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The Ming dynasty was the last unified dynasty founded by the Han ethnic group in Chinese history, lasting for 276 years. The dynasty continued the tradition of using the emperor's era name, which began with Emperor Wu of Han, to record the year. In total, there were 17 era names used. The first era name, Hongwu, was inaugurated by Zhu Yuanzhang in 1368, while the last era name, Chongzhen, was suspended after the Chongzhen Emperor hanged himself in Meishan during the Jiashen Incident. The longest era name in use was Wanli, lasting approximately 47 years and 7 months, while the shortest was Taichang, which succeeded Wanli for only about 5 months.

After the Jiashen Incident, the Ming imperial clan established the Southern Ming regimes in the Jiangnan area. However, these regimes were eventually eradicated after the capture and killing of Zhu Youlang. The Kingdom of Tungning, which supported the Ming dynasty's political legitimacy (奉正朔; fengzhengshuo), eventually surrendered to the Qing dynasty. The Southern Ming used a total of three era names, which are listed below.

Before the Ming dynasty, most emperors used multiple era names during their reigns. However, during the Hongwu Emperor's reign, a "one reign, one era name" (一世一元制) system was adopted, leading to the use of only one era name by later emperors. This resulted in the era name being commonly used to refer to the emperor himself among the people. There were some exceptions, such as Emperor Yingzong who used two era names. The Ming dynasty era name remained relatively unchanged and was typically used for a longer period of time. The change of era usually occurred in the year following a new emperor's ascension to the throne, but there were a few instances of special circumstances. For example, after Zhu Di's successful Jingnan campaign in 1402, the era name Jianwen was abolished and replaced with the era name Hongwu. In 1457, after the Duomen Coup (奪門之變), Emperor Yongzong was restored to the throne and the era was changed to Tianshun that year. There were also cases where two edicts to change the era were issued in the same year. For example, when the Wanli Emperor died in 1620, the Taichang Emperor ascended to the throne. It was planned to use the era name Taichang the following year (1621), but the Taichang Emperor also died in the same year. The newly enthroned Tianqi Emperor sought the opinions of his ministers and ultimately used the Taichang era name for that year, before changing it to the era name Tianqi the following year. During the Ming dynasty, many of the era names were repeated from the previous dynasties, including era names used by peasant rebellion armies, which became a source of jokes until the end of the dynasty.

Even outer vassals like Joseon and the Ryukyu Kingdom adopted the Ming dynasty era name. However, after being forced to submit to the Qing dynasty in 1637, Joseon publicly used the Qing era name but secretly continued to use the era name Chongzhen as a way to show their respect for the Ming and opposition to the Qing.

The interpretations of the Ming emperor's era names were not well-documented in official announcements, but Feng Tianyu's (冯天瑜) interpretation in Ming Qing nianhao tanwei (明清年号探微) is referenced here. The period of use for each era name is based on the History of Ming, compiled by Zhang Tingyu, and Nanjiang yishi (南疆逸史) written by Wen Ruilin (溫睿臨).

List

Southern Ming

Notes

1. For example, the era name Yongle was used by both Zhang Yuxian during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period and Fang La during the late Northern Song dynasty. Similarly, the era name Tianshun was used by both the Red Coat Army (紅襖軍) during the late Jin dynasty and the Tianshun Emperor of the Yuan dynasty, and the era name Zhengde was used by the Western Xia dynasty, etc.
2. The Prince of Lu (魯) regime maintained the use of the era name Hongguang until 15 February 1646 (弘光元年十二月三十日; 30th day of the 12th month of the 1st year of the Hongguang era).
3. The date of the Longwu era's inauguration is determined by two sources: Nanming yishi and Nan Ming Shi. Li Chongzhi states that the inauguration occurred in the leap 6th month (閏六月), while both the History of Ming and Nanjiang yishi state that it took place in the dingwei day (26th day) of the leap 6th month (閏六月丁未 (二十六日)).
4. ^ The Kingdom of Tungning used the era name Yongli until 15 September 1683 (康熙二十二年／永曆三十七年七月二十五日; 25th day of the 7th month of the 37th year of the Yongli era/22nd year of the Kangxi era), when it surrendered to Shi Lang after being defeated at the Battle of Penghu. This means that the era name Yongli was in use for a total of 36 years, 7 months, and 25 days.

References

Citations

1. Xu (2000), pp. 298–300. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFXu2000 (help)
2. ^ Feng (2016), pp. 25–26.
3. Nan & Tang (2014), pp. 1201–1314.
4. ^ Feng (2016), p. 26.
5. Jiyan, vol. 1. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFJiyan (help)
6. Wang (2016), p. 115.
7. Wang (2016), p. 116.
8. ^ Zhang (1739), vol. 5.
9. ^ Taizong Shilu, vol. 9b.
10. Wang & Guan (2019), p. 84.
11. Zhang (1739), vol. 12.
12. Wang, Xiaohu (April 2002). 大明泰昌元年大统历考 (PDF). Shanghai: Journal of Shanghai Jiaotong University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 October 2021. Retrieved 1 July 2022.
13. Li (2004), p. 153.
14. Li (2004), p. 165.
15. Li (2004), p. 190.
16. Li (2004), p. 195.
17. Li (2004), p. 183.
18. Shen (1619), vol. 1.
19. Jishi jiwen, vol. 1.
20. Zhuozhong zhi, vol. 22.
21. Sun, Weiguo. 從正朔看朝鮮王朝尊明反清的正統意識 [Pro-Ming/Anti-Qing Sentiment and the Question of Legitimacy: Choson Korea's Use of Ming Reign Titles]. Archived from the original on 1 July 2022. Retrieved 1 July 2022.
22. ^ Feng (2016), p. 25.
23. ^ Li (2004), p. 205.
24. ^ Liu (2014), p. 94.
25. Zhang (1739), vols. 2, 4.
26. Zhang (1739), vols. 4, 5.
27. ^ Li (2004), p. 206.
28. Zhang (1739), vols. 5, 8.
29. Zhang (1739), vols. 8, 9.
30. ^ Liu (2014), p. 95.
31. Zhang (1739), vols. 9, 10.
32. Zhang (1739), vols. 10, 11.
33. Zhang (1739), vols. 11, 12.
34. ^ Li (2004), p. 207.
35. Zhang (1739), vols. 12, 13.
36. Wenzi, vol. 1, Daoyuan.
37. Zhang (1739), vols. 13, 15.
38. Zhang (1739), vols. 15, 16.
39. Shangshu, Counsels of Great Yu. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFShangshu (help)
40. Legge (1879), pp. 46–47.
41. Shangshu zhengyi, vol. 4, Counsels of Great Yu.
42. Zhang (1739), vols. 16, 17.
43. Shangshu, Against Luxurious Ease. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFShangshu (help)
44. Legge (1879), p. 202.
45. Zhang (1739), vols. 17, 19.
46. ^ Li (2004), p. 208.
47. Zhang (1739), vols. 19, 20.
48. Zhang (1739), vols. 20, 21, 22.
49. Zhang (1739), vols. 21, 22.
50. Chunqiu Zuozhuan zhengyi, vol 10, Duke Min. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFChunqiu_Zuozhuan_zhengyi (help)
51. Legge (1872), p. 125.
52. Mote & Twitchett (1988), p. 595.
53. Zhang (1739), vols. 22, 23.
54. Zhang (1739), vols. 23, 24.
55. Nanjiang yishi, vol. 1.
56. Nanming yeshi, Appendix.
57. ^ Li (2004), p. 209.
58. Nanjiang yishi, vols. 1, 3.
59. ^ Zhang (1739), vol. 6.
60. ^ Nanming yeshi, vol. 2.
61. ^ Qian (2016), vol. 2.
62. ^ Nanjiang yishi, vol. 3.
63. Nanjiang yishi, vols. 3, 4.
64. Nanming yeshi, vols. 2, 3.
65. Nanjiang yishi (1830), vol. 10.
66. Nanjiang yishi, vols. 4, 5.
67. Nanming yeshi, vol. 3.

Sources

In Chinese

• Wenzi 文子 [Master Wen].
• Shangshu 尚書 [Book of Documents].
• Kong, Yingda. Shangshu zhengyi 尚書正義 [Correct Interpretation of the Book of Documents].
• Kong, Yingda. Chunqiu Zuozhuan zhengyi 春秋左傳正義.
• Zheng, Xiao. Jinyan 今言 [Actual words, arranged thematically].
• Taizong Shilu 太宗實錄 [Veritable Records of Emperor Taizong]. n.d.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: year (link)
• Zhang, Tingyu (1739). Ming Shi 明史 [History of Ming].
• Shen, Defu (1619). Wanli yehuo bian 萬曆野獲編 [Compilation of Wanli era catastrophes].
• Chen, Hongmo. Jishi jiwen 繼世紀聞.
• Liu, Ruoyu. Zhuozhong zhi 酌中志 [An Enlightening Account of Life in the Imperial Palace].
• Wen, Junlin. Nanjiang yishi 南疆逸史.
• Li, Yao (1830). Nanjiang yishi 南疆繹史 [Unravelled history of the southern borderlands].
• Nansha sanyu shi. Nanming yeshi 南明野史 [Unofficial history of the Southern Ming dynasty].
• Li, Zhaoluo (March 1970). Lidai jiyuan bian 歷代紀元編. Chung Hwa Book.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: year (link)
• Ding, Fubao (February 1992). Lidai guqian tushuo 歷代古錢圖說. Shanghai People's Press. ISBN 7-5004-1011-5.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: year (link)
• Qian, Haiyue (2016). Nan Ming Shi 南明史 [History of the Southern Ming]. Beijing: Zhonghua Book. ISBN 9787101044294.
• Li, Chongzhi (December 2004). Zhongguo lidai nianhao kao 中國歷代年號考 (Revised ed.). Beijing: Zhonghua Book. ISBN 7101025129.
• Liu, Yingqiu (June 2014). 中國帝王年號的語言文化研究——兼論日、朝、越年號特點 (Master's thesis). Guangxi University.
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• Wang, Xiaohu; Guan, Zengjian (June 2019). 明代建文年号的“革除”与未革之说再辨析. Shanghai: Journal of Shanghai Jiaotong University.

In English

• Mote, Frederick W.; Twitchett, Denis C (1988). The Cambridge History of China Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521243327.
• The Sacred books of China: The texts of Confucianism. Vol. 3. Part I. The Shû king. The religious portions of the Shih king. The Hsiâo king. Translated by Legge, James. Oxford: The Clarendon Press. 1879.
• The Chinese Classics: with a Translation, Critical and Exegetical Notes, Prolegomena, and Copious Indexes. Vol. 5. Part I., Dukes Yin, Hwan, Chwang, Min, He, Wan, Seuen and Ch'ing and the prolegomena. Translated by Legge, James. Hong Kong: Lane, Grawford & Co.; London: Trubner & Co., 60, Paternoster Row. 1872.

External links

• Liu, Yuk Tung. Chinese Calendar – Western Calendar Conversion Table (1368 – 1644, 1645 – 1683). Archived from the original on 29 June 2022. Retrieved 1 July 2022.

• Ming dynasty
• Ming dynasty eras