dizziness, accompanied by fevers, heatstroke, eczema, diarrhea, and general weakness as reasons for his absence from audiences. It is believed that his health issues were linked to his regular use of opium.
Zhang Juzheng and his mother raised the Wanli Emperor to be modest in material possessions and exemplary in behavior, which he saw as a humiliation that he never forgot. However, upon learning that Zhang Juzheng himself lived in luxury, the Wanli Emperor was deeply affected. This display of double standards hardened his attitude towards officials and made him cynical about moral challenges. Two years after Zhang Juzheng's death, his family was accused of illegal land dealings, and the Wanli Emperor severely punished them by confiscating their property and sending Zhang's sons to the border troops.
Wanli as emperor
Zhang Juzheng's government (1572–1582)
At the end of the Longqing Emperor's reign, the Grand Secretariat and Government were headed by Senior Grand Secretary and Minister of Rites Gao Gong. However, after the Wanli Emperor's accession, the eunuch Feng Bao (馮保), head of the Directorate of Ceremonies (the most important eunuch office in the imperial palace), worked with Grand Secretary Zhang Juzheng to depose Gao Gong. Zhang Juzheng then took over as head of the Grand Secretariat and remained in power for ten years until his death in 1582. In response to the Mongol raids in the 1550s, Zhang aimed to "enrich the country and strengthen the army", using legalistic methods rather than Confucian ones. He sought to centralize the government and increase the emperor's authority at the expense of local interests by streamlining the administration and strengthening the military. This included closing local academies and placing the investigating censors under the Grand Secretariat's control. Zhang had the support of eunuchs, particularly Feng Bao, and the emperor's mother, who acted as regent. He was able to handpick his colleagues in the grand secretariat and informally control the Ministry of Rites and the Censorate, appointing his followers to important positions in central offices and regions. This gave him significant influence in the government, although he did not have the authority to issue orders or demands. Zhang also attempted to redirect the control officials from seeking revenge against each other and instead focus on collecting taxes and suppressing bandits. As a result, the efficiency of the Ming state administration improved between 1572 and 1582, reaching a level that had only been achieved in the early days of the empire.
Zhang Juzheng implemented a series of reforms during his time in office, including the conversion of tax payments from goods to silver (known as the Single whip reform), changes to the military peasant system, and between 1572 and 1579, revised the accounts of county offices regarding corvée labor and various fees and surcharges. In 1580–1582, a new cadastre was also created. These reforms were formalized across the empire with the publication of revised lists of taxpayers' duties, now converted to a unified payment in silver. As part of the administrative reforms, unnecessary activities were abolished or limited, the number of Confucian students receiving state support was reduced, and provincial authorities were urged to only require one-third of the previous amount of corvée labor. Additionally, the services provided by post offices were reduced. Despite these changes, taxes remained at their original level and tax arrears were strictly enforced. Zhang Juzheng was able to accumulate a surplus of income over expenditure. This was a significant achievement, as the Ming state typically operated without reserves in the 16th century. However, Zhang Juzheng's administration was able to save money and improve tax collection, resulting in considerable reserves. In 1582, the granaries around the capital held nine years' worth of grain, the the treasury of the Ministry of Revenue contained 6 million liang (about 223 tons) of silver, the Court of the Imperial Stud (太僕寺) held another 4 million, and an additional 2.5 million was available in Nanjing. Smaller reserves were also available to provincial administrations in Sichuan, Zhejiang, and Guangxi. Despite these achievements, there were no institutional changes during Zhang Juzheng's time in office. He simply made existing processes more efficient under the slogan of returning to the order from the beginnings of the empire.
As a proponent of peace with the Mongols, Zhang Juzheng rejected the proposal of Minister of War Tan Lun for a pre-emptive strike against them. Instead, he ordered Qi Jiguang, commander of the northeastern border, to maintain an armed peace. This decision not only allowed for a reduction in the border army, but also resulted in the return of surplus soldiers to their family farms. Zhang Juzheng not only rejected the notion that military affairs were less important than civilian ones, but also challenged the dominance of civilian dignitaries over military leaders. He appointed capable military leaders such as Qi Jiguang, Wang Chonggu (王崇古), Tan Lun, Liang Meng-lung, and Li Chengliang to positions of responsibility. Additionally, he implemented a combination of defensive and offensive measures to strengthen border defenses and fostered peaceful relations with neighboring countries by opening border markets, particularly in the northwest.
Zhang Juzheng's actions were within the bounds of existing legislation, but critics viewed them as an abuse of power to promote his followers and exert illegitimate pressure on officials. However, open criticism was rare until his father's death in 1577. According to the law, Zhang was supposed to leave office due to mourning, but the emperor chose to keep him in office. This was not unprecedented, but criticism of disrespect for parents was widespread. Despite the fact that the most vocal critics were punished with beatings, Zhang Juzheng's reputation was damaged. In an attempt to suppress opposition, Zhang then enforced an extraordinary self-evaluation of all high-ranking officials, resulting in the elimination of around fifty opponents.
Zhang Juzheng died on 9 July 1582. After his death, he was accused of the typical offenses of high officials, including bribery, living in luxury, promoting unqualified supporters, abusing power, and silencing critics. After Zhang Juzheng's death, his followers among the officials were dismissed, and in the beginning of 1583, Feng Bao also lost his position. However, the emperor protected the officers, which boosted their morale to a level not seen since the mid-15th century. The Wanli Emperor's more aggressive military policy was based on Zhang's successes, as he attempted to replace static defense with more offensive tactics and appointed only officials with military experience to lead the Ministry of War. The emperor also shared Zhang Juzheng's distrust of local and regional authorities and opposition to factional politics. Like Zhang Juzheng, the Wanli Emperor preferred to solve real problems rather than engage in "empty talk" and factional conflicts.
Anti-Zhang opposition government (1582–1596)
After Zhang's death, a coalition formed between the emperor's mother, grand secretaries, the Ministry of Personnel, and the Censorate to ensure efficient administration of the empire. This alliance was opposed by the opposition, who deemed it illegal. However, with the absence of a strong statesman in the Grand Secretariat, there was no one to bring the administration under control. Both the emperor and opposition officials feared the concentration of power in the Grand Secretariat and worked to prevent it. From 1582 to 1591, the Grand Secretariat was briefly led by Zhang Siwei and then for eight years by Shen Shixing. Shen Shixing attempted to find compromises between the monarch and the bureaucracy, while also tolerating criticism and respecting the decisions of ministries and the censors. However, his efforts to create a cooperative and cohesive atmosphere were unsuccessful. In 1590, the Grand Secretariat's alliance with the leadership of the Ministry of Personnel and the Censorate fell apart, causing Shen Sh'sing to lose much of his influence. He was eventually forced to resign in 1591 due to his approach to the succession issue, which had lost him the confidence of opposition officials.
After 1582, the emperor chose the leaders of the Grand Secretariat from among the opponents of Zhang Juzheng (after Shen Shixing, the position was held by Wang Jiaping (王家屏), Wang Xijue, and Zhao Zhigao (趙志皋) until 1601). Except for the short-lived Wang Jiaping, all of Zhang's successors (including Shen Yiguan (沈一貫), Zhu Geng (朱賡), Li Tinhji (李廷機), Ye Xianggao, and Fang Congzhe (方從哲)) fell out of favor and were either accused by censors during their lifetime or posthumously.
The anti-Zhang opposition, led by Gu Xiancheng, was successful in condemning him and purging his followers from the bureaucracy after his death. However, this also created an opportunity for the censors to criticize higher-ranking officials, which angered the monarch and caused dissatisfaction because the critics did not offer any positive solutions. As a result, Zhang's opponents became embroiled in numerous disputes, hindering the restoration of a strong centralized government. From 1585, the censors also began to criticize the emperor's private life. This criticism was fueled by the emperor's reluctance to impose harsh punishments, which emboldened the critics. In response, the Wanli Emperor tried to silence their informers among his servants and gradually stopped responding to comments about himself. However, in 1588, the Wanli Emperor's censors accused him of accepting a bribe from one of his eunuchs, which shocked the emperor and caused him to withdraw from cooperating with officials. He reduced his contact with them to a minimum and canceled the morning audience. He only appeared in public at celebrations of military victories and communication with the bureaucracy was done through written reports, to which he may or may not have responded. Towards the end of his reign, he also hindered personnel changes in offices, leaving positions vacant and allowing officials to leave without his written consent–which was illegal, but went unpunished. As a result, by 1603, nine positions of regional inspectors (out of 13) were vacant for a long time, and in 1604, almost half of the prefects and over half of the ministers and deputy ministers in both capitals were vacant. The emperor also deliberately left many positions vacant in the eunuch offices of the palace, particularly the position of head of the Directorate of Ceremonies, in an attempt to weaken communication between eunuchs and officials. This also resulted in significant financial savings from unoccupied seats.
The emperor's lack of involvement in official positions did not affect the administration's responsibility for tax collection. In times of military or other serious issues, he sought advice from responsible officials in Ministries and the Censorate, and was not hesitant to appoint capable individuals outside of the traditional hierarchy to handle the situation. However, he had a lack of trust in the regular administration and often found ways to bypass it. While he may have left some memoranda unanswered, he actively responded to others. Despite leaving some high positions vacant, the authorities were able to function under the guidance of deputies and the country's administration continued to run smoothly. Assistance was provided to those affected by famine, rebellions were suppressed, border conflicts were resolved, and infrastructure was maintained.
Hundreds of memoranda arrived on the Wanli Emperor's desk daily, but he only read and decided on a handful of them. The rest were handled by commissioned eunuchs, who were equipped with the imperial "red brush". These eunuchs mostly confirmed the recommendations and proposals of the grand secretaries, but occasionally made different decisions if they believed the emperor would not agree with the grand secretaries' proposals.
Despite his desire to reform the civil service, the emperor was unable to do so, and he also did not want to simply confirm the decisions of the officials. Both sides–the emperor and the bureaucrats–wanted the other to behave properly, but their efforts were unsuccessful and only served to paralyze each other. As a result of these disputes at the center, the state's control over the countryside weakened.
Succession dispute (1586–1614)
In 1586, the issue of succession arose when the emperor elevated his favorite concubine, Lady Zheng, to the rank of "Imperial Noble Consort" (Huang Guifei), placing her only one rank below the empress and above all other concubines, including Lady Wang, mother of the emperor's eldest son Zhu Changluo (1582–1620). This made it clear to those around him that he favored the son of Lady Zheng, Zhu Changxun (1586–1641)–his third son (the second had died in infancy)–over Zhu Changluo as his successor. This caused a division among the bureaucracy; some officials defended the rights of the first son based on legal primogeniture, while others aligned themselves with Lady Zheng's son. In response to the widespread support for the eldest son's rights among officials, the emperor postponed his decision. He justified the delay by stating that he was waiting for a son from the empress. When asked to appoint Zhu Changluo as the crown prince at the age of eight so that his education could officially begin, the emperor again defended himself by saying that princes were traditionally taught by eunuchs.
In 1589, the emperor agreed to appoint Zhu Changluo as his successor. However, this decision was opposed by Lady Zheng, causing a wave of controversy and, two years later, even arrests when a pamphlet accusing her of conspiring with high officials against the emperor's eldest son spread in Beijing. In an attempt to improve her public image, the emperor made efforts to portray Lady Zheng in a favorable light. This reached its peak in 1594 when he supported her efforts to aid the victims of a famine in Henan. He ordered all Beijing officials of the fifth rank and above to contribute to her cause from their incomes.
The failure to appoint a successor sparked frequent protests from both opposition-minded officials and high dignitaries, such as Grand Secretaries Shen Shixing (in office 1578–91) and Wang Xijue (in office 1584–91 and 1593–94). The rights of Zhu Changluo were also supported by the empress and the emperor's mother. However, it wasn't until 1601, after facing pressure from another round of protests and requests, that Wanli finally appointed Zhu Changluo as crown prince. At the same time, Zhu Changxun was given the title of Prince of Fu, but he was kept in Beijing instead of being sent to the province as originally planned when he turned eighteen in 1604. This fueled rumors that the question of succession was still unresolved. It wasn't until 1614, after numerous appeals and protests against inaction, that the emperor finally sent the prince to his provincial seat. This decision was only made after the emperor's mother firmly advocated for it.
Related to the succession debates was the "Case of the Wooden Staff Assault" (梃擊案), which greatly damaged the ruler's reputation. In late May 1615, a man with a wooden staff was detained at the crown prince's palace. From the subsequent investigation, it was discovered that the man, Zhang Chai (張差), was mentally unstable and had attempted to use his wooden staff to settle a dispute with two eunuchs. Initially, it was decided that he would be executed to resolve the issue. However, Wang Zhicai (王之寀), a prison official, intervened and disputed the claim that Zhang Chai was insane. He pushed for a public investigation involving the Ministry of Justice. This new version of events suggested that Zhang Chai was actually of sound mind and had been invited into the palace by two eunuchs close to Lady Zheng and her brother. This raised suspicions that their true intention was to assassinate the crown prince and replace him with Lady Zheng's son. This caused quite a stir at court. In response, the Wanli Emperor took the unprecedented step of summoning all civilian and military officials employed in Beijing and appearing before them with his family–the crown prince, his sons and daughter. He scolded the officials for doubting his relationship with the crown prince, whom he trusted and relied on. The crown prince himself confirmed their close relationship and requested an end to the matter. Ultimately, the emperor decided to execute Zhang Chai and the two eunuchs involved in the case. However, officials from the Ministry of Justice opposed the execution and demanded further investigation. A compromise was reached through the mediation of the grand secretaries–Zhang Chai was executed the following day, while the suspected eunuchs were to be interrogated. The interrogation did take place, but both eunuchs remained under the supervision of the emperor's eunuchs. On the fifth day after the emperor's speech, the officials were informed that the eunuchs had died. The case then quieted down.
Legacy and death
Some scholars believe that the Wanli Emperor's reign was a significant factor contributing to the decline of the Ming dynasty. He refused to play the emperor's role in government, and delegated many responsibilities to eunuchs, who made up their own faction. The official administration was so dissatisfied that a group of scholars and political activists loyal to the thoughts of [[Zhu
The Wanli Emperor died in 1620 and was buried in the Dingling Mausoleum among the Ming tombs on the outskirts of Beijing. His tomb is one of the biggest in the vicinity and one of only two that are open to the public. The tomb was excavated in 1956, and remains the only imperial tomb that had been excavated since the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949.
In 1966, during the Cultural Revolution, Red Guards stormed the Dingling Mausoleum, and dragged the remains of the Wanli Emperor and his two empresses to the front of the tomb, where they were posthumously denounced and burned after photographs were taken of their skulls. Thousands of other artifacts were also destroyed.
In 1997, China's Ministry of Public Security published a book on the history of drug abuse. It alleged that the Wanli Emperor's remains had been examined in 1958 and found to contain morphine residues at levels which indicate that he had been a heavy and habitual user of opium.
In popular culture
- Portrayed by Jang Tae-sung in the 2015 South Korean television series The Jingbirok: A Memoir of Imjin War.
Family
Portraits of Emperor Wanli and Empress Xiaoduanxian
Consorts and Issue:
- Empress Xiaoduanxian, of the Wang clan (孝端顯皇后 王氏; 7 November 1564 – 7 May 1620), personal name Xijie (喜姐)
Titles: Empress (皇后)- Princess Rongchang (榮昌公主; 1582–1647), personal name Xuanying (軒媖), first daughter
- Married Yang Chunyuan (楊春元; 1582–1616) in 1597, and had issue (five sons)
- Princess Rongchang (榮昌公主; 1582–1647), personal name Xuanying (軒媖), first daughter
- Empress Dowager Xiaojing, of the Wang clan (孝靖皇太后 王氏; 27 February 1565 – 18 October 1611)
Titles: Consort Gong (恭妃) → Noble Consort Gong (恭貴妃) → Imperial Noble Consort Cisheng (慈生皇貴妃)- Zhu Changluo, the Taichang Emperor (光宗 朱常洛; 28 August 1582 – 26 September 1620), first son
- Princess Yunmeng (雲夢公主; 1584–1587), personal name Xuanyuan (軒嫄), fourth daughter
- Grand Empress Dowager Xiaoning, of the Zheng clan (孝寧太皇太后 鄭氏; 1565–1630)
Titles: Imperial Concubine Shu (淑嬪) → Consort De (德妃) → Noble Consort (貴妃)- Princess Yunhe (雲和公主; 1584–1590), personal name Xuanshu (軒姝), second daughter
- Zhu Changxu, Prince Ai of Bin (邠哀王 朱常溆; 19 January 1585), second son
- Zhu Changxun, Prince Zhong of Fu (福忠王 朱常洵; 22 February 1586 – 2 March 1641), third son
- Zhu Changzhi, Prince Hai of Yuan (沅懷王 朱常治; 10 October 1587 – 5 September 1588), fourth son
- Princess Lingqiu (靈丘公主; 1588–1589), personal name Xuanyao (軒姚), sixth daughter
- Princess Shouning (壽寧公主; 1592–1634), personal name Xuanwei (軒媁), seventh daughter
- Married Ran Xingrang (冉興讓; d. 1644) in 1609, and had issue (one son)
- Grand Empress Dowager Xiaojing, of the Li clan (孝敬太皇太后 李氏; d. 1597)
Titles: Consort (妃)- Zhu Changrun, Prince of Hui (惠王 朱常潤; 7 December 1594 – 29 June 1646), sixth son
- Zhu Changying, Prince Duan of Gui (桂端王 朱常瀛; 25 April 1597 – 21 December 1645), seventh son
- Consort Xuanyizhao, of the Li clan (宣懿昭妃; 1557–1642)
- Consort Ronghuiyi, of the Yang clan (榮惠宜妃 楊氏; d. 1581)
- Consort Wenjingshun, of the Chang clan (溫靜順妃 常氏; 1568–1594)
- Consort Duanjingrong, of the Wang clan (端靖榮妃 王氏; d. 1591)
- Princess Jingle (靜樂公主; 8 July 1584 – 12 November 1585), personal name Xuangui (軒媯), third daughter
- Consort Zhuangjingde, of the Xu clan (莊靖德妃 許氏; d. 1602)
- Consort Duan, of the Zhou clan (端妃 周氏)
- Zhu Changhao, Prince of Rui (瑞王 朱常浩; 27 September 1591 – 24 July 1644), fifth son
- Consort Qinghuishun, of the Li clan (清惠順妃 李氏; d. 1623)
- Zhu Changpu, Prince Si of Yong (永思王 朱常溥; 1604–1606), eighth son
- Princess Tiantai (天台公主; 1605–1606), personal name Xuanmei (軒媺), tenth daughter
- Consort Xi, of the Wang clan (僖妃 王氏; d. 1589)
- Concubine De, of the Li clan (德嬪 李氏; 1567–1628)
- Princess Xianju (仙居公主; 1584–1585), personal name Xuanji (軒姞), fifth daughter
- Princess Taishun (泰順公主; d. 1593), personal name Xuanji (軒姬), eighth daughter
- Princess Xiangshan (香山公主; 1598–1599), personal name Xuandeng (軒嬁), ninth daughter
- Concubine Shen, of the Wei clan (慎嬪 魏氏; 1567–1606)
- Concubine Jing, of the Shao clan (敬嬪 邵氏; d. 1606)
- Concubine Shun, of the Zhang clan (順嬪 張氏; d. 1589)
- Concubine He, of the Liang clan (和嬪 梁氏; 1562–1643)
- Concubine Dao, of the Geng clan (悼嬪 耿氏; 1568–1589)
- Shiyu, of the Hu clan (侍御 胡氏)
- Noble Lady, of the Guo clan (貴人 郭氏)
Ancestry
| Chenghua Emperor (1447–1487) | |||||||||||||||||||
| Zhu Youyuan (1476–1519) | |||||||||||||||||||
| Empress Xiaohui (d. 1522) | |||||||||||||||||||
| Jiajing Emperor (1507–1567) | |||||||||||||||||||
| Jiang Xiao | |||||||||||||||||||
| Empress Cixiaoxian (d. 1538) | |||||||||||||||||||
| Lady Wu | |||||||||||||||||||
| Longqing Emperor (1537–1572) | |||||||||||||||||||
| Du Lin | |||||||||||||||||||
| Empress Xiaoke (d. 1554) | |||||||||||||||||||
| Wanli Emperor (1563–1620) | |||||||||||||||||||
| Li Gang | |||||||||||||||||||
| Li Yu | |||||||||||||||||||
| Li Wei (1527–1583) | |||||||||||||||||||
| Empress Dowager Xiaoding (1545–1614) | |||||||||||||||||||
| Lady Wang | |||||||||||||||||||
Imperial regalia
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Golden crown (replica) excavated from Dingling (定陵) Mausoleum
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Gold leaf crown
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Gold crown inlaid with gems from Dingling (定陵) Mausoleum
See also
Notes
- Following the death of the emperor, the Wanli era was normally due to end on 21 January 1621. However, the Wanli Emperor's successor, the Taichang Emperor, died within a month, before 22 January 1621, which should have been the start of the Taichang era. The Tianqi Emperor, who succeeded the Taichang Emperor, decided that the Wanli era would be considered as having ended on the last day of the seventh month (equivalent to 27 August 1620), to enable the Taichang era to be applied retrospectively for the remaining five months in that year. Dates before 1582 are given in the Julian calendar, not in the proleptic Gregorian calendar. Dates after 1582 are given in the Gregorian calendar.
- Xuyan, 虛言.
References
Citations
- ^ Frederick W. Mote (2003). Imperial China 900-1800. Harvard University Press. pp. 727–. ISBN 978-0-674-01212-7.
- (Ming) Shen Defu (沈德符). Compilation of Wanli era catastrophes (萬曆野獲編), Volume 1: "又云世宗號堯齋，其後穆宗號舜齋，今上因之亦號禹齋，以故己卯『應天命禹』一題，乃暗頌兩朝，非諂江陵也。未知信否。"
- ^ Huang (1988), p. 514.
- ^ Swope (2008), p. 74.
- Duindam (2016), pp. 64–65.
- ^ McMahon (2016), p. 127.
- ^ McMahon (2016), p. 128.
- Zheng (2005), pp. 18–19.
- ^ Huang (1988), p. 515.
- Huang (1988), pp. 521–522.
- ^ Swope (2009), p. 23.
- ^ Swope (2008), p. 73.
- ^ Huang (1988), p. 523.
- ^ Huang (1988), p. 525.
- ^ Huang (1988), p. 526.
- Huang (1988), pp. 527–528.
- ^ Huang (1988), p. 524.
- Huang (1988), p. 522.
- Swope (2008), p. 72.
- Huang (1988), p. 527.
- Huang (1988), p. 537.
- Huang (1988), p. 528.
- ^ Swope (2009), p. 24.
- Pang (2015), p. 26–28.
- Swope (2008), p. 75.
- Luk (2016), pp. 70–77.
- ^ Zhao (2002), pp. 135–136.
- ^ Huang (1988), pp. 528–529.
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- Zhao (2002), pp. 143–145.
- Huang (1988), p. 529.
- ^ Miller (2009), p. 28.
- ^ Huang (1988), p. 516.
- ^ Huang (1988), p. 517.
- ^ Huang (1988), p. 553.
- ^ Huang (1988), p. 554.
- Swope (2008), p. 82.
- Huang (1988), pp. 552–553.
- Jang (2008), p. 138.
- ^ Brook (2010), p. 101.
- ^ McMahon (2016), p. 130.
- Duindam (2016), pp. 63–64.
- Brook (2010), p. 102.
- McMahon (2016), pp. 131–132.
- ^ Dardess (2002), p. 9. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFDardess2002 (help)
- Huang (1988), p. 550.
- Huang (1988), p. 517; 550.
- Dardess (2002), p. 10. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFDardess2002 (help)
- ^ Huang (1988), p. 555.
- Dardess (2002), p. 15. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFDardess2002 (help)
- Becker, Jasper (2008). City of Heavenly Tranquility: Beijing in the History of China. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-530997-3, pp 77-79.
- "China's reluctant Emperor", The New York Times, Sheila Melvin, Sept. 7, 2011.
- Zheng Yangwen (2005). The Social Life of Opium in China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 18–19. ISBN 0-521-84608-0.
- "'징비록' 장태성-서윤아, 커플 대본 인증샷…'장난기 가득'". The Choson Ilbo (in Korean). 25 July 2020. Retrieved 2022-12-29.
Works cited
- Huang, Ray (1988). "The Lung-ch'ing and Wan-li reigns, 1567—1620". In Twitchett, Denis C; Mote, Frederick W. (eds.). The Cambridge History of China Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 511–584. ISBN 0521243335.
- Swope, Kenneth M (2008). "Bestowing the Double-edged Sword: Wanli as Supreme Military Commander". In Robinson, David M (ed.). Culture, Courtiers, and Competition: The Ming Court (1368–1644). Vol. 1. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Asia Center. pp. 61–115. ISBN 0521243327.
- Duindam, Jeroen (2016). Dynasties: A Global History of Power, 1300-1800. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 1-107-06068-0.
- McMahon, Keith (2016). Celestial Women: Imperial Wives and Concubines in China from Song to Qing. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 9781442255029.
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| Wanli Emperor House of ZhuBorn: 4 September 1563 Died: 18 August 1620 | ||
| Regnal titles | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded byLongqing Emperor | Emperor of the Ming dynasty Emperor of China 1572–1620 |
Succeeded byTaichang Emperor |
| Emperors of the Ming dynasty | ||
|---|---|---|
| Ming | 明 | |
| Southern Ming |
| |
| Xia → Shang → Zhou → Qin → Han → 3 Kingdoms → Jìn / 16 Kingdoms → S. Dynasties / N. Dynasties → Sui → Tang → 5 Dynasties & 10 Kingdoms → Liao / Song / W. Xia / Jīn → Yuan → Ming → Qing → ROC / PRC | ||