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China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), conducted a state-sanctioned doping programme on athletes in the 1980s and 1990s. The majority of revelations of Chinese doping have focused on swimmers and track and field athletes, such as Ma Junren's Ma Family Army (馬家軍). However, doping is reported to also occur for fitness tests as part of the zhongkao.

In recent decades, there have been a number of doping incidents including three female Chinese weightlifters, who have been stripped of their gold Olympic medals for doping at the 2008 Summer Olympics. In 2017, the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) published a report identifying the top ten countries with the most doping violations. China was ranked as the 6th worst offending country, with a total of 62 violations. Between 1968 and May 15, 2022, China has been stripped of a total of four Olympic medals due to a doping violation.

In 2024, there have been controversy after a coordinated investigation by The New York Times and German broadcaster ARD revealed that 23 Chinese swimmers tested positive for the banned heart medication trimetazidine at the Chinese Long Course Invitational in January 2021. Thirteen of these swimmers competed in the 2020 Summer Olympics, winning several medals. In a press release, the World Anti-Doping Agency however stated that the levels of TMZ found in the Chinese swimmers were incapable of enhancing performance at the concentrations found and were due to environmental contamination. Nonetheless this has not quelled allegations and criticism of WADA's actions.

China's doping has been attributed to a number of factors, such as the exchange of culture and technology with foreign countries. Some commentators have compared it to the doping programme in East Germany. Discussion of doping scandals involving Chinese athletes in international sports is widely censored in China.

Chinese swimming performances in the 1990s

In 1992 the number of Chinese swimmers in the top 25 world rankings soared from a plateau of less than 30 to 98, with all but 4 of the 98 swimmers female. Their improvement rate was much better than could have been expected as a result of normal growth and development. China subsequently performed beyond expectations to win 12 gold medals at the 1994 World Aquatics Championships amid widespread suspicions of doping. Chinese swimmers won 12 of 16 gold medals at the 1994 championships and set five world records.

Between 1990 and 1998, 28 Chinese swimmers tested positive for performance-enhancing drugs, almost half the world total of drug offenders in sport. Seven swimmers tested positive for steroids at the Asian Games in Hiroshima in late 1994, these positive tests badly affected the squad to the extent that it won only one swimming gold at the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta. Following the revelations of doping among Chinese swimmers at the Hiroshima games IOC Medical Commission chairman Alexandre de Mérode discounted the possibility of officially sanctioned Chinese doping stating that the results were "accidents that could happen anywhere". Chinese leaders initially blamed racist sports officials in Japan for manufacturing test results. A report by a joint International Swimming Federation and Olympic Council of Asia delegation to Beijing in 1995 concluded that "there is no evidence that the Chinese are systematically doping athletes". The revelations led to Australian, American, Canadian and Japanese sports officials voting against Chinese participation at the 1995 Pan Pacific Swimming Championships. In 1995, the People's Daily, the official newspaper of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, published an anti-doping policy and proclaimed an official prohibition on performance-enhancing substances.

China improved in swimming until 1998 when four more positive tests and the discovery of human growth hormone (HGH) in the swimmer Yuan Yuan's luggage at the 1998 World Aquatics Championships in Perth, Australia. In the routine customs check on the swimmer's bag, enough HGH was discovered to supply the entire women's swimming team for the duration of the championships. Only Yuan Yuan was sanctioned for the incident, with speculation that this was connected to the nomination of Juan Antonio Samaranch by China for the Nobel Peace Prize in 1993. Tests in Perth found the presence of the banned diuretic masking agent triamterine in the urine of four swimmers, Wang Luna, Yi Zhang, Huijue Cai and Wei Wang. The swimmers were suspended from competition for two years, with three coaches associated with the swimmers, Zhi Cheng, Hiuqin Xu and Zhi Cheng each suspended for three months.

Zhao Jian, the deputy director-general of the China Anti-Doping Agency described the 1998 World Aquatic Championships as a "bad incident", and said that it had led to China adopting a tougher attitude towards drug testing, with drug testing removed from the main sports administration and placed in a separate agency.

The Hiroshima games also saw a hurdler, a cyclist and two canoeists test positive for the steroid dihydrotestosterone.

Ma Junren and his Ma Family Army

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In February 2016, Tencent Sports reported a letter written in 1995 by Wang Junxia and nine other athletes, who claimed that women coached by Ma Junren were forced to take "large doses of illegal drugs over the years". Yuan Weimin, former Director General of the State General Administration of Sports and Chairperson of the Chinese Olympic Committee, said in his 2009 book that six athletes by former coach Ma Junren were dropped from the 2000 Summer Olympics because they were tested positive for doping.

The International Association of Athletics Federations confirmed it had reach out to the Chinese Athletics Association for verification and would investigate the matter, but the latter did not respond.

Xue Yinxian allegations

Systematic doping of Chinese athletes in Olympic Games (and other international sport events) was alleged by Xue Yinxian, a former doctor for the Chinese Olympic team, in 2017 and 2024. She has claimed that more than 10,000 athletes in China were doped in the systematic Chinese government doping program and they received performance-enhancing drugs in the 1980s and 1990s. She stated that the entirety of international medals (both in the Olympics and other international competitions) won by Chinese athletes in the 1980s and 1990s must be taken back. This is contrary to previous statements by the Chinese government that had denied involvement in systematic doping, claiming that athletes doped individually. The International Olympic Committee and the World Anti-Doping Agency have investigated these allegations with no conclusions or actions taken as of 2022.

Trimetazidine allegations in Chinese swimming

On 20 April 2024, a coordinated investigation report between The New York Times and German broadcaster ARD revealed that 23 Chinese swimmers tested positive for the banned prescription heart medication trimetazidine (TMZ) at the Chinese Long Course Invitational held in Shijiazhuang City from 31 December 2020 to 3 January 2021.

The World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) however stated that the levels of TMZ found in the Chinese swimmers were incapable of enhancing performance at the concentrations found and were due to environmental contamination.

The tests were conducted by CHINADA, China's national anti-doping agency and after delays from the COVID-19 pandemic, the 60 urine samples - of which 28 were positive - were logged into WADA's Anti-Doping Administration and Management System (ADAMS) by the WADA-accredited laboratory in Beijing on or around 15 March 2021. Per The New York Times, an email from this date addressed by a CHNADA legal official requested a "counterpart at the world swimming association" to "keep athletes’ information and the case strictly confidential until it is publicly disclosed by CHINADA."

ARD reported that of the 23, 13 competed at the 2020 Summer Olympics seven months later, including Zhang Yufei and Wang Shun, the winner of the women's 200 m butterfly and men's 200 m individual medley, respectively, as well as some members of the gold medal-winning women's 4 × 200 m freestyle relay.

Investigation and decision

A 31 page report by CHINADA showed that the investigations were initiated in early April 2021 - two months after the positive tests - in coordination with the Chinese Ministry of Public Security. CHINADA had also informed WADA of its initiation of this investigation per WADA. After extensive searches and testing of the locations athletes had interacted with, investigators deemed that the positive cases were due to contamination, with investigators detecting traces of TMZ in the athletes' hotel kitchen (including spice containers, the extraction fan above the hob and the drains) in Shijiazhuang. While the investigators did not provide evidence of the probable origins of the drug, it was concluded that the athletes' "unwittingly ingested small amounts" and as such, it was appealed that they should not be prosecuted.

On 15 June 2021, CHINADA officially notified WADA of its decision to accept the contamination defence and not proceed with Anti-Doping Rule Violation (ADRV) cases. A thorough review by WADA found that the contamination theory was supported by "the combination of the consistently low concentrations of TMZ as well as no doping pattern with several athletes (meaning that their test results over several days were not consistent, veering between negative and positive)." As a result, WADA agreed with CHINADA that the athletes were not at fault nor negligent, and opted to not appeal CHINADA's decision to the Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS), hence classifying it as a "no-fault contamination".

World Aquatics, the international governing body for aquatic sports, were simultaneously notified of CHINADA's contamination defence, and similarly also opted to not appeal CHINADA's decision.

US allegations of coverup

On 23 April 2024, three days following the publication of The New York Times' and ARD's reports, ARD released a 4 part documentary "The China File." The documentary featured USADA's CEO Travis Tygart who, without providing evidence, suggests of a "cover-up" by WADA and former WADA Director General David Howman who warns that the public's distrust may cause the organisation's (WADA) reputation to "quickly go downhill." Also featured are forensic toxicologist and pharmacologist Fritz Sörgel who deems the contamination explanations to be "implausible" and Munich sports lawyer Thomas Summerer who alleges that it was "obvious that an anti-doping violation had occurred." In a separate statement, Tygart once again criticised WADA of its handling of the positive tests, stating that it "appears to be a devastating stab in the back of clean athletes and a deep betrayal of all athletes who compete fairly and follow the rules.”

In response, WADA labelled Tygart's remarks as "outrageous, completely false and defamatory," and stated that WADA had previously accepted USADA's similar conclusions of contamination involving more than 10 athletes in the U.S. Tygart responded by saying those athletes in question were not American and not involved with USADA, and claimed "it suggests WADA's decision to allow China to sweep the 23 cases under the rug without consequence is apparently just the tip of the iceberg." Tygart claimed that “at least some” of the positive tests featured TMZ levels in a similar range as Russian figure skater Kamila Valieva, who was dealt a four-year sanction after WADA appealed. USADA, along with the US government official Rahul Gupta, called for an independent investigation into the matter. In a statement on 25 April 2024, WADA responded to these allegations by appointing Eric Cottier as an independent prosecutor. In a testimony on 25 June 2024, U.S. Olympic swimmers Michael Phelps and Allison Schmitt told U.S. Congress that they have lost faith in WADA's ability to penalise athletes doping. In particular, Schmitt, a member of the U.S. 4 × 200 m freestyle relay in Tokyo that finished second to the Chinese, said she "will be haunted by this podium finish that may have been impacted by doping." In July 2024, World Aquatics confirmed that its executive director was subpoenaed to testify to U.S. authorities as part of a criminal investigation into the Chinese swimmers' doping tests.

Independent investigation of WADA actions

As a result of the US allegations, an independent investigation was convened to review WADA's handling of the case. The report, released in July 2024, found that Wada did not mishandle the case or show bias towards the Chinese swimmers. Swiss prosecutor Eric Cottier's interim report concluded

"There is nothing in the file - which is complete - to suggest that Wada showed favouritism or deference, or in any way favoured the 23 swimmers who tested positive for trimetazidine (TMZ) between 1 and 3 January 2021, when it proceeded to review Chinada's decision to close the proceedings against them without further action."

He added he had found no evidence of "interference or meddling" in Wada's review of the case, either from within the organisation or from Chinada or Chinese authorities.

Cottier concluded Wada's decision not to appeal against Chinada's conclusion was "reasonable, both from the point of view of the facts and the applicable rules".

WADA President Witold Bańka welcomed the conclusion and reconfirmed the importance of clarifying these "two fundamental questions in advance of the Paris 2024 Olympic and Paralympic Games." Bańka also stated, "Now that it has been confirmed there was no impropriety in WADA's handling of the case, the Agency will consult with external legal counsel to determine what actions can be taken against those who have made false and potentially defamatory allegations. These allegations have significantly harmed WADA's reputation and the confidence and trust that athletes and other stakeholders have in the Agency and the global anti-doping system."

Criticism of the United States

The role played by the United States in the issue, including USADA and US government officials, was heavily criticized by a number of prominent sport organizations around the world, who characterized it as a form of "politicization" and "power play" which harmed the global anti-doping system and trust in sport.

WADA

On 26 June 2024, one day after the United States House of Representatives held a hearing on the issue, WADA released a statement titled "Statement by WADA President on the politicization of anti-doping in the United States". The statement said that:

"The hearing sought to further politicize a relatively straightforward case of mass contamination that has been turned into a scandal by a small number of individuals, mainly in the United States. It was another example of the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) being dragged into a much broader struggle between two superpowers. As an independent and largely technical organization, WADA has no mandate to be part of those political debates."

The statement further criticized the state of anti-doping in the United States and USADA, saying that 90% of athletes in the U.S. do not enjoy the protections provided by the World Anti-Doping Code (Code), as well as the low number of tests done by USADA compared to other countries like Germany, France, and USADA's decisions in the case of U.S. sprinter Erriyon Knighton.

At a Paris press conference, WADA head Witold Bańka said the U.S. concerns were a power play for more influence, arguing it's wrong for one country to control global anti-doping decisions.

ASOIF

On 12 July 2024, the Association of Summer Olympic International Federations (ASOIF) issued a strongly worded statement criticising the United States for what it sees as attempts to "undermine the role and independence of the World Anti-Doping Agency" (WADA).

"The US criminal investigation into an anti-doping case on foreign soil and the recent position of the US Anti-Doping Agency threaten to undermine the role and independence of WADA and, by extension, confidence in the global anti-doping system and the autonomy of sports rules and regulations," said the ASOIF statement.

IOC

Ingmar De Vos, an IOC committee member, called the U.S. Department of Justice's criminal probe on WADA's handling of "the China case", as "extremely worrying and unacceptable." The IOC hinted they might reject the USA's 2034 Winter Olympic bid if the U.S. didn't respect WADA's authority and continued to challenge their conduct. However, leaders of a congressional committee insist on continuing their investigation into a Chinese doping scandal, stating it's "not appropriate" for the International Olympic Committee to threaten removing Salt Lake City as the 2034 Games host to halt their probe.

Impact on Chinese swimmers

In July 2024, amid extensive media coverage of the scandal, World Aquatics revealed that Chinese athletes were tested for banned substances far more often than athletes from other countries in the lead-up to the 2024 Paris Olympics. They released all testing data showing Chinese swimmers were tested an average of 21 times since January 1, 2024, with no confirmed positive results, compared to just four times for Australian swimmers and six times for USA swimmers.

During the Olympics, Chinese swimmer Pan Zhanle described the frequency of drug tests for Chinese swimmers in Paris, stating, "It could be once every two to three days, but it normally happens daily. With more than 10 of us being tested, the total adds up to about 200 tests in 10 days." Some Chinese swimmers complained that the high frequency of tests have been disruptive, impacting their training and sleep. However, one swimmer, Zhang Yufei, claimed that the frequent drug tests did not have a "big impact" on her, though she noted, "The only thing is, being woken up at 5 a.m. for the checks can be a bit annoying".

Disqualified medalists

Olympic Games

Medal	Name	Sport	Event	Date
Bronze	Team China	Gymnastics	Women's artistic team all-around	19 September 2000
Gold	Chen Xiexia	Weightlifting	Women's 48 kg	9 August 2008
Gold	Liu Chunhong	Weightlifting	Women's 69 kg	13 August 2008
Gold	Cao Lei	Weightlifting	Women's 75 kg	15 August 2008

Asian Games

Name	NOC	Sport	Banned substance	Medals	Ref
Han Qing	China	Athletics	Dihydrotestosterone	(Women's 400 m hurdles)
Zhang Lei	China	Canoeing	Dihydrotestosterone	(Men's C-1 500 m) (Men's C-1 1000 m) (Men's C-2 500 m)
Qiu Suoren	China	Canoeing	Dihydrotestosterone	(Men's C-2 1000 m)
Wang Yan	China	Cycling	Dihydrotestosterone	(Women's sprint)
Fu Yong	China	Swimming	Dihydrotestosterone	(Men's 400 m individual medley)
Hu Bin	China	Swimming	Dihydrotestosterone	(Men's 50 m freestyle)
Lü Bin	China	Swimming	Dihydrotestosterone	(Women's 50 m freestyle) (Women's 200 m freestyle) (Women's 200 m individual medley) (Women's 4 × 100 m freestyle relay) (Women's 100 m freestyle) (Women's 100 m backstroke)
Xiong Guoming	China	Swimming	Dihydrotestosterone	(Men's 200 m freestyle) (Men's 200 m individual medley) (Men's 400 m individual medley) (Men's 4 × 200 m freestyle relay) (Men's 4 × 100 m freestyle relay)
Yang Aihua	China	Swimming	Dihydrotestosterone	(Women's 400 m freestyle)
Zhang Bin	China	Swimming	Dihydrotestosterone	(Men's 200 m butterfly)
Zhou Guanbin	China	Swimming	Dihydrotestosterone	(Women's 400 m freestyle) (Women's 800 m freestyle)

Individual Chinese doping cases

• Yang Aihua – testosterone
• Wu Yanyan – anabolic steroids
• Li Zhesi – erythropoietin (EPO)
• Ouyang Kunpeng
• Chen Xinyi – hydrochlorothiazide
• Ye Qiaobo
• Wang Xiuli

Reactions

Jinxia Dong, an associate professor at Peking University, said that the doping programme was a by-product of the "open door" policy which saw the rapid expansion within China of modern cultural and technological exchanges with foreign countries. Former East German swim coaches admitted to systematic doping on their athletes; among them, coach Klaus Rudolf played a significant role in developing China's swimming programme.

Bioethicist Maxwell J. Mehlman in his 2009 book The Price of Perfection, states that "In effect China has replaced East Germany as the target of Western condemnation of state-sponsored doping". Mehlman quotes an anthropologist as saying that "When China became a 'world sports power', American journalists found it all too easy to slip China into the slot of the 'Big Red Machine' formally occupied by Eastern bloc teams".

See also

• Swimming at the 1998 World Aquatics Championships
• Doping at the Asian Games
• Sport in China
• China at the Asian Games
• China at the Olympics
• China at the Paralympics
• China at the Universiade

Notes

1. This stripped medal was not from doping in China, but for a violation of FIG age minimums. Dong Faixao was underage.

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• Doping in sport
• Doping by country
• Drugs in sport in China
• Sports scandals in China