Misplaced Pages

Revision as of 22:15, 3 August 2024

Part of a series on
Doping in sport
Substances and types Anabolic steroids Blood doping Gene doping Stem cell doping Mechanical doping Technology doping Cannabinoids Diuretics Painkillers Sedatives Stem cell doping Stimulants Beta2-adrenergic agonist Clenbuterol Ephedrine EPO Human growth hormone Methylhexanamine SARMs Stanozolol Tetrahydrogestrinone
Terminology Abortion doping Biological passport Blood-spinning Doping test Performance-enhancing drugs Repoxygen Stem cell doping Whizzinator
History Olympics Tour de France (1998, 1999, 2007) Auto racing BALCO scandal Clemson University steroid scandal U of South Carolina steroid scandal Dubin Inquiry Association football China East Germany Russia United States Festina affair Floyd Landis case Game of Shadows Juiced L.A. Confidentiel Lance Armstrong History of allegations Doping case Operación Puerto Operation Aderlass Doping in American football Steroid use in baseball Barry Bonds perjury case Mitchell Report Biogenesis scandal
Doping-related lists Doping cases in Sport Athletics Cycling Doping at the Olympic Games Doping at the World Championships in Athletics Stripped Olympic medals Stripped European Athletics C'ships medals Drugs banned from the Olympics MLB players suspended for doping MLB players in the Mitchell Report
Anti-doping bodies World Anti-Doping Agency International Testing Agency List of national anti-doping organizations Australian Sports Anti-Doping Authority French Anti-Doping Agency National Anti-Doping Agency Russian Anti-Doping Agency UK Anti-Doping United States Anti-Doping Agency
v t e

Doping, or the use of restricted performance-enhancing drugs occurs in various sports throughout the world, and China is no exception. Between 1968 and 15 May 2022, China was stripped of a total of four Olympic medals due to a doping violation. By comparison, the United States of America was stripped of a total of ten Olympic medals over the same period, representing 2.5 times more medals lost by US athletes over doping violations than those from China.

In recent times, China has had one of the lowest doping rates in the world, on par with Japan and Switzerland. The World Anti-Doping Agency's (WADA) 2022 Anti-Doping Testing Figures report reveals that 19,228 anti-doping tests were conducted in China, resulting in a 0.2% violation rate, similar to Japan's 5,706 tests with 0.2% violation rate. In contrast, 6,782 samples were tested in the US with a 1.2% violation rate, and 10,186 samples were tested in Russia with a 0.8% violation rate. The violation rate in the US amongst all athletes in 2022 was thus 6 times the rate of that of China and Japan.

In 2024, despite WADA clearing Chinese swimmers of doping allegations, media coverage on China's doping matters in 2020s, has been extensive. WADA stated that recent attempts by US media to imply wrongdoing on the part of WADA and the broader anti-doping community are part of ongoing geopolitical tensions. WADA emphasizes that it remains impartial and will not participate in these geopolitical conflicts.

History

Restrictions regarding drug use like synthetic hormones by athletes for enhanced performance in competition did not come around until the 20th century. The International Olympic Committee (IOC) established its initial list of prohibited substances in 1967 and introduced the first drug tests at the France and Mexico Olympic games in 1968. Thirty years later, the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) was founded. WADA was founded at a time when individual governments, sport federations, and the IOC all had differing definitions, policies, and sanctions for doping. WADA bridged these differences by setting unified anti-doping standards and coordinating the efforts of sports organizations and public authorities worldwide.

Throughout its history, China faced a number of controversies, and a number of athletes and coaches had been suspended for doping.

1994-1998 swimming controversy

The 1990s swimming scandals, most notably the scandals at the 1994 Hiroshima Asian Games and the 1998 Perth FINA World Championships are considered the most notorious doping scandals in Chinese elite sport history, and have had a profound impact on not only Chinese elite swimming but also the entire Chinese elite sport domain.

In 1992 the number of Chinese swimmers in the top 25 world rankings soared from a plateau of less than 30 to 98, with all but 4 of the 98 swimmers female. Their improvement rate was much better than could have been expected as a result of normal growth and development. China subsequently performed beyond expectations to win 12 gold medals at the 1994 World Aquatics Championships amid widespread suspicions of doping. Chinese swimmers won 12 of 16 gold medals at the 1994 championships and set five world records.

Between 1990 and 1998, 28 Chinese swimmers tested positive for performance-enhancing drugs, almost half the world total of drug offenders in sport. Seven swimmers tested positive for steroids at the Asian Games in Hiroshima in late 1994, these positive tests badly affected the squad to the extent that it won only one swimming gold at the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta. Following the revelations of doping among Chinese swimmers at the Hiroshima games IOC Medical Commission chairman Alexandre de Mérode discounted the possibility of officially sanctioned Chinese doping stating that the results were "accidents that could happen anywhere". Chinese leaders initially blamed racist sports officials in Japan for manufacturing test results. A report by a joint International Swimming Federation and Olympic Council of Asia delegation to Beijing in 1995 concluded that "there is no evidence that the Chinese are systematically doping athletes". The revelations led to Australian, American, Canadian and Japanese sports officials voting against Chinese participation at the 1995 Pan Pacific Swimming Championships. In 1995, the People's Daily, the official newspaper of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, published an anti-doping policy and proclaimed an official prohibition on performance-enhancing substances.

China improved in swimming until 1998 when four more positive tests and the discovery of human growth hormone (HGH) in the swimmer Yuan Yuan's luggage at the 1998 World Aquatics Championships in Perth, Australia. Yuan Yuan was sanctioned as a result of the incident. Tests in Perth found the presence of the banned diuretic masking agent triamterine in the urine of four swimmers, Wang Luna, Yi Zhang, Huijue Cai and Wei Wang. The swimmers were suspended from competition for two years, with three coaches associated with the swimmers, Zhi Cheng, Hiuqin Xu and Zhi Cheng each suspended for three months.

Zhao Jian, the deputy director-general of the China Anti-Doping Agency described the 1998 World Aquatic Championships as a "bad incident", and said that it had led to China adopting a tougher attitude towards drug testing, with drug testing removed from the main sports administration and placed in a separate agency.

The Hiroshima games also saw a hurdler, a cyclist and two canoeists test positive for the steroid dihydrotestosterone.

Ma Junren controversy

You can help expand this section with text translated from the corresponding article in Chinese. (August 2021) Click for important translation instructions. Machine translation, like DeepL or Google Translate, is a useful starting point for translations, but translators must revise errors as necessary and confirm that the translation is accurate, rather than simply copy-pasting machine-translated text into the English Misplaced Pages. Do not translate text that appears unreliable or low-quality. If possible, verify the text with references provided in the foreign-language article. You must provide copyright attribution in the edit summary accompanying your translation by providing an interlanguage link to the source of your translation. A model attribution edit summary is Content in this edit is translated from the existing Chinese Misplaced Pages article at ]; see its history for attribution. You may also add the template {{Translated|zh|中华人民共和国体育兴奋剂问题}} to the talk page. For more guidance, see Misplaced Pages:Translation.

According a 2009 book by Yuan Weimin, former Director General of the State General Administration of Sports and Chairperson of the Chinese Olympic Committee, six athletes by former coach Ma Junren were dropped from the 2000 Summer Olympics because they were tested positive for doping. After the incident, Ma was dropped as a coach from the Chinese Olympic team.

In February 2016, Tencent Sports reported a letter written in 1995 by Wang Junxia and nine other athletes, who claimed that women coached by Ma Junren were forced to take "large doses of illegal drugs over the years". The incident was widely reported by Chinese media, and it was also alleged that he had beaten athletes. Ma had strongly denied these allegations.

The International Association of Athletics Federations confirmed it had reach out to the Chinese Athletics Association for verification and would investigate the matter, but the latter did not respond.

Xue Yinxian allegations

Xue Yinxian, a former doctor who sought political asylum in Germany, claimed that more than 10,000 athletes in China were doped in a systematic Chinese government doping program and they received performance-enhancing drugs in the 1980s and 1990s. She stated that the entirety of international medals (both in the Olympics and other international competitions) won by Chinese athletes in the 1980s and 1990s must be taken back. The International Olympic Committee and the World Anti-Doping Agency have investigated these allegations with no conclusions or actions taken as of 2022.

Founding of CHINADA

The China Anti-Doping Agency (CHINADA) is an independent, non-profit, non-governmental organization and national anti-doping organization (NADO) for the People's Republic of China. It was founded in 2007 and at the time was considered a significant milestone signaling China’s determination to combat doping.

CHINADA is a signatory to, and responsible for implementation in China of, the World Anti-Doping Code, widely considered the basis for the strongest and strictest anti-doping programs in sports. China also ratified the UNESCO International Convention against Doping in Sport, the first global international treaty against doping in sport, with UNESCO largely relying on CHINADA to carry out this commitment.

The organization has control of anti-doping programs for Chinese Olympic and Paralympic sport and its work includes in-competition and out-of-competition testing, the results management and adjudication process, the provision of drug reference resources, the therapeutic-use exemption process, various scientific research initiatives, and athlete and outreach education.

Annually, CHINADA administers around 15,000 annual test and analysis through the Anti-Doping Laboratory of CHINADA which is accredited by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) and International Olympic Committee. In July 2020, the International Testing Agency signed a cooperation agreement with CHINADA in order to increase the efficiency of the anti-doping efforts of both organisations.

Zero tolerance policy and results

The notorious 1994 and 1998 scandals prompted the development of anti-doping policy in China, and the Chinese General Administration of Sport began taking stricter measures to crack down on drug use, and began adopting a "Zero Tolerance policy". As a result, China became one of the first countries to adopt blood tests in 1999.

For swimming specifically, in addition to general anti-doping codes of the World Anti-Doping Agency and ChinaDA, the Aquatics Management Centre and the Chinese Swimming Association (CSA) required registered swimmers to provide non-competition location tracking and have increased the frequency of out-of-competition tests since 2005.

One of the most frequently cited examples of the zero-tolerance policy is the controversial case of Kunpeng Ouyang, who received a lifetime ban from sport by China's Aquatics Management Centre’s after testing positive in a drug test.

In addition, a regular National Team was established to enable stricter tracking and detecting whether key swimmers use a banned substance. In addition to the tests conducted by the World Anti-Doping Agency and ChinaDA, swimmers who regularly train on the National Team have been required to take weekly blood tests since 2008.

As a result of such stringent measures and the founding of CHINADA, the number of doping cases has significantly reduced in recent years. In 2017, the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) published a report identifying the top ten countries with the most doping violations. China was ranked as the 6th worst offending country, with a total of 62 violations.

In a 2024 WADA report of 2022 figures, it was highlighted that China had not only conducted the most extensive testing with over 19000 tests, but also had one of the lowest rates of violations, at 0.2%, on par with Japan and Switzerland, and significantly lower than other sport powerhouses like the United States (1.2%) and United Kingdom (0.4%).

Trimetazidine allegations in Chinese swimming

On 20 April 2024, a coordinated investigation report between The New York Times and German broadcaster ARD revealed that 23 Chinese swimmers tested positive for the banned prescription heart medication trimetazidine (TMZ) at the Chinese Long Course Invitational held in Shijiazhuang City from 31 December 2020 to 3 January 2021.

The World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) however stated that the levels of TMZ found in the Chinese swimmers were incapable of enhancing performance at the concentrations found and were due to environmental contamination.

The tests were conducted by CHINADA, China's national anti-doping agency and after delays from the COVID-19 pandemic, the 60 urine samples - of which 28 were positive - were logged into WADA's Anti-Doping Administration and Management System (ADAMS) by the WADA-accredited laboratory in Beijing on or around 15 March 2021. Per The New York Times, an email from this date addressed by a CHNADA legal official requested a "counterpart at the world swimming association" to "keep athletes’ information and the case strictly confidential until it is publicly disclosed by CHINADA."

ARD reported that of the 23, 13 competed at the 2020 Summer Olympics seven months later, including Zhang Yufei and Wang Shun, the winner of the women's 200 m butterfly and men's 200 m individual medley, respectively, as well as some members of the gold medal-winning women's 4 × 200 m freestyle relay.

Investigation and decision

A 31 page report by CHINADA showed that the investigations were initiated in early April 2021 - two months after the positive tests - in coordination with the Chinese Ministry of Public Security. CHINADA had also informed WADA of its initiation of this investigation per WADA. After extensive searches and testing of the locations athletes had interacted with, investigators deemed that the positive cases were due to contamination, with investigators detecting traces of TMZ in the athletes' hotel kitchen (including spice containers, the extraction fan above the hob and the drains) in Shijiazhuang. While the investigators did not provide evidence of the probable origins of the drug, it was concluded that the athletes' "unwittingly ingested small amounts" and as such, it was appealed that they should not be prosecuted.

On 15 June 2021, CHINADA officially notified WADA of its decision to accept the contamination defence and not proceed with Anti-Doping Rule Violation (ADRV) cases. A thorough review by WADA found that the contamination theory was supported by "the combination of the consistently low concentrations of TMZ as well as no doping pattern with several athletes (meaning that their test results over several days were not consistent, veering between negative and positive)." As a result, WADA agreed with CHINADA that the athletes were not at fault nor negligent, and opted to not appeal CHINADA's decision to the Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS), hence classifying it as a "no-fault contamination".

World Aquatics, the international governing body for aquatic sports, were simultaneously notified of CHINADA's contamination defence, and similarly also opted to not appeal CHINADA's decision.

US allegations of coverup

On 23 April 2024, three days following the publication of The New York Times' and ARD's reports, ARD released a 4 part documentary "The China File." The documentary featured USADA's CEO Travis Tygart who, without providing evidence, suggests of a "cover-up" by WADA and former WADA Director General David Howman who warns that the public's distrust may cause the organisation's (WADA) reputation to "quickly go downhill." Also featured are forensic toxicologist and pharmacologist Fritz Sörgel who deems the contamination explanations to be "implausible" and Munich sports lawyer Thomas Summerer who alleges that it was "obvious that an anti-doping violation had occurred." In a separate statement, Tygart once again criticised WADA of its handling of the positive tests, stating that it "appears to be a devastating stab in the back of clean athletes and a deep betrayal of all athletes who compete fairly and follow the rules.”

In response, WADA labelled Tygart's remarks as "outrageous, completely false and defamatory," and stated that WADA had previously accepted USADA's similar conclusions of contamination involving more than 10 athletes in the U.S. Tygart responded by saying those athletes in question were not American and not involved with USADA, and claimed "it suggests WADA's decision to allow China to sweep the 23 cases under the rug without consequence is apparently just the tip of the iceberg." Tygart claimed that “at least some” of the positive tests featured TMZ levels in a similar range as Russian figure skater Kamila Valieva, who was dealt a four-year sanction after WADA appealed. USADA, along with the US government official Rahul Gupta, called for an independent investigation into the matter. In a statement on 25 April 2024, WADA responded to these allegations by appointing Eric Cottier as an independent prosecutor. In a testimony on 25 June 2024, U.S. Olympic swimmers Michael Phelps and Allison Schmitt told U.S. Congress that they have lost faith in WADA's ability to penalise athletes doping. In particular, Schmitt, a member of the U.S. 4 × 200 m freestyle relay in Tokyo that finished second to the Chinese, said she "will be haunted by this podium finish that may have been impacted by doping." In July 2024, World Aquatics confirmed that its executive director was subpoenaed to testify to U.S. authorities as part of a criminal investigation into the Chinese swimmers' doping tests.

Independent investigation of WADA actions

As a result of the US allegations, an independent investigation was convened to review WADA's handling of the case. The report, released in July 2024, found that Wada did not mishandle the case or show bias towards the Chinese swimmers. Swiss prosecutor Eric Cottier's interim report concluded

"There is nothing in the file - which is complete - to suggest that Wada showed favouritism or deference, or in any way favoured the 23 swimmers who tested positive for trimetazidine (TMZ) between 1 and 3 January 2021, when it proceeded to review Chinada's decision to close the proceedings against them without further action."

He added he had found no evidence of "interference or meddling" in Wada's review of the case, either from within the organisation or from Chinada or Chinese authorities.

Cottier concluded Wada's decision not to appeal against Chinada's conclusion was "reasonable, both from the point of view of the facts and the applicable rules".

WADA President Witold Bańka welcomed the conclusion and reconfirmed the importance of clarifying these "two fundamental questions in advance of the Paris 2024 Olympic and Paralympic Games." Bańka also stated, "Now that it has been confirmed there was no impropriety in WADA's handling of the case, the Agency will consult with external legal counsel to determine what actions can be taken against those who have made false and potentially defamatory allegations. These allegations have significantly harmed WADA's reputation and the confidence and trust that athletes and other stakeholders have in the Agency and the global anti-doping system."

Criticism of the United States

The role played by the United States in the issue, including USADA and US government officials, was heavily criticized by a number of prominent sport organizations around the world, who characterized it as a form of "politicization" and "power play" which harmed the global anti-doping system and trust in sport.

WADA

On 26 June 2024, one day after the United States House of Representatives held a hearing on the issue, WADA released a statement titled "Statement by WADA President on the politicization of anti-doping in the United States". The statement said that:

"The hearing sought to further politicize a relatively straightforward case of mass contamination that has been turned into a scandal by a small number of individuals, mainly in the United States. It was another example of the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) being dragged into a much broader struggle between two superpowers. As an independent and largely technical organization, WADA has no mandate to be part of those political debates."

The statement further criticized the state of anti-doping in the United States and USADA, saying that 90% of athletes in the U.S. do not enjoy the protections provided by the World Anti-Doping Code (Code), as well as the low number of tests done by USADA compared to other countries like Germany, France, and USADA's decisions in the case of U.S. sprinter Erriyon Knighton.

At a Paris press conference, WADA head Witold Bańka said the U.S. concerns were a power play for more influence, arguing it's wrong for one country to control global anti-doping decisions.

ASOIF

On 12 July 2024, the Association of Summer Olympic International Federations (ASOIF) issued a strongly worded statement criticising the United States for what it sees as attempts to "undermine the role and independence of the World Anti-Doping Agency" (WADA).

"The US criminal investigation into an anti-doping case on foreign soil and the recent position of the US Anti-Doping Agency threaten to undermine the role and independence of WADA and, by extension, confidence in the global anti-doping system and the autonomy of sports rules and regulations," said the ASOIF statement.

IOC

Ingmar De Vos, an IOC committee member, called the U.S. Department of Justice's criminal probe on WADA's handling of "the China case", as "extremely worrying and unacceptable." The IOC hinted they might reject the USA's 2034 Winter Olympic bid if the U.S. didn't respect WADA's authority and continued to challenge their conduct. However, leaders of a congressional committee insist on continuing their investigation into a Chinese doping scandal, stating it's "not appropriate" for the International Olympic Committee to threaten removing Salt Lake City as the 2034 Games host to halt their probe.

Impact on Chinese swimmers

In July 2024, amid extensive media coverage of the scandal, World Aquatics revealed that Chinese athletes were tested for banned substances far more often than athletes from other countries in the lead-up to the 2024 Paris Olympics. They released all testing data showing Chinese swimmers were tested an average of 21 times since January 1, 2024, with no confirmed positive results, compared to just four times for Australian swimmers and six times for USA swimmers.

During the Olympics, Chinese swimmer Pan Zhanle described the frequency of drug tests for Chinese swimmers in Paris, stating, "It could be once every two to three days, but it normally happens daily. With more than 10 of us being tested, the total adds up to about 200 tests in 10 days." Some Chinese swimmers complained that the high frequency of tests have been disruptive, impacting their training and sleep. However, one swimmer, Zhang Yufei, claimed that the frequent drug tests did not have a "big impact" on her, though she noted, "The only thing is, being woken up at 5 a.m. for the checks can be a bit annoying".

Disqualified medalists

Olympic Games

Medal	Name	Sport	Event	Date
Bronze	Team China	Gymnastics	Women's artistic team all-around	19 September 2000
Gold	Chen Xiexia	Weightlifting	Women's 48 kg	9 August 2008
Gold	Liu Chunhong	Weightlifting	Women's 69 kg	13 August 2008
Gold	Cao Lei	Weightlifting	Women's 75 kg	15 August 2008

Asian Games

Name	NOC	Sport	Banned substance	Medals	Ref
Han Qing	China	Athletics	Dihydrotestosterone	(Women's 400 m hurdles)
Zhang Lei	China	Canoeing	Dihydrotestosterone	(Men's C-1 500 m) (Men's C-1 1000 m) (Men's C-2 500 m)
Qiu Suoren	China	Canoeing	Dihydrotestosterone	(Men's C-2 1000 m)
Wang Yan	China	Cycling	Dihydrotestosterone	(Women's sprint)
Fu Yong	China	Swimming	Dihydrotestosterone	(Men's 400 m individual medley)
Hu Bin	China	Swimming	Dihydrotestosterone	(Men's 50 m freestyle)
Lü Bin	China	Swimming	Dihydrotestosterone	(Women's 50 m freestyle) (Women's 200 m freestyle) (Women's 200 m individual medley) (Women's 4 × 100 m freestyle relay) (Women's 100 m freestyle) (Women's 100 m backstroke)
Xiong Guoming	China	Swimming	Dihydrotestosterone	(Men's 200 m freestyle) (Men's 200 m individual medley) (Men's 400 m individual medley) (Men's 4 × 200 m freestyle relay) (Men's 4 × 100 m freestyle relay)
Yang Aihua	China	Swimming	Dihydrotestosterone	(Women's 400 m freestyle)
Zhang Bin	China	Swimming	Dihydrotestosterone	(Men's 200 m butterfly)
Zhou Guanbin	China	Swimming	Dihydrotestosterone	(Women's 400 m freestyle) (Women's 800 m freestyle)

Individual doping cases

• Yang Aihua – testosterone
• Wu Yanyan – anabolic steroids
• Li Zhesi – erythropoietin (EPO)
• Ouyang Kunpeng
• Chen Xinyi – hydrochlorothiazide
• Ye Qiaobo
• Wang Xiuli

Reactions

Jinxia Dong, an associate professor at Peking University, said that the doping programme was a by-product of the "open door" policy which saw the rapid expansion within China of modern cultural and technological exchanges with foreign countries. Former East German swim coaches admitted to systematic doping on their athletes; among them, coach Klaus Rudolf played a significant role in developing China's swimming programme.

Bioethicist Maxwell J. Mehlman in his 2009 book The Price of Perfection, states that "In effect China has replaced East Germany as the target of Western condemnation of state-sponsored doping". Mehlman quotes an anthropologist as saying that "When China became a 'world sports power', American journalists found it all too easy to slip China into the slot of the 'Big Red Machine' formally occupied by Eastern bloc teams".

See also

• Swimming at the 1998 World Aquatics Championships
• Doping at the Asian Games
• Sport in China
• China at the Asian Games
• China at the Olympics
• China at the Paralympics
• China at the Universiade

Notes

1. This stripped medal was not from doping in China, but for a violation of FIG age minimums. Dong Faixao was underage.

References

1. Stefani, Raymond. "Evaluation of Pre-conflict International Olympic Committee Actions against Russia for Doping Violations". ResearchGate.
2. "Countries With The Most Stripped Olympic Medals". WorldAtlas. 16 June 2021. Retrieved 1 August 2024.
3. "Summer Olympics: Stripped Medals by Nation 1968-2020".
4. "2022 Anti-Doping Testing Figures" (PDF). World Anti-Doping Agency.
5. "WADA statement on contamination cases in China". World Anti Doping Agency. 30 July 2024. Retrieved 2 August 2024.
6. ^ "WADA: A Brief History of Anti-Doping". June 2010. Archived from the original on 16 August 2011. Retrieved 12 April 2013.
7. https://nrl.northumbria.ac.uk/id/eprint/36043/1/Chinese_Swimming_Blinded_Review.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
8. ^ Cecil Colwin (2002). Breakthrough Swimming. Human Kinetics. pp. 213–. ISBN 978-0-7360-3777-8. Retrieved 30 July 2012.
9. ^ Thomas Mitchell Hunt (2007). Drug Games: The International Politics of Doping and the Olympic Movement, 1960—2007. pp. 148–. ISBN 978-0-549-16219-3. Retrieved 31 July 2012.
10. ^ Maxwell J. Mehlman (21 May 2009). The Price of Perfection: Individualism and Society in the Era of Biomedical Enhancement. JHU Press. p. 134. ISBN 978-0-8018-9263-9. Retrieved 31 July 2012.
11. Andrew Jennings (1996). The New Lords of the Rings: Olympic Corruption and How to Buy Gold Medals. Pocket Books. p. 233. ISBN 978-0-671-85571-0. Retrieved 31 July 2012.
12. ^ "独家-王军霞领衔举报马家军强迫使用兴奋剂". Tencent Sports. Archived from the original on 1 July 2017. Retrieved 27 July 2017.
13. Armitage, Catherine (6 February 2016). "'We took drugs': Chinese athletes confess to doping in secret letter". The Sydney Morning Herald. Archived from the original on 3 August 2021. Retrieved 3 August 2021.
14. Tatlow, Didi Kirsten (24 February 2016). "Doping Claims Involving Chinese Track Stars Re-emerge, Decades Later". New York Times. Archived from the original on 11 September 2017. Retrieved 27 July 2017.
15. "中国"马家军"昔日联名信曝光禁药丑闻 国际田联称将调查其真实性". Reuters. 5 February 2016. Archived from the original on 19 April 2023. Retrieved 3 August 2021.
16. Bloom, Ben (25 February 2016). "Athletics world records blow as Wang Junxia 'admits' being part of Chinese state-sponsored doping regime". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 13 August 2016. Retrieved 13 August 2016.
17. ^ "Systematic doping of Chinese athletes in Olympic Games revealed by former doctor | DW | 21.10.2017". Deutsche Welle. Archived from the original on 29 July 2021. Retrieved 23 April 2024.
18. "Inside the high-stakes dispute between the U.S. and global anti-doping agencies over China's Olympic swimmers". CBS News. Archived from the original on 28 July 2024. Retrieved 30 July 2024.
19. "Wada is accused of sitting on mass China doping claims for five years". TheGuardian.com. 23 October 2017. Archived from the original on 23 July 2021. Retrieved 23 April 2024.
20. "China to make doping a criminal offence and warns athletes who test positive could be sent to prison". 29 December 2018. Archived from the original on 29 December 2018. Retrieved 23 April 2024.
21. "WADA to investigate claims of systematic doping in China". Reuters. 24 October 2017. Archived from the original on 23 July 2021. Retrieved 23 April 2024.
22. "Former doctor reveals more than 10,000 Chinese athletes were doping". 24 October 2017. Archived from the original on 23 July 2021. Retrieved 23 April 2024.
23. ^ "International Testing Agency-China Anti-Doping Agency (CHINADA)". International Testing Agency. Retrieved 1 August 2024.
24. ^ Zheng, Jinming (2017). "A Policy Analysis of the Development of Elite Swimming in China Between 2000 and 2012: A National Team Perspective" (PDF). International Journal of the History of Sport. 34 (12): 1247–1274. doi:10.1080/09523367.2018.1432599 – via Northumbria Research Link.
25. Times, The Brussels. "Belgium in top 10 list of countries with most sports doping cases". www.brusselstimes.com. Retrieved 31 July 2024.
26. WADA (April 2024). "2022 Anti-Doping Testing Figures" (PDF).
27. ^ Schmidt, Michael S.; Panja, Tariq (20 April 2024). "Top Chinese Swimmers Tested Positive for Banned Drug, Then Won Olympic Gold". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 10 July 2024. Retrieved 4 July 2024.
28. "WADA publishes media conference recording regarding environmental contamination case of swimmers from China". World Anti Doping Agency. 22 April 2024. Retrieved 2 August 2024.
29. "WADA Contamination case of swimmers from China Fact Sheet" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 July 2024. Retrieved 11 July 2024.
30. Mebus, Hajo Seppelt, Nick Butler, Lea Löffler und Jörg. "Recherche der ARD-Dopingredaktion: "Die Akte China" - Fragen und Antworten". sportschau.de (in German). Archived from the original on 10 May 2024. Retrieved 4 July 2024.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
31. "WADA statement on case of 23 swimmers from China". World Anti Doping Agency. 20 April 2024. Archived from the original on 11 July 2024. Retrieved 4 July 2024.
32. Mebus, Hajo Seppelt, Nick Butler, Lea Löffler und Jörg. ""Die Akte China": Massendoping-Verdacht in China - WADA handelt nicht". sportschau.de (in German). Archived from the original on 14 June 2024. Retrieved 4 July 2024.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
33. "WADA statement following comments by CEO of United States Anti-Doping Agency". World Anti Doping Agency. 20 April 2024. Archived from the original on 11 July 2024. Retrieved 4 July 2024.
34. Perishable (23 April 2024). "Call for Independent Prosecutor and Overhaul of WADA". Archived from the original on 11 July 2024. Retrieved 4 July 2024.
35. ^ "Michael Phelps calls out 'deeply rooted, systemic problems' with WADA ahead of Paris Olympics". ABC News. 26 June 2024. Archived from the original on 5 July 2024. Retrieved 4 July 2024.
36. Dunbar, Graham; Pells, Eddie (4 July 2024). "World swimming federation confirms US federal investigation into Chinese swimmers' doping tests". Associated Press. Archived from the original on 6 July 2024. Retrieved 4 July 2024.
37. "WADA invites independent prosecutor to review its handling of Chinese contamination case in swimming". World Anti Doping Agency. 25 April 2024. Archived from the original on 6 July 2024. Retrieved 4 July 2024.
38. "Independent Prosecutor concludes WADA showed no bias towards China and decision not to appeal Chinese swimming cases was 'indisputably reasonable'". World Anti Doping Agency. 9 July 2024. Retrieved 31 July 2024.
39. ^ "Statement by WADA President on the politicization of anti-doping in the United States". World Anti Doping Agency. 26 June 2024. Retrieved 1 August 2024.
40. ^ "US investigation threatens WADA's independence, ASOIF claims". www.insidethegames.biz. 13 July 2024. Retrieved 1 August 2024.
41. "Olympic officials try to crush U.S. probes of China doping, threaten Salt Lake Games". NPR.
42. "IOC advocates for 'dirty Games' in Salt Lake City 2034 Olympic dispute, U.S. lawmaker says". The Salt Lake Tribune. Retrieved 1 August 2024.
43. "World Aquatics Demonstrates Comprehensive and Rigorous Testing Programme Ahead of the Paris 2024 Olympic Games". World Aquatics. 23 July 2024. Retrieved 1 August 2024.
44. "Chinese swimmers drug tested almost 4 times more than US rivals, officials admit". South China Morning Post. 24 July 2024. Retrieved 1 August 2024.
45. Sheinin, Dave (26 July 2024). "China doping allegations threaten to cast pall over Olympic swim meet". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 1 August 2024.
46. "Swimming-China's Pan says other swimmers unfriendly in Paris pool".
47. Vrentas, Jenny; Panja, Tariq (26 July 2024). "Anger Lingers Over Positive Doping Tests for Chinese Swimmers". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2 August 2024.
48. "Diving queen blames '7 times a day' drug tests for Chinese swimmers' poor showing". South China Morning Post. 30 July 2024. Retrieved 2 August 2024.
49. ^ "Chinese hand out long bans". The Independent. 21 December 1994. Archived from the original on 11 August 2019. Retrieved 14 April 2013.
50. ^ "China ban seven swimmers for two years". New Straits Times. 8 December 1994. Archived from the original on 22 July 2021. Retrieved 14 April 2013.
51. Wayne Wilson; Ed Derse (2001). Doping in Elite Sport: The Politics of Drugs in the Olympic Movement. Human Kinetics. p. 102. ISBN 978-0-7360-0329-2.
52. "Disgraced Wu banned". BBC News Online. 18 July 2000. Archived from the original on 29 July 2012. Retrieved 29 July 2012.
53. "China's Li Zhesi Tests Positive for EPO". Swimming World Magazine. 9 June 2012. Retrieved 11 June 2012.
54. "China's top backstroke specialist banned for doping". ESPN. 27 June 2008. Archived from the original on 7 November 2012. Retrieved 29 July 2012.
55. "Chinese Swimmer Tests Positive, 2 Others Kicked Out of Rio for Doping". NBC. 14 August 2016. Archived from the original on 26 July 2022. Retrieved 17 February 2021.
56. ^ Hersh, Phil (11 February 1992). "Chinese Skater: Medal, No Shame". Chicago Tribune. Archived from the original on 27 February 2014. Retrieved 23 April 2024.
57. ^ "China: Alles erlaubt". Der Spiegel (in German). 3 August 1992. Archived from the original on 26 October 2018. Retrieved 23 April 2024.
58. Jinxia Dong (2003). Women, Sport, and Society in Modern China: Holding Up More Than Half the Sky. Psychology Press. pp. 153–. ISBN 978-0-7146-5235-1. Retrieved 30 July 2012.
59. Hersh, Philip; Writer, Tribune Olympic Sports (5 September 1994). "Discontent Refuses to Wilt". Chicago Tribune. Archived from the original on 23 April 2024. Retrieved 4 August 2021.

• Doping in sport
• Doping by country
• Drugs in sport in China
• Sports scandals in China