| Revision as of 20:35, 20 June 2024 editSm8900 (talk | contribs)Extended confirmed users, New page reviewers, Pending changes reviewers64,030 edits with respect, the burden is _not_ on me to explain why we should _not_ have bulk removals here with no discussion first on talk page. and also Misplaced Pages is _full_ of Passages that are technically "unsourced." if I wrote that "Shakespeare wrote Hamlet," then no one would ask me for a source. most world history topics similary fdo not have a source for every fact stated.Tag: Manual revert← Previous edit | Revision as of 19:48, 24 June 2024 edit undoPeter Isotalo (talk | contribs)Autopatrolled, Extended confirmed users, Pending changes reviewers22,553 edits redirecting to modern era; sources confirming actual use of the term were requested in August 2023 and have still not been producedTag: New redirectNext edit → | ||
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| {{short description|Period from 1800 CE until the present}} | |||
| {{distinguish|Late modernism|Late modernity}} | |||
| {{Use mdy dates|date=October 2022}} | |||
| {{Multiple issues| | |||
| {{Original research|date=January 2024}} | |||
| {{more citations needed|date=June 2024}} | |||
| {{Essay-like|date=June 2024}} | |||
| }} | |||
| {{Human history|222}} | |||
| In many{{cn|date=June 2024|reason=Really? Show it with RS. I'm a historian and have never heard of this. Seems to be rather fringe.}} periodizations of ], the '''late modern period''' followed the ]. It began around 1800 and, depending on the author,{{which?|date=June 2024}} either ended with the beginning of ] in 1945,{{according to whom?|date=June 2024}} or includes the contemporary history period to the present day.{{according to whom?|date=June 2024}} | |||
| Notable historical events in the late 18th century, that marked the transition from the early modern period to the late modern period, include:{{according to whom?|date=June 2024}} the ] (1765–91), ] (1789–99), and beginning of the ] around 1760. | |||
| == Definition == | |||
| ===Possible end of the Late Modern period=== | |||
| There are differing approaches to defining a possible end or conclusion to the Late Modern period, or indeed whether it might be considered to have concluded at all.{{according to whom?|date=June 2024}} If that period is indeed concluded, then there are various options{{according to whom?|date=June 2024}} for how to label the subsequent era, i.e. the current contemporary era, as described below. | |||
| * The ] is a ] that began in the mid-20th century, characterized by a rapid epochal shift from traditional industry established by the ] to an economy primarily based upon information technology.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.livescience.com/20718-computer-history.html|title=History of Computers: A Brief Timeline|date=September 7, 2017|author=Zimmerman, Kathy Ann|website=livescience.com|access-date=November 10, 2020|archive-date=August 9, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809160812/https://www.livescience.com/20718-computer-history.html|url-status=live}}</ref>{{fv|date=June 2024}}<ref name="Idea b">{{cite web|url=https://www.thoughtco.com/history-of-computers-4082769|title=The History of Computers|website=thought.co|access-date=November 10, 2020|archive-date=August 1, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801213547/https://www.thoughtco.com/history-of-computers-4082769|url-status=live}}</ref>{{fv|date=June 2024}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sentryo.net/the-4-industrial-revolutions/|title=The 4 industrial revolutions|date=February 23, 2017|website=sentryo.net|access-date=November 10, 2020|archive-date=October 17, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191017052541/https://www.sentryo.net/the-4-industrial-revolutions/|url-status=live}}</ref>{{fv|date=June 2024}}<ref name="Manuel">{{Cite book|title= The information age : economy, society and culture|last= Manuel|first= Castells |date= 1996|publisher= Blackwell|isbn= 978-0631215943|location= Oxford|oclc= 43092627}}</ref>{{pn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| * Some researchers typify the end of the Late Modern period by the concerns for the environment which began in 1950, as this marks the end of modern confidence about humanity's domination of the natural world.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Michael |title='The End of Modern History'? |journal=Geographical Review |date=1998 |volume=88 |issue=2 |pages=275–300 |doi=10.2307/215805 |jstor=215805 }}</ref> | |||
| * The ''] era'' is the economic or cultural state or condition of society which is said to exist {{em|after}} ].{{refn|group=nb|In this context, "modern" is not used in the sense of "contemporary", but as a name for a specific period in history.{{original research?|date=June 2024}}}} Some schools of thought hold that modernity ended in the late 20th century – in the 1980s or early 1990s – and that it was replaced by postmodernity, and still others would extend modernity to cover the developments denoted by postmodernity, while some believe that modernity ended sometime after World War II. The idea of the post-modern condition is sometimes characterized as a culture stripped of its capacity to function in any linear or autonomous state, such as e.g. regressive isolationism, as opposed to the progressive mind state of ].<ref>Jameson, Fredric, The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism, ''Postmodernism'' (London 1991), p. 27</ref> | |||
| :Postmodernism is an intellectual stance or mode of discourse<ref>Nuyen, A.T., 1992. The Role of Rhetorical Devices in Postmodernist Discourse. Philosophy & Rhetoric, pp. 183–194.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Torfing |first=Jacob |title=New theories of discourse : Laclau, Mouffe, and Z̆iz̆ek |publisher=Blackwell Publishers |year=1999 |isbn=0631195572 |location=Oxford, UK Malden}}</ref> defined by an attitude of ] toward what it describes as the ] and ] of ].<ref name="SEP-2015">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Postmodernism |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2015/entries/postmodernism |access-date=May 12, 2019 |date=February 5, 2015 |orig-year=1st pub. 2005 |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |edition=Spring 2015 |series=sep-postmodernism |last1=Aylesworth |first1=Gary |archive-date=May 12, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190512094039/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2015/entries/postmodernism/ |url-status=live }}</ref> It questions or criticizes viewpoints associated with ] dating back to the 17th century.<ref name="britannica">{{Cite web |last=Duignan |first=Brian |title=Postmodernism |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/postmodernism-philosophy |access-date=April 24, 2016 |website=].com |archive-date=July 23, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190723183127/https://www.britannica.com/topic/postmodernism-philosophy |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
| * The '']'' is the stage of society's development when the ] generates more wealth than the ] of the economy. The term was originated by ] and is closely related to similar sociological theoretical concepts such as ], ], ], ], ], and ]. They all can be used in economics or social science disciplines as a general theoretical backdrop in ]. As the term has been used, a few common themes have begun to emerge. Firstly, the economy undergoes a transition from the production of goods to the provision of services; also, producing ideas is the main way to grow the economy. The term is used by various researchers and social scientists.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Boeckelman |first1=Keith |title=The American States in the Postindustrial Economy |journal=State & Local Government Review |date=1995 |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=182–187 |jstor=4355128 }}</ref><ref>Work in the Postindustrial Economy of California. (2002) On the web, http://www.russellsage.org/publications/workingpapers/workpostindcalif/document {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727231656/https://www.russellsage.org/publications/workingpapers/workpostindcalif/document |date=July 27, 2011 }}</ref><ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220106023603/https://books.google.com/books/about/The_Coming_of_Post_industrial_Society.html?id=hlS6AAAAIAAJ |date=January 6, 2022 }} by Daniel Bell, Basic Books, 1976.</ref> | |||
| ===Possible subdivisions=== | |||
| Additionally, the Late Modern period has been divided{{according to whom?|date=June 2024}} into various smaller periods; there are differing opinions and approaches{{by whom?|date=June 2024}} on which time periods to assert in doing so. | |||
| * ''Cold War era.'' The ] was a period of ] tension between the United States and the ] and their respective allies, the ] and the ], which began following ]. Historians do not fully agree on its starting and ending points, but the period is generally considered to span the 1947 ] (March 12, 1947) to the 1991 ] (December 26, 1991).<ref>Robert Service, ''The End of the Cold War: 1985–1991'' (Macmillan, 2015)</ref> | |||
| * The '']'' (also known as the ''Third Industrial Revolution'') is the shift from ] and ] technology to ] which began in the latter half of the 20th century, with the adoption and proliferation of digital computers and digital record-keeping, that continues to the present day.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://history.sandiego.edu/gen/recording/digital.html|title=The Digital Revolution|last=E. Schoenherr|first=Steven|date=May 5, 2004|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081007132355/http://history.sandiego.edu/gen/recording/digital.html|archive-date=October 7, 2008}}</ref> Central to this revolution is the ] and widespread use of ], ]s (MOS ]s), ] (IC) chips, and their derived technologies, including computers, ]s, digital cellular phones, and the Internet.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ijims.com/uploads/8173db12811b1899bcf52014418.pdf|title=Cinema in the Age of Digital Revolution|last=Debjani|first=Roy|date=2014|access-date=January 5, 2022|archive-date=August 8, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808030738/http://www.ijims.com/uploads/8173db12811b1899bcf52014418.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> These technological innovations have transformed traditional production and business techniques.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bojanova|first1=Irena|title=The Digital Revolution: What's on the Horizon?|journal=IT Professional|volume=16|issue=1|pages=8–12|doi=10.1109/MITP.2014.11|year=2014|s2cid=28110209}}</ref> | |||
| == Industrial revolutions == | |||
| {{Main|Industrial Revolution|Second Industrial Revolution}} | |||
| ] | |||
| The development of the ] started the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain.<ref>] image: located in the lobby of into the Superior Technical School of Industrial Engineers of the UPM (])</ref> The steam engine was created to pump water from coal mines, enabling them to be deepened beyond ] levels. The date of the Industrial Revolution is not exact, but some studies suggest it occurred after the ]'s conquests of ], ] and the rest of ], which were already observing the ]. ] held that it "broke out" in the 1780s and was not fully felt until the 1830s or 1840s,<ref>Eric Hobsbawm, ''The Age of Revolution: Europe 1789–1848'', Weidenfeld & Nicolson Ltd. {{ISBN|0349104840}}</ref> while ] held that it occurred roughly between 1760 and 1830 (in effect the reigns of ], The ], and ]).<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y7rhKYWhCyIC&pg=PA102 |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200820045522/https://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&vid=ISBN0521010799&id=y7rhKYWhCyIC&pg=PA102&lpg=PA102&sig=zOPr9UkQv258KyhCkuFM0abERnI |archive-date=August 20, 2020 |title=Africans and the Industrial Revolution in England|first= Joseph E. |last=Inikori |via= Google Books }}, Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0521010799}}.</ref> | |||
| == 19th century == | |||
| {{Main|19th century|International relations (1814–1919)}} | |||
| Historians{{which?|date=June 2024}} define the 19th century ] as stretching from 1815 (the ]) to 1914 (the outbreak of the ]). Alternatively, ] defined the ] as spanning the years 1789 to 1914. | |||
| === European imperialism and empires === | |||
| {{NPOV|section|date=June 2024}} | |||
| {{Main|Imperialism}} | |||
| {{See also|Chronology of Western colonialism}} | |||
| ], ], ] and ]]] | |||
| In the 1800s and early 1900s, the great and powerful Spanish, Portuguese, Ottoman, and Mughal Empires began to break apart. Spain, which was at one time unrivaled in Europe, had been declining for a long time when it was crippled by Napoleon Bonaparte's invasion.{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| The Ottoman Empire was wracked with a series of revolutions, resulting with the Ottoman's only holding a small region that surrounded the capital, Istanbul.{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| The Mughal Empire, which was descended from the Mongol Khanate, was bested by the upcoming ]. All was going well for the ]s until the British took an interest in the riches of India and the British ended up ruling not just the boundaries of Modern India, but also Pakistan, Burma, Nepal, Bangladesh and some Southern Regions of Afghanistan.{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| Portugal's vast territory of Brazil reformed into the independent Empire of Brazil. With the defeat of Napoleonic France, Britain became undoubtedly{{according to whom?|date=June 2024}} the most powerful country in the world,{{according to whom?|date=June 2024}} and by the end of the First World War controlled a Quarter of the world's population and a third of its surface. However, the power of the British Empire did not end on land, since it had the greatest navy on the planet.{{according to whom?|date=June 2024}} Electricity, steel, and petroleum enabled Germany to become a great ] that raced to create empires of its own.{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| Substantial ] occurred through various revolutions and wars of independence fought by new countries in the Americas against European colonizers in late 18th and early-to-mid-19th centuries. The ] lasted from 1808 until 1829, directly related to the Napoleonic French invasion of Spain. The conflict started with short-lived governing juntas established in Chuquisaca and Quito opposing the composition of the Supreme Central Junta of Seville. When the Central Junta fell to the French, numerous new Juntas appeared all across the Americas, eventually resulting in a chain of newly independent countries stretching from Argentina and Chile in the south, to Mexico in the north. After the death of the king Ferdinand VII, in 1833, only Cuba and Puerto Rico remained under Spanish rule, until the Spanish–American War in 1898. Unlike the Spanish, the Portuguese did not divide their colonial territory in America. The captaincies they created were subdued to a centralized administration in Salvador (later relocated to Rio de Janeiro) which reported directly to the Portuguese Crown until its independence in 1822, becoming the ].{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| The ] was a chain of events that led to enormous changes in Japan's political and social structure that was taking a firm hold at the beginning of the ] which coincided the opening of Japan by the arrival of the ] of ] ] and made ] a ]. ] and ] China failed to keep pace with the other world powers which led to massive social unrest in both empires. The Qing Dynasty's military power weakened during the 19th century, and faced with international pressure, massive ]s and defeats in wars, the dynasty declined after the mid-19th century.{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| European powers controlled parts of Oceania, with French ] from 1853 and ] from 1889; the Germans established colonies in ] in 1884, and ] in 1900. The United States expanded into the Pacific with Hawaii becoming a ] from 1898. Disagreements between the US, Germany and UK over Samoa led to the ].{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| {|style="margin:auto;" class="toccolours" | |||
| !style="background:#f8eaba;" | Decolonization of the Americas | |||
| |- | |||
| | | |||
| <gallery> | |||
| File:Americas independence map.PNG|Countries in the Americas by date of independence. Note that the United States did not complete its continental territorial expansion until 1867 | |||
| File:Hisparevol.gif|''Development of Spanish American Independence'' | |||
| File:Spanish Empire - 1824.jpg|Map of territories that became independent during those wars (blue). | |||
| </gallery> | |||
| |} | |||
| === British Victorian era === | |||
| {{Main|British Empire|Victorian era}} | |||
| ] | |||
| The Victorian era of the United Kingdom was the period of ]'s reign from June 1837 to January 1901. This was a long period of prosperity for the British people, as profits gained from the overseas British Empire, as well as from industrial improvements at home, allowed a large, educated middle class to develop. Some scholars{{which?|date=June 2024}} would extend the beginning of the period—as defined by a variety of sensibilities and political games that have come to be associated with the Victorians—back five years to the passage of the ].{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| In Britain's "imperial century",{{refn|group=nb|For more, see ].}} victory over Napoleon left Britain without any serious international rival, other than Russia in central Asia. Unchallenged at sea, Britain adopted the role of global policeman, a state of affairs later known as the '']'', and a foreign policy of "]". Alongside the formal control it exerted over its own colonies, Britain's dominant position in world trade meant that it effectively controlled the economies of many nominally independent countries, such as China, ] and ], which has been generally characterized as "]".<ref>Edwards, B. T. (2004). ''Informal empire: Mexico and Central America in Victorian culture''. Minneapolis, Minn: Univ. of Minnesota Press</ref> Of note during this time was the ], which was fought in 1879 between the British Empire and the ].{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| British imperial strength was underpinned by the ] and the ], new technologies invented in the second half of the 19th century, allowing it to control and defend the Empire. By 1902, the British Empire was linked together by a network of telegraph cables, the so-called ]. Growing until 1922, around {{convert|13000000|sqmi|km2}} of territory and roughly 458 million people were added to the British Empire.<ref>Maddison, Angus (2001). ''The World Economy: A Millennial Perspective''. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. {{ISBN|9264186549}}. pp. 98, 242.</ref><ref>Ferguson, Niall (2004). ''Colossus: The Price of America's Empire''. Penguin. {{ISBN|1594200130}}. p. 15</ref> The British established colonies in Australia in 1788, New Zealand in 1840 and ] in 1872, with much of Oceania becoming part of the British Empire.{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| === French governments and conflicts === | |||
| The ] followed the ousting of Napoleon I of France in 1814. The Allies restored the Bourbon Dynasty to the French throne. The ensuing period is called the Restoration, following French usage, and is characterized by a sharp conservative reaction and the re-establishment of the Roman Catholic Church as a power in French politics. The ] was a period of liberal constitutional monarchy in France under King Louis-Philippe starting with the July Revolution (or Three Glorious Days) of 1830 and ending with the Revolution of 1848. The ] was the Imperial Bonapartist regime of Napoleon III from 1852 to 1870, between the Second Republic and the Third Republic, in France.{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| ] and ] after the ]]] | |||
| The ] was a conflict between France and Prussia, while Prussia was backed up by the North German Confederation, of which it was a member, and the South German states of Baden, Württemberg and Bavaria. The complete Prussian and German victory brought about the final unification of Germany under King Wilhelm I of Prussia. It also marked the downfall of Napoleon III and the end of the Second French Empire, which was replaced by the Third Republic. As part of the settlement, almost all of the territory of Alsace-Lorraine was taken by Prussia to become a part of Germany, which it would retain until the end of World War I.{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| The ] was the republican government of France between the end of the Second French Empire following the defeat of Louis-Napoléon in the Franco-Prussian war in 1870 and the Vichy Regime after the invasion of France by the German Third Reich in 1940. The Third Republic endured seventy years, making it the most long-lasting regime in France since the collapse of the Ancien Régime in the French Revolution of 1789.{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| === Italian unification === | |||
| ], 1863]] | |||
| ] was the political and social movement that annexed different states of the ] into the single state of Italy in the 19th century. There is a lack of consensus on the exact dates for the beginning and the end of this period, but many scholars agree that the process began with the end of Napoleonic rule and the ] in 1815, and approximately ended with the ] in 1871, though the last '']'' did not join the ] until after World War I.{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| === Slavery and abolition === | |||
| ] in Brazil, before 1823]] | |||
| {{Main|Abolitionism}} | |||
| ] was greatly reduced around the world in the 19th century. Following a successful ], Britain forced the ] to halt their practice of kidnapping and enslaving Europeans, ], and charged its navy with ending the global ]. Slavery was then abolished in ](1861), ](1865), and ](1888).{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| === African colonization === | |||
| {{Main|Colonisation of Africa}} | |||
| Following the abolition of the slave trade in 1807 and propelled by economic exploitation, the ] was initiated formally at the ] in 1884–1885. The Berlin Conference attempted to avoid war among the European powers by allowing the European rival countries to carve up the continent of Africa into national colonies. Africans were not consulted.{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| The major European powers laid claim to the areas of Africa where they could exhibit a sphere of influence over the area. These claims did not have to have any substantial land holdings or treaties to be legitimate. The European power that demonstrated its control over a territory accepted the mandate to rule that region as a national colony. The European nation that held the claim developed and benefited from their colony's commercial interests without having to fear rival European competition. With the colonial claim came the underlying assumption that the European power that exerted control would use its mandate to offer protection and provide welfare for its colonial peoples, however, this principle remained more theory than practice. There were many documented instances of material and moral conditions deteriorating for native Africans in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries under European colonial rule, to the point where the colonial experience for them has been described as "hell on earth."{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| ] ]] | |||
| At the time of the ], Africa contained one-fifth of the world's population living in one-quarter of the world's land area. However, from Europe's perspective, they were dividing an unknown continent. European countries established a few coastal colonies in Africa by the mid-nineteenth century, which included ] (Great Britain), ] (Portugal), and ] (France), but until the late nineteenth century Europe largely traded with free African states without feeling the need for territorial possession. Until the 1880s most of Africa remained uncharted, with western maps from the period generally showing blank spaces for the continent's interior.{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| From the 1880s to 1914, the European powers expanded their control across the African continent, competing with each other for Africa's land and resources. Great Britain controlled various colonial holdings in East Africa that spanned the length of the African continent from Egypt in the north to South Africa. The French gained major ground in West Africa, and the Portuguese held colonies in southern Africa. Germany, Italy, and Spain established a small number of colonies at various points throughout the continent, which included German East Africa (Tanganyika) and German Southwest Africa for Germany, Eritrea and Libya for Italy, and the Canary Islands and Rio de Oro in northwestern Africa for Spain. Finally, for ] (ruled from 1865 to 1909), there was the large "piece of that great African cake" known as the ], which became his personal fiefdom. By 1914, almost the entire continent was under European control. ], which was settled by freed American slaves in the 1820s, and Abyssinia (]) in eastern Africa were the last remaining independent African states.<ref>John Merriman, ''A History of Modern Europe, Volume Two: From the French Revolution to the Present'', Third Edition (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2010), pp. 819–859</ref> | |||
| === Meiji Japan === | |||
| {{Main|Meiji era}} | |||
| ] | |||
| Around the end of the 19th century and into the 20th century, the ] occurred during the reign of the ]. During this time, Japan started its modernization and rose to world power status. This ] means "Enlightened Rule". In Japan, the Meiji Restoration started in the 1860s, marking the rapid modernization by the Japanese themselves along European lines. Much research has focused on the issues of discontinuity versus continuity with the previous Tokugawa Period.<ref>Kenneth B. Pyle, "Profound Forces in the Making of Modern Japan", ''Journal of Japanese Studies'' (2006) 32#2 pp. 393–418 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304124228/http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/jjs/summary/v032/32.2pyle01.html |date=March 4, 2016 }}</ref> It was not until the beginning of the Meiji Era that the Japanese government began taking modernization seriously. Japan expanded its military production base by opening arsenals in various locations. The ] (war office) was replaced with a ] and a ] The ] class suffered great disappointment the following years.{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| Laws were instituted that required every able-bodied male Japanese citizen, regardless of class, to serve a mandatory term of three years with the first reserves and two additional years with the second reserves. This action, the deathblow for the samurai warriors and their ''daimyōs'', initially met resistance from both the peasant and warrior alike. The peasant class interpreted the term for military service, ketsu-eki ("blood tax") literally, and attempted to avoid service by any means necessary. The Japanese government began modelling their ground forces after the French military. The French government contributed greatly to the training of Japanese officers. Many were employed at the military academy in Kyoto, and many more still were feverishly translating French field manuals for use in the Japanese ranks. Japan's modernized military gave Japan the opportunity to engage in Imperialism with its victory against the ] in the ] Japan annexed ], ] and the Chinese province of ].{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| After the death of the Meiji Emperor, the ] took the throne, the ] was a time of democratic reform granting democratic rights to all Japanese men. Foreigners would be instrumental in aiding in Japan's modernization. A key foreign observer of the remarkable and rapid changes in ] in this period was ].{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| === United States in the 19th century === | |||
| {{Main|History of the United States (1815–1849)|History of the United States (1849–1865)|History of the United States (1865–1917)}} | |||
| {{further|Territorial evolution of North America since 1763|Colonial history of the United States|American Indian Wars|Native Americans in the United States#19th century|}} | |||
| ==== Antebellum expansion ==== | |||
| {{See also|American frontier|Territorial evolution of the United States}} | |||
| ]'s famous painting ''Westward the Course of Empire Takes its Way'' (1861).]] | |||
| The ] was a period of increasing division in the country based on the growth of slavery in the ] and in the western territories of ] and ] that eventually led to the ] in 1861. The Antebellum Period is often considered to have begun with the ] of 1854,{{Citation needed|date=November 2014}} although it may have begun as early as 1812. This period is also significant because it marked the transition of American manufacturing to the industrial revolution.{{Citation needed|date=November 2014}} | |||
| "]" was the belief that the United States was destined to expand across the North American continent, from the Atlantic seaboard to the Pacific Ocean. During this time, the United States expanded to the Pacific Ocean—"from sea to shining sea"—largely defining the borders of the contiguous United States as they are today.{{Citation needed|date=November 2014}} | |||
| ==== Civil War and Reconstruction ==== | |||
| {{Main|American Civil War|Reconstruction era}} | |||
| ] originally spoken by U.S. President ]]] | |||
| ] – Restoration by Adam Cuerden 0.5]] | |||
| The American Civil War began when seven ] declared their ] from the U.S. and formed the ], the Confederacy (four more states joined the Confederacy later). Led by ], they fought against the ] under President ], which was supported by all the free states and the five ] in the north.{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| Northern leaders agreed that victory would require more than the end of fighting. Secession and Confederate nationalism had to be totally repudiated and all forms of slavery or quasi-slavery had to be eliminated. Lincoln proved effective in mobilizing support for the war goals, raising large armies and supplying them, avoiding foreign interference, and making the end of slavery a war goal. The Confederacy had a larger area than it could defend, and it failed to keep its ports open and its rivers clear as was the case in the ]. The ] kept up the pressure as the South could barely feed and clothe its soldiers. Its soldiers, especially those in the East under the command of General ] proved highly resourceful until they finally were overwhelmed by Generals ] and ] in 1864–65. The ] (1863–77) began with the ] in 1863, and included freedom, full citizenship and voting rights for Southern blacks. It was followed by a reaction that left the blacks in a second class status legally, politically, socially and economically until the 1960s.{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| ==== The Gilded Age and legacy ==== | |||
| {{Main|Gilded Age}} | |||
| ] | |||
| During the Gilded Age, there was substantial growth in population in the United States and extravagant displays of wealth and excess of America's upper-class during the post-Civil War and post-Reconstruction era, in the late 19th century. The wealth polarization derived primarily from industrial and population expansion. The businessmen of the ] created industrial towns and cities in the ] with new factories, and contributed to the creation of an ethnically diverse industrial working class which produced the wealth owned by rising super-rich ]. An example is the company of ], who was an important figure in shaping the new oil industry. Using highly effective tactics and aggressive practices, later widely criticized, ] absorbed or destroyed most of its competition.{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| The creation of a modern industrial economy took place. With the creation of a ], the corporation became the dominant form of business organization and a ] transformed business operations. In 1890, ] passed the ]—the source of all American anti-monopoly laws. The law forbade every contract, scheme, deal, or conspiracy to restrain trade, though the phrase "restraint of trade" remained subjective. By the beginning of the 20th century, per capita income and ] in the United States exceeded that of any other country except Britain. Long hours and hazardous working conditions led many workers to attempt to form labor unions despite strong opposition from industrialists and the courts. But the courts did protect the marketplace, declaring the Standard Oil group to be an "unreasonable" monopoly under the ] in 1911. It ordered Standard to break up into 34 independent companies with different boards of directors.<ref>See generally ''Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States'', 221 U.S. 1 (1911).</ref> | |||
| === Science and philosophy in the 19th century === | |||
| ] | |||
| ] used the example of ] in the ] as evidence for the ].]] | |||
| Replacing the ] in use since the end of the scientific revolution, '']'' arose in the early 20th century with the advent of ],<ref>F.K Richtmyer, E.H Kennard, T. Lauristen (1955). "Introduction". ''Introduction to Modern Physics'' (5th edition ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company. p. 1. {{LCCN|55006862}}.</ref> substituting ] for ] and examining ]s to build a ].{{refn|group=nb|The concepts derived are at times ]s from ] for baselines or reference states. These can be ''unattainable'' in practice, such as ] (electromagnetism) and practical ] temperature (ed. Special ]s values are "colder" than the zero points of those scales but still warmer than absolute zero).}}{{citation needed|reason=Characterizing modern physics as substituting theory for experiment is an incredible claim.|date=August 2015}} The ] was a collection of results which predate modern ], but were never complete or self-consistent.<ref name="HaarQM" /> The collection of ] prescriptions for quantum mechanics were the first corrections to ].<ref name="HaarQM">{{cite book|last=ter Haar|first=D.|title =The Old Quantum Theory|url=https://archive.org/details/oldquantumtheory00haar|url-access=registration|publisher=Pergamon Press|year=1967|page=}}</ref>{{refn|group=nb|] and wave mechanics supplanted other studies to end the era of the old-quantum theory.}} Outside the realm of quantum physics, the various ] in classical physics, which supposed a "]" such as the ],{{refn|group=nb|a substance in early physics considered to be the medium through which light propagates.}} were nullified by the ]—an attempt to detect the motion of earth through the aether. In biology, ] gained acceptance, promoting the concept of ] in the theory of ]. The fields of ], ] and ] also made strides and gained new insights. In ], there were advances in ] and ].{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| Starting one-hundred years before the 20th century, the Enlightenment philosophy was challenged in various quarters around the 1900s.<ref>]. "The Second Coming of Art". ''The Atlantic Monthly'', Volume 119. ]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160505080713/https://books.google.com/books?id=g20yAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA193 |date=May 5, 2016 }}</ref><ref>Enlightenment Contested. By Jonathan I. Israel. p. 765</ref><ref>Modern Christian Thought: The twentieth century, Volume 2. By ], ]. p. 2.</ref><ref>"]". Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. By Routledge (COR), ], ]. p. 113.<br /> | |||
| ''See also:'' ].</ref><ref>Counter-Enlightenments: From the Eighteenth Century to the Present. By ]. Routledge, 2004. p. 13.</ref>{{refn|group=nb|See also: ], ], and ].}} Developed from earlier secular traditions,{{refn|group=nb|Known as ].}} modern ] ] affirmed the dignity and worth of all people, based on the ability to determine right and wrong by appealing to universal human qualities, particularly ], without resorting to the supernatural or alleged divine authority from religious texts.<ref>{{cite book|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2007|quote=humanism ''n.'' 1 a rationalistic system of thought attaching prime importance to human rather than divine or supernatural matters. 2 a Renaissance cultural movement that turned away from medieval scholastic-ism and revived interest in ancient Greek and Roman thought.|publication-date=2007}} Typically, abridgments of this definition omit all senses except No. 1, such as in the {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031230202029/http://dictionary.cambridge.org/define.asp?key=38402&dict=CALD |date=December 30, 2003 }}, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110606152758/http://www.thefreedictionary.com/humanism |date=June 6, 2011}}, and {{cite book|title=Webster's Concise Dictionary|url=https://archive.org/details/webstersconcised00rand|url-access=registration|publisher=RHR Press|year=2001|location=New York|page=|isbn=97-80375425745}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Collins Concise Dictionary|publisher=HarperCollins|year=1999|quote=The rejection of religion in favour of a belief in the advancement of humanity by its own efforts.|publication-date=1990}}</ref> For ] such as ] and ], the universal law of ] guided the way toward total emancipation from any kind of tyranny. These ideas were challenged, for example by the ], who criticized the project of political emancipation (embodied in the form of human rights), asserting it to be symptomatic of the very dehumanization it was supposed to oppose. For ], humanism was nothing more than a secular version of ]. In his '']'', he argues that human rights exist as a means for the weak to collectively constrain the strong. On this view, such rights do not facilitate emancipation of life, but rather deny it. In the 20th century, the notion that human beings are rationally autonomous was challenged by the concept that humans were driven by unconscious irrational desires.{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| ==== Notable persons ==== | |||
| ] | |||
| ] is renowned for his redefinition of ] as the primary motivational energy of human life, as well as his therapeutic techniques, including the use of ], his ] in the therapeutic relationship, and the ] as sources of insight into ]s.{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| ] is known for his theories of ] and ]. He also made important contributions to ], especially his mathematical treatment of ], his resolution of the ], and his connection of ]. Despite his reservations about its interpretation, Einstein also made contributions to quantum mechanics and, indirectly, ], primarily through his theoretical studies of the ].{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| ==== Social Darwinism ==== | |||
| At the end of the 19th century, ] was promoted and included the various ideologies based on a concept that competition among all individuals, groups, nations, or ideas was a "natural" framework for social evolution in human societies. In this view, society's advancement is dependent on the "]". The term was in fact coined by ] and referred to in "]" written by ].{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| ==== Marxist society ==== | |||
| ] newspaper) publication advocating industrial unionism that shows a critique of capitalism.|alt=|left]] | |||
| ] summarized his approach to history and politics in the opening line of the first chapter of '']'' (1848). He wrote: | |||
| :''The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of ]s.''<ref>In the 1888 English edition of the ''Communist Manifest'', ] added a footnote with the commentary: "That is, all written history. In 1847, the prehistory of society, the social organization existing previous to recorded history, was all but unknown. Since then Haxthausen discovered common ownership of land In Russia, Maurer concluded it to be the social foundation from which all Teutonic races started in history, and by and by village communities were found to be, or to have been, the primitive form of society everywhere from India to Ireland. The Inner organization of this primitive Communistic society was laid bare, In its typical form, by Morgan's work on the true nature of the gens and Its relation to the tribe. With the dissolution of these primaeval communities society begins to be differentiated into separate and finally antagonistic classes. I have attempted to retrace this process of dissolution in "'']''"", from Marx, Karl, Friedrich Engels, Leon Trotsky, and Karl Marx. '' {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160427014730/https://books.google.com/books?id=dEyEzazZKwIC&pg=PA46 |date=April 27, 2016 }}''. Chippendale, N.S.W.: Resistance Books, 1998. p. 46, see also '' {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160624164213/https://books.google.com/books?id=p7s0oTEWB_MC&pg=PA204 |date=June 24, 2016 }}''. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993. p. 204</ref> | |||
| The ''Manifesto'' went through a number of editions from 1872 to 1890; notable new prefaces were written by Marx and Engels for the 1872 German edition, the 1882 Russian edition, the 1883 German edition, and the 1888 English edition. In general, ] identified five (and one transitional) successive stages of development in Western Europe.<ref>Marx makes no claim to have produced a master key to history. Historical materialism is not "an historico-philosophic theory of the marche generale imposed by fate upon every people, whatever the historic circumstances in which it finds itself". (Marx, Karl, Letter to editor of the Russian paper ''Otetchestvennye Zapiskym'', 1877) His ideas, he explains, are based on a concrete study of the actual conditions that pertained in Europe.</ref> | |||
| # ]: as seen in cooperative tribal societies. | |||
| # ]: which develops when the tribe becomes a city-state. Aristocracy is born. | |||
| # ]: aristocracy is the ruling class. Merchants develop into capitalists. | |||
| # ]: capitalists are the ruling class, who create and employ the true working class. | |||
| # ]: workers gain class consciousness, ] the capitalists and take control over the ]. | |||
| # ]: a ] and ]. | |||
| == 20th century == | |||
| {{Main|20th century}} | |||
| ] Australia achieved peaceful independence in 1901.|alt=]] | |||
| Major political developments saw the former ] lose most of its remaining political power over ] countries.{{refn|group=nb|Most notably by dividing the British crown into several sovereignties by the ], the ] of constitutions by the ] and the ], and by the independence of countries such as India, Pakistan, South Africa, and Ireland.}} The ], crossing Asia by train, was complete by 1916. Other events include the ], two world wars, and the ].{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| === Australian Constitution === | |||
| In 1901, the ] was the process by which the six separate British ] of ], ], ], ], Victoria and ] formed one nation. They kept the systems of government that they had developed as separate colonies but also would have a federal government that was responsible for matters concerning the whole nation. When the ] came into force, the colonies collectively became states of the Commonwealth of Australia.{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| === Revolution and Warlords in China === | |||
| ] in Shanghai; ] organized Shanghainese civilians to start the uprising and was successful. The picture above is ] after the uprising, hung with the ] Flags then used by the revolutionaries.|alt=|left]] | |||
| The last days of the ] were marked with civil unrest, ] and foreign invasions such as the ]. Responding to these civil failures and discontent, the Qing Imperial Court did attempt to reform the government in various ways, as the decision to draft a constitution in 1906, the establishment of provincial legislatures in 1909, and the preparation for a national parliament in 1910. However, many of these measures were opposed by the conservatives of the Qing Court, and many reformers were either imprisoned or executed outright. The failures of the Imperial Court to enact such reforming measures of political liberalization and modernization caused the reformists to steer toward the road of revolution.{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| The assertions of Chinese philosophy<ref>The Chinese Enlightenment. By Vera Schwarcz. p. 4.</ref> began to integrate concepts of Western philosophy, as steps toward modernization. By the time of the ] in 1911, there were many calls, such as the ], to completely abolish the old imperial institutions and practices of China. There were attempts to incorporate democracy, ], and ] into Chinese philosophy, notably by ] at the beginning of the 20th century.{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| In 1912, the Republic of China was established and Sun Yat-sen was inaugurated in ] as the first ]. But power in Beijing had already passed to ], who had effective control of the ], the most powerful military force in China at the time. To prevent civil war and possible foreign intervention from undermining the infant republic, leaders agreed to the army's demand that China be united under a Beijing government. On March 10, in Beijing, Shikai was sworn in as the second Provisional President of the Republic of China.{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| After the early 20th century revolutions, shifting alliances of ] waged war for control of the Beijing government. Despite the fact that various warlords gained control of the government in Beijing during the warlord era, this did not constitute a new era of control or governance, because other warlords did not acknowledge the transitory governments in this period and were a law unto themselves. These military-dominated governments were collectively known as the ]. The warlord era ended around 1927.<ref>Joseph, W.A. (2010). ''Politics in China: An introduction''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 423.</ref> | |||
| === Early 20th century === | |||
| ], the ], the ] and the United States were the ] at the time. |alt=]] | |||
| ] was the first time a European country was defeated by an Asian country in modern times. The Japanese victory shocked the world.|alt=]] | |||
| In 1900, the world's population had approached approximately 1.6 billion. Four years into the 20th century saw the ] with the ] establishing the ] as a world power. The Russians were in constant pursuit of a ] on the Pacific Ocean, for their navy as well as for maritime trade. The Manchurian Campaign of the ] was fought against the Japanese over ] and ]. The major theatres of operations were Southern Manchuria, specifically the area around the ] and ], and the seas around Korea, Japan, and the ]. The resulting campaigns, in which the fledgling Japanese military consistently attained victory over the Russian forces arrayed against them, were unexpected by world observers. These victories, as time transpired, would dramatically transform the distribution of power in East Asia, resulting in a reassessment of Japan's recent entry onto the world stage. The embarrassing string of defeats increased Russian popular dissatisfaction with the inefficient and corrupt Tsarist government.{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| The ] was a wave of mass political unrest through vast areas of the ]. Some of it was directed against the government, while some was undirected. It included ], worker strikes, peasant unrests, and military mutinies. It led to the establishment of the ], the establishment of ], and the ].{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| In China, the Qing Dynasty was overthrown following the ]. The Xinhai Revolution began with the ] on October 10, 1911, and ended with the abdication of ] on February 12, 1912. The primary parties to the conflict were the Imperial forces of the ] (1644–1911), and the revolutionary forces of the ] (Tongmenghui).{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| === Edwardian Britain === | |||
| ]'' was the largest ship constructed in her time. Deemed unsinkable, she was ] by collision with an ] off the coast of ], Canada.]] | |||
| The ] in the United Kingdom is the period spanning the reign of ] up to the end of the First World War, including the years surrounding the ]. In the early years of the period, the ] in South Africa split the country into anti- and pro-war factions. The imperial policies of the Conservatives eventually proved unpopular and in the ] the Liberals won a huge landslide. The Liberal government was unable to proceed with all of its radical programme without the support of the ], which was largely Conservative. Conflict between the two Houses of Parliament over the ] led to a reduction in the power of the peers in 1910. The ] returned a ] with the balance of power held by ] and ] members.{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| === World War I === | |||
| {{Main|World War I}} | |||
| The ] included many factors, including the conflicts and antagonisms of the four decades leading up to the war. The ] was the name given to the loose alignment between the ], ], and ] after the signing of the ] in 1907. The alignment of the three powers, supplemented by various agreements with ], the United States, and ], constituted a powerful counterweight to the ] of ], ], and ], the third having concluded an additional secret agreement with France effectively nullifying her Alliance commitments. Militarism, alliances, imperialism, and nationalism played major roles in the conflict. The immediate origins of the war lay in the decisions taken by statesmen and generals during the ] of 1914, the spark (or casus belli) for which was the assassination of ] of Austria.{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| However, the crisis did not exist in a void; it came after a long series of diplomatic clashes between the Great Powers over European and colonial issues in the decade prior to 1914 which had left tensions high. The diplomatic clashes can be traced to changes in the balance of power in Europe since 1870. An example is the ] which was planned to connect the ] cities of ] and ] with a line through modern-day Turkey, Syria and Iraq. The railway became a source of international disputes during the years immediately preceding World War I. Although it has been argued that they were resolved in 1914 before the war began, it has also been argued that the railroad was a cause of the First World War.<ref>{{cite book| author-link=Morris Jastrow, Jr.| last=Jastrow| first=Morris Jr. | title=The War and the Bagdad Railway| year=1917| publisher=Adegi Graphics LLC| isbn=1402167865| url=https://archive.org/details/warandthebagdadr001985mbp| via=Archive.org}}</ref> Fundamentally the war was sparked by tensions over territory in the ]. Austria-Hungary competed with Serbia and Russia for territory and influence in the region and they pulled the rest of the great powers into the conflict through their various alliances and treaties. The ] were two wars in South-eastern Europe in 1912–1913 in the course of which the ] (Bulgaria, Montenegro, Greece, and Serbia) first captured Ottoman-held remaining part of Thessaly, Macedonia, Epirus, Albania and most of Thrace and then fell out over the division of the spoils, with incorporation of Romania this time.{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| ]), 1915.12 (French and German Christmas truce), 1916.12 (]), 1917.12 (British troops take Jerusalem from the Ottoman Empire), and 1918.11.11 (World War I ends: Germany signs an armistice agreement with the Allies). Allies and Central Powers in the First World War<br />{{color box|#088A08}}{{color box|#01DF01}} Allied powers and areas<br />{{color box|#FE9A2E}}{{color box|#F7BE81}} Central powers and colonies or occupied territory<br />{{color box|#BDBDBD}} Neutral countries]] | |||
| The First World War began in 1914 and lasted to the final ] in 1918. The ], led by the ], ], Russia until March 1918, Japan and the United States after 1917, defeated the ], led by the ], ] and the ]. The war caused the disintegration of four empires—the Austro-Hungarian, German, Ottoman, and Russian ones—as well as radical change in the European and West Asian maps. The Allied powers before 1917 are referred to as the ], and the Central Powers are referred to as the ].{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| ]'' troops using ] to protect themselves from ], used for the first time in WWI.]]Much of the fighting in World War I took place along the ], within a system of opposing manned trenches and fortifications (separated by a "]") running from the ] to the border of Switzerland. On the ], the vast eastern plains and limited rail network prevented a trench warfare stalemate from developing, although the scale of the conflict was just as large. Hostilities also occurred on and under the sea and—for the first time—from the air. More than 9 million soldiers died on the various battlefields, and nearly that many more in the participating countries' home fronts on account of food shortages and ] committed under the cover of various civil wars and internal conflicts. Notably, more people died of the worldwide ] at the end of the war and shortly after than died in the hostilities. The unsanitary conditions engendered by the war, severe overcrowding in barracks, wartime propaganda interfering with public health warnings, and migration of so many soldiers around the world helped the outbreak become a ].<ref>{{cite book|last=Barry|first=John M.|author-link=John M. Barry|title=The Great Influenza: The Epic Story of the Greatest Plague in History|publisher=Viking Penguin|year=2004|isbn=978-0670894734|url=https://archive.org/details/greatinfluenzaep00john}}</ref> | |||
| Ultimately, World War I created a decisive break with the old ] that had emerged after the ], which was modified by the mid-19th century's nationalistic revolutions. The results of World War I would be important factors in the development of World War II approximately 20 years later. More immediate to the time, the ] was a political event that redrew the political boundaries of West Asia. The huge conglomeration of territories and peoples formerly ruled by the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire was divided into several new nations.<ref>Roderic H. Davison; Review "From Paris to Sèvres: The Partition of the Ottoman Empire at the Peace Conference of 1919–1920. by Paul C. Helmreich" in '']'', Vol. 34, No. 1 (March 1975), pp. 186–187</ref> The partitioning brought the creation of the modern ] and the ]. The ] granted France mandates over ] and ] and granted the United Kingdom mandates over ] and ] (which was later divided into two regions: ] and ]). Parts of the Ottoman Empire on the ] became parts of what are today ] and ].{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| === Revolution and war in Russia === | |||
| {{Main|Russian Revolution|Russian Civil War}} | |||
| ] | |||
| The Russian Revolution is the series of revolutions in Russia in 1917, which destroyed the ] and led to the creation of the Soviet Union. Following the abdication of ], the ] was established. In October 1917, a ] occurred in which the ], armed groups of workers and deserting soldiers directed by the Bolshevik Party, seized control of ] (then known as Petrograd) and began an immediate armed takeover of cities and villages throughout the former ].{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| Another action in 1917 that is of note was the armistice signed between Russia and the Central Powers at ].<ref>] (2008) ''The Russian Civil War'': 42</ref> As a condition for peace, the treaty by the ] conceded huge portions of the former Russian Empire to ] and the Ottoman Empire, greatly upsetting ]s and ]. The Bolsheviks made peace with the ] and the ], as they had promised the Russian people prior to the Revolution. Vladimir Lenin's decision has been attributed to his sponsorship by the foreign office of ], offered by the latter in hopes that with a revolution, Russia would withdraw from World War I. This suspicion was bolstered by the German Foreign Ministry's sponsorship of Lenin's return to Petrograd (St. Petersburg). The ] expressed their dismay at the Bolsheviks, upset at:{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| # the withdrawal of Russia from the war effort, | |||
| # worried about a possible Russo-German alliance, and | |||
| # galvanized by the prospect of the Bolsheviks making good their threats to assume no responsibility for, and so default on, Imperial Russia's massive ].{{refn|group=nb|The legal notion of ] had not yet been formulated.}} | |||
| ]. To the left is propaganda from the ], to the right is propaganda from the ]. ]] | |||
| In addition, there was a concern, shared by many Central Powers as well, that the socialist revolutionary ideas would spread to the West. Hence, many of these countries expressed their support for the Whites, including the provision of troops and supplies. ] declared that Bolshevism must be "strangled in its cradle".<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061004110408/http://www.winstonchurchill.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=282 |date=October 4, 2006 }} Interview with Jeffrey Wallin. (The Churchill Centre)</ref> | |||
| The Russian Civil War was a multi-party war that occurred within the former Russian Empire after the ] collapsed and the ] under the domination of the ] party assumed power, first in Petrograd and then in other places. In the wake of the ], the old Russian Imperial Army had been demobilized; the volunteer-based Red Guard was the Bolsheviks' main military force, augmented by an armed military component of the ], the Bolshevik state security apparatus. There was an instituted mandatory conscription of the rural peasantry into the Red Army.<ref>Read, Christopher, ''From Tsar to Soviets'', Oxford University Press (1996), p. 237: By 1920, 77% of the Red Army's enlisted ranks were composed of peasant conscripts.</ref> Opposition of rural Russians to Red Army conscription units was overcome by taking hostages and shooting them when necessary to force compliance.<ref>Williams, Beryl, ''The Russian Revolution 1917–1921'', Blackwell Publishing Ltd. (1987), {{ISBN|978-0631150831}}: Typically, men of conscriptible age (17–40) in a village would vanish when Red Army draft units approached. The taking of hostages and a few exemplary executions usually brought the men back.</ref> Former Tsarist officers were used as "military specialists" (''voenspetsy''),<ref>Overy, R.J., ''The Dictators: Hitler's Germany and Stalin's Russia'', W.W. Norton & Company (2004), {{ISBN|978-0393020304}}, p. 446: By the end of the civil war, one-third of all Red Army officers were ex-Tsarist ''voenspetsy''.</ref> taking their families hostage to ensure loyalty.<ref name="Williams, Beryl 1921">Williams, Beryl, ''The Russian Revolution 1917–1921'', Blackwell Publishing Ltd. (1987), {{ISBN|978-0631150831}}</ref> At the start of the war, three-fourths of the Red Army officer corps was composed of former Tsarist officers.<ref name="Williams, Beryl 1921" /> By its end, 83% of all Red Army divisional and corps commanders were ex-Tsarist soldiers.<ref>Overy, R.J., ''The Dictators: Hitler's Germany and Stalin's Russia'', W.W. Norton & Company (2004), {{ISBN|978-0393020304}}, p. 446:</ref> | |||
| ]. Here Japanese occupy ].]] | |||
| The principal fighting occurred between the ] ] and the forces of the ]. Many foreign armies warred against the Red Army, notably the ], yet many volunteer foreigners fought in both sides of the Russian Civil War. Other nationalist and regional political groups also participated in the war, including the Ukrainian nationalist ], the Ukrainian anarchist ] and ], and warlords such as ]. The most intense fighting took place from 1918 to 1920. Major military operations ended on October 25, 1922, when the Red Army occupied ], previously held by the ]. The last enclave of the White Forces was the ] on the Pacific coast. The majority of the fighting ended in 1920 with the defeat of General ] in the ], but a notable resistance in certain areas continued until 1923 (e.g., ], ], ], and the final resistance of the ] in the ]).{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| While the early 1920s was a time of flux for revolutionary Russia and Central Asia, the ] was proclaimed in 1922 as the successor state to the fallen Russian Empire. Revolutionary leader ] died of natural causes and was succeeded by ].{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| === The Early Republic of China === | |||
| In 1917, China declared war on Germany in the hope of recovering its lost province, then under Japanese control. The ] occupied the period from 1917 to 1923. Chinese representatives refused to sign the ], due to intense pressure from the student protesters and public opinion alike.{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| ] | |||
| The ] helped to rekindle the then-fading cause of republican revolution. In 1917 ] had become commander-in-chief of a rival military government in ] in collaboration with southern warlords. Sun's efforts to obtain aid from the Western democracies were ignored, however, and in 1920 he turned to the Soviet Union, which had recently achieved its own revolution. The Soviets sought to befriend the Chinese revolutionists by offering scathing attacks on Western imperialism. But for political expediency, the Soviet leadership initiated a dual policy of support for both Sun and the newly established ] (CCP).{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| ], Chinese industry and military was improved just prior to the war against Japan.|alt=]] | |||
| In early 1927, the Kuomintang-CCP rivalry led to a split in the revolutionary ranks. The CCP and the left wing of the Kuomintang had decided to move the seat of the Nationalist government from Guangzhou to ]. But ], whose ] was proving successful, set his forces to destroying the Shanghai CCP apparatus and established an anti-Communist government at Nanjing in ].{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| === Nanjing period in China === | |||
| {{Main|Nanjing decade}} | |||
| The "Nanjing Decade" of 1928–37 was one of consolidation and accomplishment under the leadership of the Nationalists, with a mixed but generally positive record in the economy, social progress, development of ], and cultural creativity. Some of the harsh aspects of foreign concessions and privileges in China were moderated through diplomacy.{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| === The 1920s and the Depression === | |||
| {{Main|Interwar period|Roaring Twenties|Great Depression}} | |||
| ]. Great Britain and France expanded greatly at the expense of the former ]]] | |||
| The interwar period was the period between the end of the First World War and the beginning of the Second World War. This period was marked by turmoil in much of the world, as Europe struggled to recover from the devastation of the First World War.{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| ].]] | |||
| In North America, especially the first half of this period, people experienced considerable prosperity in the Roaring Twenties. The social and societal upheaval known as the Roaring Twenties began in North America and spread to Europe in the ]. The ''Roaring Twenties'', often called the "]", saw an exposition of social, artistic, and cultural dynamism. "]" returned to politics, jazz music blossomed, the ] redefined modern womanhood, ] peaked. The spirit of the Roaring Twenties was marked by a general feeling of discontinuity associated with modernity, a break with traditions. Everything seemed to be feasible through modern technology. New technologies, especially ]s, movies and radio proliferated "modernity" to a large part of the population. The 1920s saw the general favor of practicality, in architecture as well as in daily life. The 1920s was further distinguished by several inventions and discoveries, extensive industrial growth and the rise in consumer demand and aspirations, and significant changes in lifestyle.] | |||
| Europe spent these years rebuilding and coming to terms with the vast human cost of the conflict. The ] and ] in the ] by the Allies in the aftermath of World War I prompted the establishment of the ]. The ] (1919–1923) was waged with the aim of revoking the terms of the Treaty of Sèvres. After the Turkish victory, the ] of July 24, 1923, led to the international recognition of the sovereignty of the newly formed "]" as the successor state of the Ottoman Empire, and the republic was officially proclaimed on October 29, 1923, in Ankara, the country's new capital. The Lausanne Convention stipulated a ], whereby 1.1 million Greeks left Turkey for Greece in exchange for 380,000 Muslims transferred from Greece to Turkey. The economy of the United States became increasingly intertwined with that of Europe. In Germany, the ] gave way to episodes of political and economic turmoil, which culminated with the ] of 1923 and the failed ] of that same year. When Germany could no longer afford war payments, Wall Street invested heavily in European debts to keep the European economy afloat as a large consumer market for American mass-produced goods. By the middle of the decade, ] soared in Europe, and the Roaring Twenties broke out in Germany, Britain and France, the second half of the decade becoming known as the "]". In France and francophone Canada, they were also called the "''années folles''" ("Crazy Years").{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| ], Breadlines-long line of people waiting to be fed, New York City, United States|alt=]] | |||
| Worldwide prosperity changed dramatically with the onset of the ] in 1929. The ] served to punctuate the end of the previous era, as ''The Great Depression'' set in. The ''Great Depression'' was a worldwide economic ] starting in most places in 1929 and ending at different times in the 1930s or early 1940s for different countries.<ref name="CRomer1"> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150509121741/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/243118/Great-Depression |date=May 9, 2015 }}, ''Encyclopædia Britannica''</ref> It was the largest and most important ] in the 20th century, and is used in the 21st century as an example of how far the world's economy can fall.<ref>Charles Duhigg, "Depression, You Say? Check Those Safety Nets", ''New York Times'', March 23, 2008</ref> | |||
| The Great Depression had devastating effects in virtually every country, rich or poor. International trade plunged by half to two-thirds, as did personal income, tax revenue, prices and profits. ] were hit hard, especially those dependent on ]. Construction was virtually halted in many countries. Farming and rural areas suffered as crop prices fell by roughly 60 percent.<ref name="USBLS">{{cite web|url=http://www.bls.gov/data/|title=Commodity Data|publisher=US Bureau of Labor Statistics|access-date=November 30, 2008|archive-date=June 3, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190603140110/https://www.bls.gov/data/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author= Cochrane, Willard W.|title=Farm Prices, Myth and Reality|year=1958|page=15}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|journal=]|title=World Economic Survey 1932–33|page=43}}</ref> Facing plummeting demand with few alternate sources of jobs, areas dependent on ] suffered the most. The Great Depression ended at different times in different countries with the ].<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629195543/http://memory.loc.gov/learn/features/timeline/depwwii/depwar.html |date=June 29, 2011 }}. ''The Library of Congress''.</ref> America's Great Depression ended in 1941 with America's entry into World War II.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090129074439/http://useconomy.about.com/od/grossdomesticproduct/p/1929_Depression.htm |date=January 29, 2009 }}. ''Source: The Federal Reserve Board web site, "Remarks by Governor Ben Bernanke at the H. Parket Willis Lecture in Economic Policy", March 2, 2004, FDR Library Web Site.''</ref> The majority of countries set up relief programs, and most underwent some sort of political upheaval, pushing them to the left or right. In some world states, the desperate citizens turned toward nationalist ]—the most infamous being ]—setting the stage for the next era of war. The convulsion brought on by the worldwide depression resulted in the rise of ]. In Asia, Japan became an ever more assertive power, especially with regards to China.{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| === The League and crises === | |||
| ] attempted to negotiate with ] as Nazi Germany practiced an expansionist policy.|alt=|left]] | |||
| The interwar period was also marked by a radical change in the international order, away from the ] that had dominated pre–World War I Europe. One main institution that was meant to bring stability was the ], which was created after the First World War with the intention of maintaining world security and peace and encouraging economic growth between member countries.<ref>F.P. Walters, ''A History of the League of Nations'' (Oxford UP, 1965). {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200521233942/https://libraryresources.unog.ch/ld.php?content_id=31457235 |date=May 21, 2020 }}.</ref> | |||
| However the League failed to resolve any major crises and by 1938 it was no longer a major player. The League was undermined by the bellicosity of ], ], the Soviet Union, and ]'s Italy, and by the non-participation of the United States.{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| ] soldiers defending at the Battle at Great Wall, Laiyuan, ], China autumn 1937. The ] cost at least twenty millions lives.]] | |||
| A series of international crises strained the League to its limits, the earliest being the ] by Japan and the ] of 1935/36 in which Italy invaded ], one of the only free African nations at that time.{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| The League tried to enforce economic sanctions upon Italy, but to no avail. The incident highlighted French and British weakness, exemplified by their reluctance to alienate Italy and lose her as their ally. The limited actions taken by the Western powers pushed Mussolini's Italy towards alliance with Hitler's Germany anyway. The Abyssinian war showed Hitler how weak the League was and encouraged the remilitarization of the Rhineland in flagrant disregard of the Treaty of Versailles. This was the first in a series of provocative acts culminating in the ] in September 1939 and the beginning of the Second World War.{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| === Tripartite Pact, World War II and contemporary history (post-1945) === | |||
| {{Main|World War II}} | |||
| ] in 1939 is the official start of World War II.]] | |||
| Facing resource scarcity due to a growing population, Japan seized ] in September 1931 and put ex-Qing emperor ] in charge as head of the ] of ] in 1932. During the ], the loss of Manchuria, and its vast potential for military-industrial development, was a blow to the Chinese economy. After 1940, conflicts between the Kuomintang and Communists became more frequent in the ]. The Communists expanded their influence wherever opportunities presented themselves through mass organizations, administrative reforms, and the land- and tax-reform measures favoring the peasants—while the Kuomintang attempted to neutralize the spread of Communist influence. The ] had seen tensions rise between Imperial Japan and the United States; events such as the ] and the ] turned American public opinion against Japan. With the occupation of ] in the years of 1940–41, and with the continuing war in China, the United States placed a metal and oil embargo on Japan which were vital to its war effort. The Japanese were faced with the option of either withdrawing from China or seizing and securing new sources of raw materials in the resource-rich, European-controlled colonies of Southeast Asia—specifically ] and the ] (modern-day ]).{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| ] (blue) and ] (red). It is important to note that the ] was not at war with the ] despite being part of the ].]] | |||
| Although Japan had invaded China in 1937, the conventional view is that the World War II began on September 1, 1939, when ] invaded Poland. Within two days the United Kingdom and France declared war on Germany, even though the fighting was confined to Poland. Pursuant to a then-secret provision of its non-aggression ], the Soviet Union joined Germany on September 17, 1939, to conquer Poland and divide Eastern Europe. The ] were initially made up of Poland, the United Kingdom, France, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa, as well as ] countries which were controlled directly by the UK, such as the ]. All of these countries declared war on Germany in September 1939.{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| ] at the infamous German concentration camp of ] located in Occupied Poland.]] | |||
| Following the lull in fighting, known as the "]", Germany invaded western Europe in May 1940. Six weeks later, France, in the meantime, attacked by Italy as well, surrendered to Germany, which then tried unsuccessfully to conquer Britain. On September 27, Germany, Italy, and Japan signed a mutual defense agreement, the ], and were known as the ]. Nine months later, on June 22, 1941, Germany launched a massive invasion of the Soviet Union, which prompt it to join the Allies. Germany was now engaged in fighting a war on two fronts. This proved to be a mistake – Germany had not successfully carried out the invasion of Britain and the war turned against the Axis.{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| On December 7, 1941, ], bringing it too into the war on the side of the Allies. China also joined the Allies, as did most of the rest of the world. China was in turmoil at the time, and attacked Japanese armies through guerilla-type warfare. By the beginning of 1942, the alignment of the major combatants were as follows: the British Commonwealth, the Soviet Union and the United States were fighting Germany and Italy; China, the British Commonwealth, and the United States were fighting Japan. The United Kingdom, the United States, the Soviet Union and China were referred as a "trusteeship of the powerful" during the ]<ref name = Justus>{{cite book |last1=Doenecke |first1=Justus D. |last2=Stoler |first2=Mark A. |title=Debating Franklin D. Roosevelt's foreign policies, 1933–1945 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xdMF9rX6mX8C&pg=PA62 |year=2005 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-0847694167 |access-date=October 13, 2019 |archive-date=December 3, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161203230343/https://books.google.com/books?id=xdMF9rX6mX8C&pg=PA62 |url-status=live }}</ref> and were recognized as the Allied "Big Four" in ]<ref>Hoopes, Townsend, and Douglas Brinkley. ''FDR and the Creation of the U.N.'' (Yale University Press, 1997)</ref> These four countries were considered as the "]" or "Four Sheriffs" of the ] and primary victors of World War II.<ref>{{cite book|first=John Lewis|last=Gaddis|title=The United States and the Origins of the Cold War, 1941–1947|url=https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesorig0000gadd|url-access=registration|year=1972|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0231122399|pages=–25}}</ref> Battles raged across all of Europe, in the ], across North Africa, throughout Southeast Asia, throughout China, across the Pacific Ocean and in the air over Japan.{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| Italy surrendered in September 1943 and was split into a northern Germany-occupied ] and an Allies-friendly state in the South; Germany surrendered in May 1945. Following the ], ], marking the end of the war on September 2, 1945.{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| ] declaring war on the ] in the aftermath of the ]. Captions provided]] | |||
| ] speech regarding the ] on ]. Captions provided]] | |||
| It is possible that around 62 million people ]; estimates vary greatly.{{cn|date=June 2024}} About 60% of all casualties were civilians, who died as a result of disease, starvation, ] (in particular, the ]), and aerial bombings. The Soviet Union and China suffered the most casualties. Estimates place deaths in the Soviet Union at around 23 million, while China suffered about 10 million. No country lost a greater portion of its population than Poland: approximately 5.6 million, or 16%, of its pre-war population of 34.8 million died.{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| The Holocaust (which roughly means "burnt whole") was the deliberate and systematic murder of millions of Jews and other "unwanted" during World War II by the Nazi regime in Germany. Several differing views exist regarding whether it was intended to occur from the war's beginning, or if the plans for it came about later. Regardless, persecution of Jews extended well before the war even started, such as in the '']'' (Night of Broken Glass). The Nazis used propaganda to great effect to stir up anti-Semitic feelings within ordinary Germans.{{cn|date=June 2024}} | |||
| Over the course of the 20th century, the world's per-capita gross domestic product grew by a factor of five,<ref>J. Bradford DeLong, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051230090216/http://www.j-bradford-delong.net/TCEH/2000/TCEH_2.html |date=December 30, 2005 }}. 2000.</ref> much more than all earlier centuries combined (including the 19th with its Industrial Revolution). Many economists made the case that this understated the magnitude of growth, as many of the goods and services consumed at the end of the 20th century, such as improved medicine (causing world life expectancy to increase by more than two decades) and communications technologies, were not available at any price at its inception. However, the gulf between the world's rich and poor grew wider,<ref>Morrison, Wayne. ''Theoretical criminology: from modernity to post-modernism''. p. 53.</ref> and the majority of the global population remained in the poor side of the divide.<ref>] (Program). ''Ecosystems and Human Well-Being''. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment series. Washington, DC: Island Press, 2005. p. 12</ref> | |||
| === Latin America polarization === | |||
| In Latin America in the 1970s, leftists acquired a significant political influence which prompted the right-wing, ecclesiastical authorities and a large portion of the individual country's upper class to support coups d'état to avoid what they perceived as a communist threat. This was further fueled by Cuban and United States intervention which led to a political polarization. Most South American countries were in some periods ruled by ]s that were supported by the United States of America. In the 1970s, the regimes of the ] collaborated in ] killing many ] dissidents, including some ]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.el-universal.com.mx/editoriales/34023.html |author=Victor Flores Olea |title=Editoriales – El Universal – 10 de abril 2006 : Operacion Condor |work=] |location=Mexico |access-date=March 24, 2009 |language=es |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070628021303/http://www.el-universal.com.mx/editoriales/34023.html |archive-date=June 28, 2007 }}</ref> | |||
| === Information Age === | |||
| {{Main|Information Age}} | |||
| {{further|Contemporary history}} | |||
| The Information Age began in the mid-20th century, characterized by a rapid epochal shift from the traditional industry established by the Industrial Revolution to an economy primarily based upon information technology.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.livescience.com/20718-computer-history.html|title=History of Computers: A Brief Timeline|date=September 7, 2017|author=Zimmerman, Kathy Ann|website=livescience.com|access-date=April 1, 2021|archive-date=August 9, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809160812/https://www.livescience.com/20718-computer-history.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Idea">{{cite web|url=https://www.thoughtco.com/history-of-computers-4082769|title=The History of Computers|website=thought.co|access-date=April 1, 2021|archive-date=August 1, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801213547/https://www.thoughtco.com/history-of-computers-4082769|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sentryo.net/the-4-industrial-revolutions/|title=The 4 industrial revolutions|date=February 23, 2017|website=sentryo.net|access-date=April 1, 2021|archive-date=October 17, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191017052541/https://www.sentryo.net/the-4-industrial-revolutions/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Manuel"/> The onset of the Information Age can be associated with the development of ] technology,<ref name="Manuel" /> particularly the ] (metal-oxide-] ]),<ref name="Raymer">{{cite book |last1=Raymer |first1=Michael G. |title=The Silicon Web: Physics for the Internet Age |date=2009 |publisher=] |isbn=978-1439803127 |page=365 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PLYChGDqa6EC&pg=PA365 |access-date=April 1, 2021 |archive-date=July 24, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200724190420/https://books.google.com/books?id=PLYChGDqa6EC&pg=PA365 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="triumph">{{cite web|date=August 6, 2010|title=Triumph of the MOS Transistor|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q6fBEjf9WPw|access-date=July 21, 2019|website=YouTube|publisher=]|archive-date=February 15, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200215143058/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q6fBEjf9WPw&feature=youtu.be|url-status=live}}</ref> which became the fundamental building block of ]<ref name="Raymer" /><ref name="triumph" /> and revolutionized ].<ref name="Manuel" /><ref name="Cressler">{{cite book |last1=Cressler |first1=John D. |last2=Mantooth |first2=H. Alan |title=Extreme Environment Electronics |date=2017 |publisher=] |isbn=978-1351832809 |page=959 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4AlEDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA959 |quote=While the bipolar junction transistor was the first transistor device to take hold in the integrated circuit world, there is no question that the advent of MOSFETs, an acronym for metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor, is what truly revolutionized the world in the so-called information age. The density with which these devices can be made has allowed entire computers to exist on a few small chips rather than filling a room. |access-date=April 1, 2021 |archive-date=August 3, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803075936/https://books.google.com/books?id=4AlEDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA959 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
| According to the ], the Information Age was formed by ] on ] advances,<ref>{{cite web|last= Kluver|first= Randy|title= Globalization, Informatization, and Intercultural Communication|url= http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/apcity/unpan002006.htm|website= un.org|access-date= April 18, 2013|archive-date= July 19, 2013|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130719163905/http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/apcity/unpan002006.htm|url-status= live}}</ref> which, upon broader usage within society, would lead to ] information and to communication processes becoming the driving force of ].<ref name=Idea /> | |||
| ==Notes== | |||
| {{reflist|group=nb|30em}} | |||
| ==References== | |||
| <references /> | |||
| {{Western culture}} | |||
| {{Early Modern Europe}} | |||
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