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Stuttering, also known as stammering, is a speech disorder in which the flow of speech is disrupted by involuntary repetitions and prolongations of sounds, syllables, words, or phrases as well as involuntary silent pauses or blocks in which the person who stutters is unable to produce sounds. The term stuttering is most commonly associated with involuntary sound repetition, but it also encompasses the abnormal hesitation or pausing before speech, referred to by people who stutter as blocks, and the prolongation of certain sounds, usually vowels or semivowels. According to Watkins et al., stuttering is a disorder of "selection, initiation, and execution of motor sequences necessary for fluent speech production". For many people who stutter, repetition is the main concern. The term "stuttering" covers a wide range of severity, from barely perceptible impediments that are largely cosmetic to severe symptoms that effectively prevent oral communication. Almost 70 million people worldwide stutter, about 1% of the world's population.

The impact of discrimination against stuttering on a dysfluent person's functioning and emotional state can be severe. This may include fears of having to enunciate specific vowels or consonants, fears of being caught stuttering in social situations, self-imposed isolation, anxiety, stress, shame, low self-esteem, being a possible target of bullying (especially in children), having to use word substitution and rearrange words in a sentence to hide stuttering, or a feeling of "loss of control" during speech. Stuttering is sometimes popularly seen as a symptom of anxiety, but there is no direct correlation in that direction.

Stuttering is generally not a problem with the physical production of speech sounds or putting thoughts into words. Acute nervousness and stress are not thought to cause stuttering, but they can trigger stuttering in people who have the speech disorder, and living with a stigmatized disability can result in anxiety and high allostatic stress load (chronic nervousness and stress) that increase the amount of acute stress necessary to trigger stuttering in any given person who stutters, worsening the situation in the manner of a positive feedback system; the name 'stuttered speech syndrome' has been proposed for this condition. Neither acute nor chronic stress, however, itself creates any predisposition to stuttering.

The disorder is also variable, which means that in certain situations, such as talking on the telephone or in a large group, the stuttering might be more noticable. People who stutter often find that their stuttering fluctuates. The times in which their stuttering fluctuates can be random. Although the exact etiology, or cause, of stuttering is unknown, both genetics and neurophysiology are shown to contribute. There is no cure for the disorder.

Characteristics

Common behaviors

Common stuttering behaviors are observable signs of speech disfluencies, for example: repeating sounds, syllables, words or phrases, silent blocks and prolongation of sounds. These differ from the normal disfluencies found in all speakers in that stuttering disfluencies may last longer, occur more frequently, and are produced with more effort and strain.

• Repeated movements
  • Syllable repetition—a single syllable word is repeated (for example: on—on—on a chair) or a part of a word which is still a full syllable such as "un—un—under the ..." and "o—o—open".
  • Incomplete syllable repetition—an incomplete syllable is repeated, such as a consonant without a vowel, for example, "c—c—c—cold".
  • Multi-syllable repetition—more than one syllable such as a whole word, or more than one word is repeated, such as "I know—I know—I know a lot of information."
• Fixed postures
  • With audible airflow—prolongation of a sound occurs such as "mmmmmmmmmom".
  • Without audible airflow—such as a block of speech or a tense pause where nothing is said despite efforts.
• Superfluous behaviors
  • Verbal—this includes an interjection such as an unnecessary uh or um as well as revisions, such as going back and correcting one's initial statements such as "I—My girlfriend ...", where the I has been corrected to the word my.
  • Nonverbal—these are visible or audible speech behaviors, such as lip smacking, throat clearing, head thrusting, etc., usually representing an effort to break through or circumvent a block or stuttering loop.

Feelings and attitudes

Stuttering could have a significant negative cognitive and affective impact on the person who stutters. It has been described in terms of the analogy to an iceberg, with the immediately visible and audible symptoms of stuttering above the waterline and a broader set of symptoms such as negative emotions hidden below the surface. Feelings of embarrassment, shame, frustration, fear, anger, and guilt are frequent in people who stutter, and may actually increase tension and effort, leading to increased stuttering. With time, continued exposure to difficult speaking experiences may crystallize into a negative self-concept and self-image. People who stutter may project their attitudes onto others, believing that the others think them nervous or stupid. Such negative feelings and attitudes may need to be a major focus of a treatment program.

Many people who stutter report a high emotional cost, including jobs or promotions not received, as well as relationships broken or not pursued.

Others have developed Stuttering pride and encourage other stutterers to take pride in their stutter and to find how it has been beneficial for them.

Associated conditions

Stuttering can co-occur with other learning disorders. These associated disabilities include:

• Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): A disorder characterized by problems sustaining attention, hyperactivity, or acting impulsively. The prevalence of ADHD in school-aged children who stutter is around 4-50%.
• Dyslexia: A disorder involving difficulties with reading and spelling. The prevalence rate of childhood stuttering in dyslexia is around 30-40%, while in adults the prevalence of dyslexia in adults who stutter is around 30-50%.
• autism spectrum disorder
• intellectual disability
• language or learning disability
• seizure disorders
• social anxiety disorder
• speech sound disorders
• other developmental disorders

Causes

The cause of developmental stuttering is complex and thought to be neurological with a genetic factor.

A variety of hypotheses and theories suggest multiple factors contributing to stuttering. There is strong evidence that stuttering has a genetic basis. Children who have first-degree relatives who stutter are three times as likely to develop a stutter. However, twin and adoption studies suggest that genetic factors interact with environmental factors for stuttering to occur, and many stutterers have no family history of the disorder. In a 2010 article, three genes were found by Dennis Drayna and team to correlate with stuttering: GNPTAB, GNPTG, and NAGPA. Researchers estimated that alterations in these three genes were present in 9% of those who have a family history of stuttering.

There is evidence that stuttering is more common in children who also have concurrent speech, language, learning or motor difficulties. For some people who stutter, congenital factors may play a role. These may include physical trauma at or around birth, learning disabilities, and cerebral palsy. In others, there could be added impact due to stressful situations such as the birth of a sibling, moving, or a sudden growth in linguistic ability.

There is empirical evidence for structural and functional differences in the brains of stutterers. Research is complicated somewhat by the possibility that such differences could be the consequences of stuttering rather than a cause, but recent research on older children confirms structural differences thereby giving strength to the argument that at least some of the differences are not a consequence of stuttering.

Other much less common causes of stuttering include neurogenic stuttering (stuttering that occurs secondary to brain damage, such as after a stroke) and psychogenic stuttering (stuttering related to a psychological condition).

History of Causes

Auditory processing deficits have also been proposed as a cause of stuttering. Stuttering is less prevalent in deaf and hard-of-hearing individuals, and stuttering may be reduced when auditory feedback is altered, such as by masking, delayed auditory feedback (DAF), or frequency altered feedback. There is some evidence that the functional organization of the auditory cortex may be different in people who stutter.

There is evidence of differences in linguistic processing between people who stutter and people who do not. Brain scans of adult stutterers have found greater activation of the right hemisphere, which is associated with emotions, than of the left hemisphere, which is associated with speech. In addition, reduced activation in the left auditory cortex has been observed.

The capacities and demands model has been proposed to account for the heterogeneity of the disorder. In this approach, speech performance varies depending on the capacity that the individual has for producing fluent speech, and the demands placed upon the person by the speaking situation. Capacity for fluent speech may be affected by a predisposition to the disorder, auditory processing or motor speech deficits, and cognitive or affective issues. Demands may be increased by internal factors such as lack of confidence or self esteem or inadequate language skills or external factors such as peer pressure, time pressure, stressful speaking situations, insistence on perfect speech, and the like. In stuttering, the severity of the disorder is seen as likely to increase when demands placed on the person's speech and language system exceed their capacity to deal with these pressures. However, the precise nature of the capacity or incapacity has not been delineated.

One theory studies have found that adults who stutter have elevated levels of the neurotransmitter dopamine, and have thus found dopamine antagonists that reduce stuttering. Overactivity of the midbrain has been found at the level of the substantia nigra extended to the red nucleus and subthalamic nucleus, which all contribute to the production of dopamine. However, increased dopamine does not imply increased excitatory function since dopamine's effect can be both excitatory or inhibitory depending upon which dopamine receptors have been stimulated.

Diagnosis

Some characteristics of stuttered speech are not as easy for listeners to detect. As a result, diagnosing stuttering requires the skills of a certified speech–language pathologist (SLP). Diagnosis of stuttering employs information both from direct observation of the individual and information about the individual's background, through a case history. Information from both sources should consider things such as age, the various times it has occurred, and other impediments. The SLP may collect a case history on the individual through a detailed interview or conversation with the parents (if client is a child). They may also observe parent-child interactions and observe the speech patterns of the child's parents. The overall goal of assessment for the SLP will be (1) to determine whether a speech disfluency exists, and (2) assess if its severity warrants concern for further treatment.

During direct observation of the client, the SLP will observe various aspects of the individual's speech behaviors. In particular, the therapist might test for factors including the types of disfluencies present (using a test such as the Disfluency Type Index (DTI)), their frequency and duration (number of iterations, percentage of syllables stuttered (%SS)), and speaking rate (syllables per minute (SPM), words per minute (WPM)). They may also test for naturalness and fluency in speaking (naturalness rating scale (NAT), test of childhood stuttering (TOCS)) and physical concomitants during speech (Riley's Stuttering Severity Instrument Fourth Edition (SSI-4)). They might also employ a test to evaluate the severity of the stuttering and predictions for its course. One such test includes the stuttering prediction instrument for young children (SPI), which analyzes the child's case history, part-word repetitions and prolongations, and stuttering frequency in order to determine the severity of the disfluency and its prognosis for chronicity for the future.

Stuttering is a multifaceted, complex disorder that can impact an individual's life in a variety of ways. Children and adults are monitored and evaluated for evidence of possible social, psychological or emotional signs of stress related to their disorder. Some common assessments of this type measure factors including: anxiety (Endler multidimensional anxiety scales (EMAS)), attitudes (personal report of communication apprehension (PRCA)), perceptions of self (self-rating of reactions to speech situations (SSRSS)), quality of life (overall assessment of the speaker's experience of stuttering (OASES)), behaviors (older adult self-report (OASR)), and mental health (composite international diagnostic interview (CIDI)).

Clinical psychologists with adequate expertise can also diagnose Stuttering per the DSM-5 diagnostic codes. The DSM-5 describes Childhood-Onset Fluency Disorder (Stuttering)" for developmental stuttering, and "Adult-onset Fluency Disorder". However, the specific rationale for this change from the DSM-IV is ill-documented in the APA's published literature, and is felt by some to promote confusion between the very different terms "fluency" and "disfluency".

Normal disfluency

Preschool aged children often have difficulties with speech concerning motor planning and execution; this often manifests as disfluencies related to speech development (referred to as normal dysfluency or "other disfluencies"). This type of disfluency is a normal part of speech development and temporarily present in preschool aged children who are learning to speak.

Classification

Developmental stuttering is stuttering that originates when a child is learning to speak and may persist as the child matures into adulthood. Stuttering that persists after the age of seven is classified as persistent stuttering.

Neurogenic stuttering (stuttering that occurs secondary to brain damage, such as after a stroke) and psychogenic stuttering (stuttering related to a psychological condition) are less common and classified separately from developmental.

Developmental

Stuttering usually begins in early childhood. The mean onset of stuttering is 30 months. With young stutterers, disfluency may be episodic, and periods of stuttering are followed by periods of relatively decreased disfluency.

With time a young person who stutters might transition from easy, relaxed repetition to more tense and effortful stuttering, including blocks and prolongations. Some propose that parental reactions may affect this development. With time, secondary stuttering, including escape behaviours such as eye blinking and lip movements, may be used, as well as fear and avoidance of sounds, words, people, or speaking situations. Eventually, some become fully aware of their disorder and begin to identify themselves as stutterers. Depending on the situation, this may come with deeper frustration, embarrassment and shame.

Other patterns of stuttering development have been described, including sudden onset, with the child being unable to speak, despite attempts to do so. The child usually is unable to utter the first sound of a sentence, and shows high levels of awareness and frustration. Another variety also begins suddenly with frequent word and phrase repetition, and does not include the development of secondary stuttering behaviours

Neurogenic stuttering

Some stuttering is also believed to be caused by neurophysiology. Neurogenic stuttering typically appears following some sort of injury or disease to the central nervous system. Injuries to the brain and spinal cord, including cortex, subcortex, cerebellum, and even the neural pathway regions.

Acquired stuttering

In rare cases, stuttering may be acquired in adulthood as the result of a neurological event such as a head injury, tumour, stroke, or drug use. This stuttering has different characteristics from its developmental equivalent: it tends to be limited to part-word or sound repetitions, and is associated with a relative lack of anxiety and secondary stuttering behaviors. Techniques such as altered auditory feedback are not effective with the acquired type.

Even more rare, psychogenic stuttering may also arise after a traumatic experience such as a death, the breakup of a relationship or as the psychological reaction to physical trauma. Its symptoms tend to be homogeneous: the stuttering is of sudden onset and associated with a significant event, it is constant and uninfluenced by different speaking situations, and there is little awareness or concern shown by the speaker.

Differential diagnosis

Other disorders with symptoms resembling stuttering, or associated disorders include autism, cluttering, Parkinson's disease, essential tremor, palilalia, spasmodic dysphonia, and selective mutism.

Treatment

While there is no cure for stuttering, several treatment options exist and the best option is dependent on the individual.

Depending the child or adult, therapy is generally a management of speech comfort, and/or teaching techniques to speak in a controlled way.

Fluency shaping therapy

Fluency shaping therapy trains people who stutter to speak less disfluently by controlling their breathing, phonation, and articulation (lips, jaw, and tongue). It is based on operant conditioning techniques.

Modification therapy

The goal of stuttering modification therapy is not to eliminate stuttering but to modify it so that stuttering is easier and less effortful. The most widely known approach was published by Charles Van Riper in 1973 and is also known as block modification therapy. However, depending on the patient, speech therapy may be ineffective.

Electronic fluency device

Altered auditory feedback effect can be produced by speaking in chorus with another person, by blocking out the voice of the person who stutters while they are talking (masking), by delaying slightly the voice of the person who stutters (delayed auditory feedback) or by altering the frequency of the feedback (frequency altered feedback). Studies of these techniques have had mixed results.

Medications

No medication is FDA-approved for stuttering.

Support

Self-help groups provide people who stutter a shared forum within which they can access resources and support from others facing the same challenges of stuttering.

Prognosis

Among preschoolers with stuttering, the prognosis for recovery is about 65% to 87.5% of preschoolers who stutter recover spontaneously by 7 years of age or within the first 2 years of stuttering, and about 74% recover by their early teens. In particular, girls seem to recover more often.

Prognosis is guarded with later age of onset: children who start stuttering at age 3½ years or later, and/or duration of greater than 6–12 months since onset, that is, once stuttering has become established, about 18% of children who stutter after five years recover spontaneously. Stuttering that persists after the age of seven is classified as persistent stuttering, and is associated with a much lower chance of recovery.

Epidemiology

The lifetime prevalence, or the proportion of individuals expected to stutter at one time in their lives, is about 5%, and overall males are affected two to five times more often than females.As seen in children who have just begun stuttering, there is an equivalent number of boys and girls who stutter. Still, the sex ratio appears to widen as children grow: among preschoolers, boys who stutter outnumber girls who stutter by about a two to one ratio, or less. This ratio widens to three to one during first grade, and five to one during fifth grade, as girls have higher recovery rates. the overall prevalence of stuttering is generally considered to be approximately 1%.

Cross cultural

Cross-cultural studies of stuttering prevalence were very active in early and mid-20th century, particularly under the influence of the works of Wendell Johnson, who claimed that the onset of stuttering was connected to the cultural expectations and the pressure put on young children by anxious parents, which has since been debunked. Later studies found that this claim was not supported by the facts, so the influence of cultural factors in stuttering research declined. It is generally accepted by contemporary scholars that stuttering is present in every culture and in every race, although the attitude towards the actual prevalence differs. Some believe stuttering occurs in all cultures and races at similar rates, about 1% of general population (and is about 5% among young children) all around the world. A US-based study indicated that there were no racial or ethnic differences in the incidence of stuttering in preschool children.

Different regions of the world are researched unevenly. The largest number of studies has been conducted in European countries and in North America, where the experts agree on the mean estimate to be about 1% of the general population (Bloodtein, 1995. A Handbook on Stuttering). African populations, particularly from West Africa, might have the highest stuttering prevalence in the world—reaching in some populations 5%, 6% and even over 9%. Many regions of the world are not researched sufficiently, and for some major regions there are no prevalence studies at all.

History

Because of the unusual-sounding speech that is produced and the behaviors and attitudes that accompany a stutter, it has long been a subject of scientific interest and speculation as well as discrimination and ridicule. People who stutter can be traced back centuries to Demosthenes, who tried to control his disfluency by speaking with pebbles in his mouth. The Talmud interprets Bible passages to indicate that Moses also stuttered, and that placing a burning coal in his mouth had caused him to be "slow and hesitant of speech" (Exodus 4, v.10).

Galen's humoral theories were influential in Europe in the Middle Ages for centuries afterward. In this theory, stuttering was attributed to an imbalance of the four bodily humors—yellow bile, blood, black bile, and phlegm. Hieronymus Mercurialis, writing in the sixteenth century, proposed to redress the imbalance by changes in diet, reduced libido (in men only), and purging. Believing that fear aggravated stuttering, he suggested techniques to overcome this. Humoral manipulation continued to be a dominant treatment for stuttering until the eighteenth century. Partly due to a perceived lack of intelligence because of his stutter, the man who became the Roman emperor Claudius was initially shunned from the public eye and excluded from public office.

In and around eighteenth and nineteenth century Europe, surgical interventions for stuttering were recommended, including cutting the tongue with scissors, removing a triangular wedge from the posterior tongue, and cutting nerves, or neck and lip muscles. Others recommended shortening the uvula or removing the tonsils. All were abandoned due to the danger of bleeding to death and their failure to stop stuttering. Less drastically, Jean Marc Gaspard Itard placed a small forked golden plate under the tongue in order to support "weak" muscles.

Italian pathologist Giovanni Morgagni attributed stuttering to deviations in the hyoid bone, a conclusion he came to via autopsy. Blessed Notker of St. Gall (c. 840 – 912), called Balbulus ("The Stutterer") and described by his biographer as being "delicate of body but not of mind, stuttering of tongue but not of intellect, pushing boldly forward in things Divine," was invoked against stammering.

A royal Briton who stammered was King George VI. He went through years of speech therapy, most successfully under Australian speech therapist Lionel Logue, for his stammer. The Academy Award-winning film The King's Speech (2010) in which Colin Firth plays George VI, tells his story. The film is based on an original screenplay by David Seidler, who also stuttered until age 16.

Another British case was that of Prime Minister Winston Churchill. Churchill claimed, perhaps not directly discussing himself, that "ometimes a slight and not unpleasing stammer or impediment has been of some assistance in securing the attention of the audience ..." However, those who knew Churchill and commented on his stutter believed that it was or had been a significant problem for him. His secretary Phyllis Moir commented that "Winston Churchill was born and grew up with a stutter" in her 1941 book I was Winston Churchill's Private Secretary. She related one example, "'It's s-s-simply s-s-splendid,' he stuttered—as he always did when excited." Louis J. Alber, who helped to arrange a lecture tour of the United States, wrote in Volume 55 of The American Mercury (1942) that "Churchill struggled to express his feelings but his stutter caught him in the throat and his face turned purple" and that "born with a stutter and a lisp, both caused in large measure by a defect in his palate, Churchill was at first seriously hampered in his public speaking. It is characteristic of the man's perseverance that, despite his staggering handicap, he made himself one of the greatest orators of our time."

For centuries "cures" such as consistently drinking water from a snail shell for the rest of one's life, "hitting a stutterer in the face when the weather is cloudy", strengthening the tongue as a muscle, and various herbal remedies were tried. Similarly, in the past people subscribed to odd theories about the causes of stuttering, such as tickling an infant too much, eating improperly during breastfeeding, allowing an infant to look in the mirror, cutting a child's hair before the child spoke his or her first words, having too small a tongue, or the "work of the devil".

Some people who stutter, and are part of the disability rights movement, have begun to embrace their stuttering voices as an important part of their identity. In July 2015 the UK Ministry of Defence (MOD) announced the launch of the Defence Stammering Network to support and champion the interests of British military personnel and MOD civil servants who stammer and to raise awareness of the condition.

Bilingual stuttering

Identification

Bilingualism is the ability to speak two languages. Many bilingual people have been exposed to more than one language since birth and throughout childhood. Since language and culture are relatively fluid factors in a person's understanding and production of language, bilingualism may be a feature that impacts speech fluency. There are several ways during which stuttering may be noticed in bilingual children including the following.

• The child is mixing vocabulary (code mixing) from both languages in one sentence. This is a normal process that helps the child increase their skills in the weaker language, but may trigger a temporary increase in disfluency.
• The child is having difficulty finding the correct word to express ideas resulting in an increase in normal speech disfluency.
• The child is having difficulty using grammatically complex sentences in one or both languages as compared to other children of the same age. Also, the child may make grammatical mistakes. Developing proficiency in both languages may be gradual, so development may be uneven between the two languages.

It was once believed that being bilingual would 'confuse' a child and cause stuttering, but research has debunked this myth.

Stuttering may present differently depending on the languages the individual uses. For example, morphological and other linguistic differences between languages may make presentation of disfluency appear to be more or less depending on the individual case.

In popular culture

Jazz and Eurodance musician Scatman John wrote the song "Scatman (Ski Ba Bop Ba Dop Bop)" to help children who stutter overcome adversity. Born John Paul Larkin, Scatman spoke with a stutter himself and won the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association's Annie Glenn Award for outstanding service to the stuttering community.

Arkwright, the main protagonist in the BBC sitcom Open All Hours, had a severe stutter that was used for comic effect. Laxman, a supporting character in Indian comedy film Golmaal (2010), had stammering problem.

Stuttering Community

Many counties have regular events and activities to get people who stutter together in mutual support. These events take place at regional, national, and international level. At a regional level, there are often stuttering support or chapter groups that look to provide a place for people who stutter in the local area to meet, discuss and learn from each other.

At a national level, stuttering charities or groups host conferences. Conferences can vary in their focus and scope, some focus on the latest research developments, some on stuttering and the arts and others still look to provide a space for stutterers simply to come together.

There are two different international meetings of stutterers. The International Stuttering Association World Congress is primarily focused on people who stutter. There is also Joint World Congress on Stuttering and Cluttering that brings together academics, researchers, speech-language pathologists, people who stutter, and people who clutter for a focus more on research, viewpoints, and treatments for stuttering.

Historic advocacy and self-help

Self-help and advocacy organisations for people who stammer have reportedly been in existence since the 1920s. In 1921, a Philadelphia-based attorney who stammered, J Stanley Smith established the Kingsley Club.  Designed to support people with a stammer in the Philadelphia area the club took inspiration for its name from Charles Kingsley. Kingsley, a nineteenth century English social reformer and author of Westward Ho! and The Water Babies had a stammer himself.  

Whilst Kingsley himself did not appear to recommend self-help or advocacy groups for people who stammer the Kingsley Club promoted a positive mental attitude to support its members in becoming confident speakers, in a similar way discussed by Charles Kingsley in Irrationale of Speech.

Other support groups for people who stammer began to emerge in the first half of the twentieth century. In 1935 a Stammerer’s Club was established in Melbourne, Australia by a Mr H Collin of Thornbury. At the time of its formation it had 68 members. The club was formed in response to the tragic case of a man from Sydney who “sought relief from the effects of stammering in suicide”. As well as providing self-help this club adopted an advocacy role with the intention of appealing to the Government to provide special education and to fund research into the causes of stammering (Bermuda Reporter).

Stuttering Pride

Stuttering pride (or stuttering advocacy) is a social movement repositioning stuttering as a valuable and respectable way of speaking. The movement seeks to counter the societal narratives in which temporal and societal expectations dictate how communication takes place. In this sense, the stuttering pride movement challenges the pervasive societal narrative of stuttering as a defect and instead positions stuttering as a valuable and respectable way of speaking in its own right. The movement encourages stutterers to take pride in their unique speech patterns and in what stuttering can tell us about the world. It also advocates for societal adjustments to allow stutterers equal access to education and employment opportunities, and addresses how this may impact Stuttering therapy.

Associations

• All India Institute of Speech and Hearing
• American Institute for Stuttering
• British Stammering Association
• European League of Stuttering Associations
• International Stuttering Association
• Israel Stuttering Association
• Michael Palin Centre for Stammering Children
• National Stuttering Association, United States
• Philippine Stuttering Association
• Stuttering Foundation of America
• The Indian Stammering Association

See also

• American Speech–Language–Hearing Association
• Cluttering
• Developmental dysfluency
• Dopamine hypothesis of stuttering
• Dyscravia
• Fluency
• International Stuttering Awareness Day
• Lists of language disorders
• List of stutterers
• Monster Study
• National Stuttering Awareness Week
• Neurodevelopmental disorder
• Speech and language impairment
• Speech disorder
• Speech disfluency
• Speech–language pathology
• Speech processing
• Stuttering in popular culture
• Stuttering therapy

Notes

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Further reading

• Rockey, D., Speech Disorder in Nineteenth Century Britain: The History of Stuttering, Croom Helm, (London), 1980. ISBN 0-85664-809-4
• Goldmark, Daniel. "Stuttering in American Popular Song, 1890–1930." In Lerner, Neil (2006). Sounding Off: Theorizing Disability in Music. New York, London: Routledge. pp. 91–105. ISBN 978-0-415-97906-1.
• Ward, David (2006). Stuttering and Cluttering: Frameworks for understanding treatment. Hove and New York City: Psychology Press. ISBN 978-1-84169-334-7.

External links

• National Health Institute

• Anti-stuttering devices
• Stuttering
• Speech disorders