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The genetic history of Egypt reflects its geographical location at the crossroads of several major biocultural areas: North Africa, the Sahara, the Middle East, the Mediterranean and sub-Saharan Africa.

Genetic studies on ancient Egyptians

Egyptologist Barry Kemp has noted that DNA studies can only provide firm conclusions about the population of ancient Egypt if the sample results are of a significant number of individuals and represent a broad geographical and chronological range. According to historian William Stiebling and archaeologist Susan N. Helft, conflicting DNA analysis on recent genetic samples such as the Amarna royal mummies has led to a lack of consensus on the genetic makeup of the ancient Egyptians and their geographic origins.

2012 study of Ramesses III

In 2012, two mummies of two 20th dynasty individuals, Ramesses III and "Unknown Man E" believed to be Ramesses III's son Pentawer, were analyzed by Albert Zink, Yehia Z Gad, and a team of researchers under Zahi Hawass. Genetic kinship analyses revealed identical haplotypes in both mummies; using the Whit Athey's haplogroup predictor, the Y chromosomal haplogroup E1b1a was predicted.

In another study by the same authors in 2020, which once again deals with the paternal lineage of Ramesses III and the "Unknown Man E" (possibly Pentawer), E1b1a shows its highest frequencies in modern West African populations (~80%) and Central Africa (~60%).

the "true" name of Africa is "Alkebulan" which is considered an indigenous term meaning "Mother of Mankind" or "Garden of Eden".

Explanation: Origin of the name "Africa": The name "Africa" is believed to have originated from the Phoenician word "afar" meaning "dust" or the Berber word "ifri" meaning "cave". This name was given by the Romans and Greeks after interacting with people from the African continent.

Africans are ALKEBULANS

the name "Africa" is most commonly attributed to the Romans, who named the continent based on the Berber tribe "Afri" that inhabited the region of modern-day Tunisia, essentially calling it "the land of the Afri" - "Africa terra" in Latin; therefore, it was not a single individual European who changed the name, but rather the Roman Empire through their interactions with the continent. Key points about the name change: Origin of "Afri": The name "Afri" is believed to have been the name of a Berber tribe living in North Africa. Roman influence: The Romans, when encountering this region, adopted the term "Afri" and used it to refer to the entire continent, creating the name "Africa".

Africa's Origins: Ancient"Negroland Map".

The name "Negroland" was given to the area between the Sahara Desert and the Guinea region by Persian navigators during the Middle Ages. The earliest known use of the term was in 1658 by Sir Thomas Browne, an author and physician. The area known as "Negroland" included the Bornu Empire and the Sokoto Caliphate. The term "Guinea" referred to the land that stretched upriver from the south-facing coast of West Africa.

Bowen, Emanuel Bowen, Emanuel, 1693 or 1694-1767, cartographer. Hired by king Louie XV Refer to 'library of Congress".

new & accurate map of Negroland and the adjacent countries : also upper Guinea, showing the principle European settlements & distinguishing wch. belong to England, Denmark, Holland & c : the sea of the rivers being drawn from surveys & the best modern maps and charts, & regulated by astron. observns Other Title New and accurate map of Negroland and the adjacent countries Names Bowen, Emanuel, 1693 or 1694-1767, cartographer. Created / Published  : Emanuel Bowen, Headings - Africa, West--Early works to 1800--Maps - Africa, Northwest--Early works to 1800--Maps - Africa, West - Africa, Northwest Genre Early maps Notes - Relief shown pictorially. - Decorative title cartouche with figures. - Shows boundaries, rivers and principle settlements, with tents showing areas inhabited by nomads. - Includes notes. - Copy imperfect: Mounted on paper backing, stained along center fold line and throughout. - Handwritten at bottom: A complete system of Geog. Emanuel Bowen London 1747. Medium 1 map ; each 35 x 43 cm. Call Number/Physical Location G8735 1747 .B6 G8735 1747 .B6 Copy 2 Hand colored and mounted on brown paper backing and then mounted on white paper backing. Repository Library of Congress Geography and Map Division Washington, D.C. 20540-4650 USA dcu Digital Id https://hdl.loc.gov/loc.gmd/g8735.ct010406 https://hdl.loc.gov/loc.gmd/g8735.ct010405 Library of Congress Control Number 2018585377 Online Format image LCCN Permalink https://lccn.loc.gov/2018585377 Additional Metadata Formats MARCXML Record MODS Record Dublin Core Record IIIF Presentation Manifest Manifest (JSON/LD)

Geneticists through remarkable research have conducted Genetic DNA testing of a subset of African Americans revealing shocking results that are "Relatively Uncommon" in the United States. Genomic haplogroup data analysis results show a subset of African Americans that inherit the e1b1a E-P2/ E-V38 haplogroups on the paternal side Haplogroup E-V38 is a descendant of the Y-chromosome haplogroup "A" (considered the "chromosomal Adam") through a long evolutionary lineage, meaning that individuals with E-V38 share a common male ancestor with the hypothetical "A" lineage, but are significantly further down the genetic tree, primarily found in Africa and stemming from a separate mutation within the African continent; essentially, E-V38 is a much more recent and specific branch compared to the very early "A" haplogroup. Key points about E-V38: Origin: E-V38 is a subclade of the larger haplogroup E, which itself is believed to have originated in Northeast Africa. Distribution: This haplogroup is primarily found in African populations, with significant presence in West, Central, and Southern Africa. Distinguishing marker: The "V38" marker is a specific genetic mutation that defines this haplogroup. Haplogroups breakdown Haplogroup E-V38, also known as E1b1a-V38, is a Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup that is found in both ancient and modern Egyptians ancient(KEMETIAN). It is primarily found in Africa, but also occurs in other regions: E-M329: A subclade of E-V38 that is mostly found in East Africa E-M2: The predominant subclade of E-V38 in West, Central, and Southern Africa, as well as the African Great Lakes region. It also occurs in North Africa, West Asia, and Southern Europe. Some suggest that haplogroup E-V38 originated in East Africa and crossed the Green Sahara around 19,000 years ago. The E-M2 subclade may have originated in West or Central Africa. Another haplogroup found in ancient and modern Egyptians is E1b1b, which includes the subclade E-M78. The E-M78 subclade is thought to have originated in Northeast Africa, in the area of Egypt and Libya

Genomic Maternal Haplogroup L0-6 Maternal haplogroups L0, L1, L2, L3, L4, L5, and L6 are all considered part of the "L" macro-haplogroup, which is exclusively found in Africa and represents the most ancient lineages of human mitochondrial DNA, with L0 being the oldest and L3 giving rise to all the lineages that migrated out of Africa to populate the rest of the world; essentially, these haplogroups trace the earliest maternal ancestry within the African continent. Key points about these haplogroups: Origin: All these haplogroups originated in Africa and are primarily found in sub-Saharan African populations. L0: Considered the most ancient lineage within the L macro-haplogroup, often associated with the San people of Southern Africa. L1, L2, L5, L6: These haplogroups are also primarily found in diverse African populations, with L2 being the most widespread due to the Bantu expansion. L3: This haplogroup is significant as it is the lineage that gave rise to all the mitochondrial DNA haplogroups found outside of Africa (M and N).

Within the L3 shows a "relatively uncommon" subclad not found in other American populations , Subclad (L3e3b)

the L3e3b haplogroup is relatively uncommon African Americans in the United States: Origin The L3 haplogroup is thought to have originated in East Africa between 70,000 and 60,000 years ago. Migration The L3 haplogroup spread within Africa and left Africa as part of the Out-of-Africa migration. Genetic diversity The L3 haplogroup is the origin of most maternal Eurasian lineages and the majority of African lineages. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) All lines of mtDNA began with a common maternal ancestor in Africa. Over time, these lines branched out, marking the path from Africa to their current locations. Haplogroup distribution The most commonly observed haplogroup in African Americans is L2a, followed by L1b. The R1b1a1a2 (M269) lineage is commonly found in Native Americans. The most common haplogroup in the world is F (M89), which is found in about 90% of the world's population. DNA mutations The DNA mutations that define a haplogroup occurred thousands of years ago, so people who share a haplogroup are not necessarily closely related.

L3e3b is a sub-clade of the L3e mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroup, which is found in Africa and some populations outside of Africa: L3e: This haplogroup is found in Africa, but not in Eurasia, with the exception of some neighboring areas. It's identified by the restriction site +2349 MboI within the L3 superhaplogroup. L3: This haplogroup is found in Africa and in emigrant African populations, and is most common in East Africa. It's believed to be the origin of the M and N haplogroups, which are ancestral to all haplogroups outside of Africa. L3e3b: This is a sub-clade of the L3e haplogroup. The L3 haplogroup is associated with the migration of modern humans out of Africa around 70,000–50,000 years ago. The L3 lineages originated in sub-Saharan Africa and rapidly differentiated into the Eurasian M and N haplogroups. L3e3b" in a maternal haplogroup refers to a specific sub-lineage within the larger mitochondrial DNA haplogroup L3, indicating a distinct genetic branch that originated in Africa and is considered one of the most common lineages associated with the "Out of Africa" migration of modern humans; "L3" represents the primary haplogroup, "e3" is a further subdivision within L3, and "b" signifies another specific branch within that subdivision, suggesting a relatively recent evolutionary split within the L3e3 lineage.

NATUFIANS

A population without Neanderthal admixture, basal to other Eurasians, may have plausibly lived in Africa. Craniometric analyses have suggested an affinity between the Natufians and populations of north or sub-Saharan Africa24,25, a result that finds some support from Y chromosome analysis which shows that the Natufians and successor Levantine Neolithic populations carried haplogroup E, of likely ultimate African origin, which has not been detected in other ancient males from West Eurasia (Supplementary Information, section 6)

Findings:

African Americans Genomic haplogroups show through solid scientific evidence that they possess the E1b1a E-P2/E-V38 Haplogroups, and haplogroup paternal lineages.

The E-P2/E-V38 haplogroup is strongly associated with the ancient Natufian population from the Levant, suggesting that individuals carrying this haplogroup likely had ancestral ties to the Natufian culture; this is because genetic studies have shown a high prevalence of E-P2, specifically the E-V38 subclade, in the region where the Natufians lived, with origins most likely in Africa. Key points about E-P2 E-V38 and the Natufians: Genetic link: Studies on ancient DNA have found a strong correlation between the E-P2 haplogroup, particularly the E-V38 subclade, and remains from Natufian sites. Geographic distribution: The E-P2 haplogroup is primarily found in Africa, but also occurs at notable frequencies in the Near East, which aligns with the geographic location of the Natufian culture. Implications: This association suggests that the Natufians may have contributed significantly to the spread of the E-P2 haplogroup throughout the region

Such findings questions the accuracy of ancient DNA, and Genomic interpretations depicting ancient Isreal as being mainly eurocentric. This discovery highlights a broader population , and intermixing of ancient populations in ancient Isreal. (OUTSIDE OF IRAQ,and EUROPE).

While European presence in Africa began earlier through coastal trading posts, the majority of Africa was colonized by European powers during the late 19th century, specifically in the period known as the "Scramble for Africa" which took place roughly between the 1880s and early 1900s, with the Berlin Conference of 1884 marking a key point where European nations divided up African territories amongst themselves; by 1914, most of Africa was under European colonial rule. Key points about European colonization of Africa: Early presence: The Portuguese were the first Europeans to establish a presence in Africa, starting in the late 15th century with coastal trading posts. "Scramble for Africa": The late 19th century saw a rapid increase in European colonization of Africa, with various European powers competing to claim territory. Berlin Conference (1884): This conference formally divided the African continent among European powers, establishing the boundaries of future colonies.

Kemet in Africa: Location Kemet was the original name for the land that is now known as Egypt, and was located in the Nile River valley. Culture The people of Kemet were descendants of people from Ethiopia, Kenya, and Tanzania who traveled up the Nile River. They shared many cultural links with modern African cultures, such as hairstyles and headrests. Identity The people of Kemet identified as Black, and referred to themselves and their land as Black. History Kemet was one of the first monarchies and the oldest recorded civilization. Oral records indicate that activity in Kemet may have been taking place as early as 20,000 BC. Significance The Nile River provided the Egyptians with water for farming grains, which accelerated the development of their civilization.

The Greeks renamed Kemet as Egypt.

the 1747 map of Negroland by Emanuel Bowen shows that the Kingdom of Judah(ISREAL) was located in West Africa:

Details

Creator Emanuel Bowen, an 18th-century Royal cartographer and engraver

Commission King George II of England

Features Shows the western coast of Africa, including the regions of "Negroland" and "Upper Guinea"

Highlights Identifies the area above the Slave Coast as the Kingdom of Judah, which was home to remnants of Israel's tribe of Judah

Other details Shows the nationalities of European settlements, boundaries, rivers, and principle settlements

Political Motivations for European Colonization of Alkebulan:

Europeans divided Africa primarily due to the desire to gain economic and strategic advantages through colonization, fueled by a "Scramble for Africa" where various European powers competed to claim African territory, leading to the partitioning of the continent at the Berlin Conference in 1884, where borders were drawn without regard for existing African ethnicities or political structures; this was largely driven by the need to access African resources like ivory, rubber, and minerals, and to solidify their global power positions against other European nations. Key points about the European division of Africa: Economic motives: Access to raw materials like rubber, ivory, and minerals was a major driver for European colonization. Political competition: European powers competed to expand their empires and gain influence on the global stage, leading to a "race" to claim African territory. Berlin Conference (1884): This conference facilitated the division of Africa among European powers, with no African representation. Disregard for existing African cultures: The borders drawn during the Berlin Conference often split ethnic groups and ignored traditional African political structures. Impact on Africa: The colonial legacy of European division continues to influence political instability and conflict in many African nations today.

Religious reasons for European colonization of Alkebulan.

Details:

To many European nations, Christianity represented western civilization and the basis for Anglo-Saxon morality. Christianity served as a major force in the partition and eventual colonization of Africa (Boahen 12).

Details regarding the Partion:

The race for colonies in sub-Saharan Africa The partition of Africa below the Sahara took place at two levels: (1) on paper—in deals made among colonial powers who were seeking colonies partly for the sake of the colonies themselves and partly as pawns in the power play of European nations struggling for world dominance—and (2) in the field—in battles of conquest against African states and tribes and in military confrontations among the rival powers themselves. This process produced, over and above the ravages of colonialism, a wasp’s nest of problems that was to plague African nations long after they achieved independence. Boundary lines between colonies were often drawn arbitrarily, with little or no attention to ethnic unity, regional economic ties, tribal migratory patterns, or even natural boundaries.

Details regarding the nations Europe has involved in division of Alkebulan:

In the 1800s, European nations like Great Britain, France, Germany, Belgium, Portugal, Italy, and Spain carved up parts of Africa amongst themselves, claiming territories across the continent during a period known as the "Scramble for Africa" where they competed to acquire land and resources; with Britain controlling large parts of the south and Egypt(KEMET), France dominating much of North and West Africa, and Belgium taking control of the Congo region.

Key points about European colonization of Africa in the 1800s:

Major players: Great Britain, France, Germany, Belgium, Portugal

Motivation: Access to raw materials like rubber, diamonds, and timber, securing trade routes

Berlin Conference (1884-85): A pivotal event where European powers formally divided Africa amongst themselves

It is evident that genetic testing of the ancient remains found in ISREAL depicting the Isrealites haplogroups were of remains found of Europeans after the colonization , and division of the land of Alkebulan further skewing the DNA haplogroups of the ancient Isrealites. These findings state the specific haplogroups that were either disregarded, hidden by geneticists, limited equipment , or exclusion due to eurocentric racial motivations. Had a proper DNA analysis been performed on the actual Alkebulans. The DNA would have been determined that the ancient Isrealites DNA would have been paternal haplogroups e1b1a E-V38, Or L0-6

According to current research, the "Cohen Haplogroup" is associated with a genetic signature ((( discovered by Dr. Karl Skorecki))), who identified a specific Y-chromosome pattern shared by many Jewish Cohanim (priestly lineage) which is believed to trace back to a common ancestor, traditionally identified as Aaron from the Bible; essentially, the Cohen haplogroup is not "created" by anyone but rather identified through genetic analysis as a distinct lineage within the Jewish population. Key points about the Cohen haplogroup: Discovery: Dr. Karl Skorecki and his team published their findings in the journal Nature in 1997. Genetic Marker: The identified Cohen Modal Haplotype (CMH) is primarily associated with the Y-chromosome haplogroup J1. Biblical Connection: Jewish tradition links the Cohen lineage to Aaron, the brother of Moses, which is supported by the genetic evidence indicating a common ancestry among Cohanim.

Karl Skorecki Speaks about "Genetics of Being Jewish" - Jewish Federation of St.

Multiple Origins of Ashkenazi Levites: Y Chromosome Evidence for Both Near Eastern and European Ancestries Doron M Behar 1,,*, Mark G Thomas 2,,*, Karl Skorecki 1, Michael F Hammer 4, Ekaterina Bulygina 2, Dror Rosengarten 1, Abigail L Jones 2, Karen Held 2, Vivian Moses 2, David Goldstein 3, Neil Bradman 2, Michael E Weale 2 Author information Article notes Copyright and License information PMCID: PMC1180600 PMID: 13680527 Abstract Previous Y chromosome studies have shown that the Cohanim, a paternally inherited Jewish priestly caste, predominantly share a recent common ancestry irrespective of the geographically defined post-Diaspora community to which they belong, a finding consistent with common Jewish origins in the Near East. In contrast, the Levites, another paternally inherited Jewish caste, display evidence for multiple recent origins, with Ashkenazi Levites having a high frequency of a distinctive, non–Near Eastern haplogroup. Here, we show that the Ashkenazi Levite microsatellite haplotypes within this haplogroup are extremely tightly clustered, with an inferred common ancestor within the past 2,000 years. Comparisons with other Jewish and non-Jewish groups suggest that a founding event, probably involving one or very few European men occurring at a time close to the initial formation and settlement of the Ashkenazi community, is the most likely explanation for the presence of this distinctive haplogroup found today in >50% of Ashkenazi Levites.

Introduction Jewish identity, since at least Talmudic times (∼100 b.c.e.–500 c.e.), has been acquired either by maternal descent from a Jewish woman or by rabbinically authorized conversion. Only in recent years have some strands of the Jewish religion accepted paternal descent as a qualifying criterion. Within the Jewish community, however, membership in the three male castes (Cohen, Levi, and Israelite) is determined by paternal descent. Cohanim (plural of “Cohen,” the Hebrew word for priest) are, in Biblical tradition, the descendants of Aaron the brother of Moses; Levites are, in that tradition, considered to be those male descendants of Levi, the third son of the patriarch Jacob and paternal ancestor of Aaron, who are not Cohanim. The Cohanim have both rights and duties in religious law, as well as being subject to restrictions that do not apply to the other castes. They are, for example, called first to the reading of the Torah in synagogue and forbidden entry into a cemetery. Levites have some rights similar to those of Cohanim (for example, exemption from payment of a special tax on the birth of a first-born male) but are not subject to the particular restrictions placed on the Cohanim. Strict adherence to the qualifying rules would mean that the male descendants of men who were not Jews at birth could be Israelites but not Cohanim or Levites (Encyclopaedia Judaica 1972). It is estimated that Cohanim and Levites each comprise ∼4% of the Jewish people (Bradman et al. 1999).

Analysis:

The data collected by this doctor who is in fact Ashkenazi Jewish, detailed his genetic findings as showing The 'Cohen' Priestly Cast haplotype is indeed false due to Ashkenazi having no connection to the region of ALkebulan ( also known as Negroland". This is a method used to obscure the true genetic data, and origina of the occupants in this region.

Genetic Findings:

Based on current historical and genetic understanding, Ashkenazi Jews historically had no significant connection to ancient Africa; their ancestry primarily traces back to Europe, particularly in Central and Eastern Europe, with no substantial African lineage involved.

Key points to remember:

Origin of Ashkenazi Jews: Ashkenazi Jews are a Jewish population group whose ancestors primarily lived in Central and Eastern Europe, including Germany, Poland, and Russia.

Genetic studies show that the majority of Ashkenazi Jewish ancestry originates European populations.

No significant African connection:

While there may be some minor genetic traces from other regions due to historical trade and migration, there is no substantial evidence of a historical connection between Ashkenazi Jews and ancient Africa formerly (ALKEBULAN) also Known as (NEGROLAND) in the 1800's during the period of the "SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICA" true name (ALKEBULAN) time period.

2017 DNA study of Mummies at Abusir el-Meleq

A study published in 2017 by Schuenemann et al. extracted DNA from 151 Egyptian mummies, whose remains were recovered from Abusir el-Meleq in Middle Egypt. The samples are from the time periods: Late New Kingdom, Ptolemaic, and Roman. Complete mtDNA sequences from 90 samples as well as genome-wide data from three ancient Egyptian individuals were successfully obtained and were compared with other ancient and modern datasets. The study used 135 modern Egyptian samples. The ancient Egyptian individuals in their own dataset possessed highly similar mtDNA haplogroup profiles, and cluster together, supporting genetic continuity across the 1,300-year transect. Modern Egyptians shared this mtDNA haplogroup profile, but also carried 8% more African component. A wide range of mtDNA haplogroups was found including clades of J, U, H, HV, M, R0, R2, K, T, L, I, N, X and W. In addition three ancient Egyptian individuals were analysed for Y-DNA, two were assigned to Middle Eastern haplogroup J and one to haplogroup E1b1b1a1b2. Both of these haplogroups are carried by modern Egyptians, and also common among Afroasiatic speakers in Northern Africa, Eastern Africa and the Middle East. The researchers cautioned that the examined ancient Egyptian specimens may not be representative of those of all ancient Egyptians since they were from a single archaeological site from the northern part of Egypt. The analyses revealed that Ancient Egyptians had higher affinities with Near Eastern and European populations than modern Egyptians do, likely due to the 8% increase in the African component found in modern Egyptians. However, comparative data from a contemporary population under Roman rule in Anatolia, did not reveal a closer relationship to the ancient Egyptians from the Roman period. "Genetic continuity between ancient and modern Egyptians cannot be ruled out despite this more recent sub-Saharan African influx, while continuity with modern Ethiopians is not supported".

The absolute estimates of sub-Saharan African ancestry in these three ancient Egyptian individuals ranged from 6 to 15%, and the absolute estimates of sub-Saharan African ancestry in the 135 modern Egyptian samples ranged from 14 to 21%, which show an 8% increase in African component. The age of the ancient Egyptian samples suggests that this 8% increase in African component occurred predominantly within the last 2000 years. The 135 modern Egyptian samples were: 100 from modern Egyptians taken from a study by Pagani et al., and 35 from el-Hayez Western Desert Oasis taken from a study by Kujanova et al. The 35 samples from el-Hayez Western Desert Oasis, whose population is described by the Kujanova et al. study as a mixed, relatively isolated, demographically small but autochthonous population, were already known from that study to have a relatively high sub-Saharan African component, which is more than 11% higher than the African component in the 100 modern Egyptian samples.

Verena Schuenemann and the authors of this study suggest a high level of genetic interaction with the Near East since ancient times, probably going back to Prehistoric Egypt although the oldest mummies at the site were from the New Kingdom: "Our data seem to indicate close admixture and affinity at a much earlier date, which is unsurprising given the long and complex connections between Egypt and the Middle East. These connections date back to Prehistory and occurred at a variety of scales, including overland and maritime commerce, diplomacy, immigration, invasion and deportation".

• PCA and ADMIXTURE analysis of three ancient Egyptian samples and other modern and ancient populations.
• PCA using only European samples based on the nuclear genome-wide data obtained on three ancient Egyptian samples.
• Complete results from the ADMIXTURE analysis using all samples in the merged data set, from the 2017 study by Schuenemann et al.
• F_ST values showing the genetic distances of HVR-1 (mtDNA) between 90 ancient Egyptians and modern populations. Blue values depict higher genetic distances, red values depict lower genetic distances between the ancient Egyptian population and modern populations in the respective area.

Responses to the 2017 DNA study

The 2017 study has generated academic responses from scholars from other related disciplines, remarking on the conclusions of the study from a multi-disciplinary approach.

In 2020, Stuart Tyson Smith, professor of anthropology at UC Santa Barbara, stated: "Additionally, they are oblivious to the fact that the mouth of the Faiyum Oasis, where the sample was located, is well known, through historical documents, as an area where Middle Eastern people, like the Sherden, were settled as a reward for military service, during the late New Kingdom, about 1300 to 1070 BCE. This provides a far more likely explanation for any stronger affinity to Middle Eastern populations, and weaker ties to Sub-Saharan populations than modern Egyptians in their sample, but was not even considered."

In 2021, Gourdine et al disputed Scheunemann et al's claim, in an unpublished article, that the increase in the sub-Saharan component in the modern Egyptian samples resulted from the trans-Saharan slave trade. Instead they argued that the sub-Saharan "genetic affinities" may be attributed to "early settlers" and "the relevant sub-Saharan genetic markers do not correspond with the geography of known trade routes".

In 2022, biological anthropologist S.O.Y. Keita argued that there were problems with the study's approaches and conclusions such as over-generalizations and a failure to consider alternative explanations. Particularly, he raised issues with the comparative samples from West Africa as a proxy group and generalisations about geographical Egypt and population origins from the sample results. He also drew attention to the fact that the authors draw inference on migrations in line with their Bayesian statistical approach rather than integrate other data into their explanations about the population history.

In 2022, archaeologist Danielle Candelora stated that there were several limitations with the 2017 Scheunemann et al. study such as “new (untested) sampling methods, small sample size and problematic comparative data”.

In 2023, Stiebling and Helft acknowledged that the 2017 study had performed the largest study on ancient Egyptians but noted that the findings still derived from a small sample of mummies from one site in Middle Egypt dating to the New Kingdom and later periods. They also stated that this study could not represent earlier populations or Egyptians from Upper Egypt who were geographically closer to Sub-Saharan populations.

In 2023, Christopher Ehret argued that the conclusions of the 2017 study were based on insufficiently small sample sizes, and that the authors had a biased interpretation of the genetic data. Ehret also criticised the Schuenemann article for asserting that there was “no sub-Saharan genetic component” in the Egyptian population and cited previous genetic analysis which had identified the Horn of Africa as the origin of the E-M35 paternal haplogroup.

Later findings

A 2020 study was conducted on ancient samples from Lebanon. Two individuals who lived in Lebanon around 500 BCE did not cluster with their contemporary Lebanese population. The study used the same Egyptian samples from the 2017 Schuenemann et al. study to further test these two individuals. One of these two individuals was a female who formed a clad with the three ancient Egyptian individuals from Schuenemann et al., implying that she shared all of her ancestry with them or a genetically equivalent population. The other one was a male who derived ~70% of his ancestry from a population related to the female and ~30% from a population related to ancient Levantines. Further testing suggests that the female was an Egyptian woman and the male was her son from a man who himself had both Egyptian and Lebanese ancestries.

2018 study of Nakht-Ankh and Khnum-Nakht

The tomb of two high-status Egyptians, Nakht-Ankh and Khnum-Nakht, was discovered by Egyptian workmen directed by Sir William Flinders Petrie and Ernest Mackay in 1907. Nakht-Ankh and Khnum-Nakht lived during the 12th Dynasty (1985–1773 BCE) in Middle Egypt and were aged 20 years apart. Their tomb has been called Tomb of Two Brothers because the mummies were buried adjacent to one other and inscriptions on the coffins mention the female name Khnum-Aa, who is described as 'lady of the house' and referred to as the mother of both Nakht-Ankh and Khnum-Nakht. The Y-chromosome sequences were not complete, but the Y-chromosome SNPs indicated that they had different fathers, suggesting that they were half-brothers. The SNP identities were consistent with mtDNA haplogroup M1a1 with 88.05–91.27% degree of confidence, thus "confirming the African origins of the two individuals" according to the study authors, based on their maternal lineage.

2018 study of Djehutynakht

In 2018 the mummified head of Djehutynakht was analysed for mitochondrial DNA. Djehutynakht was the nomarch of the Hare nome in Upper Egypt during the 11th or 12th Dynasty in the early Middle Kingdom period, c. 2000 BC. Two laboratories independently analysed Djehutynakht's DNA and found that he belonged to the mtDNA haplogroup U5b2b5, described by the lead author Odile Loreille as "a European haplogroup". U5 is thought to have originated in Europe, and U5b2b5 has been found in ancient European samples dating from the Neolithic onwards. U5b2b5 has also been found in 10 samples from Christian Period Nubia, and a related European sequence (U5b2c1) has been observed in an ancient sample from Carthage (6th century BC). Among ancient Egyptian samples the Djehutynakht sequence resembles a U5a lineage from sample JK2903, a 2000-year-old skeleton from the Abusir el-Meleq site in Egypt. Haplogroup U5 is found in modern Egyptians, and is found in modern Egyptian Berbers from the Siwa Oasis in Egypt. A 2009 study by Coudray et al. recorded haplogroup U5 at 16.7% in the Siwa Oasis in Egypt, whereas haplogroup U6 is more common in other Berber populations to the west of Egypt.

2020 study on two Egyptian child mummies

A study on male child mummies from the Greco-Roman period originating in the Memphite or Luxor area, revealed that the mtDNA for one was T2c1a and the other HV. Identical or phylogenetically close derivatives of these lineages are present in both ancient and modern Egyptians, as well as among several present-day populations of the Near East and North Africa. The researchers noted that mtDNA alone is not enough to reach any precise conclusion about the origin of an individual, but the results are in accordance with an Egyptian origin. The ages of the two mummified corpses ranged from 11–15 years old, and 2–4 years old.

2020 study of Tutankhamun and other mummies of the 18th Dynasty

A 2020 study by Gad, Hawass, et al. analysed mitochondrial and Y-chromosomal haplogroups from Tutankhamun's family members of the 18th Dynasty, using comprehensive control procedures to ensure quality results. The study found that the Y-chromosome haplogroup of the family was R1b. Haplogroup R1b is carried by modern Egyptians. Modern Egypt is also the only African country that is known to harbor all three R1 subtypes, including R1b-M269. The Y-chromosome profiles for Tutankhamun and Amenhotep III were incomplete and the analysis produced differing probability figures despite having concordant allele results. Because the relationships of these two mummies with the KV55 mummy (identified as Akhenaten) had previously been confirmed in an earlier study, the haplogroup prediction of both mummies could be derived from the full profile of the KV55 data. Genetic analysis indicated the following haplogroups for the 18th Dynasty:

• Amenhotep III: YDNA R1b & mtDNA H2b.
• Tutankhamun: YDNA R1b & mtDNA K.
• Akhenaten: YDNA R1b & mtDNA K.
• Tiye: mtDNA K.
• Yuya: YDNA G2a & mtDNA K.
• Thuya: mtDNA K.

Both Y-DNA haplogroups R1b and G2a, as well as both mtDNA haplogroups H and K, are carried by modern Egyptians.

2020 study of Takabuti

In 2020 the mummy of Takabuti was tested for mitochondrial DNA. Takabuti was a noblewoman from Thebes in Upper Egypt who lived during the 25th Dynasty, c. 660 BC. Analysis of her DNA revealed that she belonged to the mtDNA haplogroup H4a1. The study states that “the H super-haplogroup is the most common mtDNA lineage in Europe and is found also in parts of present-day Africa and western Asia”. Haplogroup H is also carried by modern Egyptians, the subgroup H4 in particular, along with H2a1 and H13a1, account for 42% of H lineages in modern Egypt, with H4 accounting for 16.7% of H lineages in modern Egypt.

2020 study of mummies at the Kurchatov Institute

In 2020, three mummies, dating from the 1st millennium BCE, from the Pushkin Museum of Arts collection were tested at the Kurchatov Institute of Moscow for their mitochondrial and Y-chromosomal haplogroups. One of the mummies was found to belong to the Y-chromosomal haplogroup R1b1a1b (R1b-M269), which originated in Eastern Europe, and another to the Y-chromosome haplogroup E1b1b1a1b2a4b5a, which originated in North Africa. They also belonged to mtDNA haplogroups L3h1 and N5, common in Africans and Middle Easterners, respectively. The third mummy was found to belong to mtDNA haplogroup N, which is widely distributed across Eurasia as well as eastern and northeastern Africa.

2022 comments on mummies of the 18th and 20th Dynasties

In a comment on Hawas et al. (2010& 2012), the anthropologist S.O.Y. Keita pointed out, based on inserting the data into the PopAffiliator online calculator, which only calculates affinity to East Asia, Eurasia, and sub-Saharan Africa, but not to North Africa or the Near East, for instance, that Ramesses III and the Amarna ancient royal family (including Tutankhamun) showed "an affinity with sub-Saharan Africans in one affinity analysis, which does not mean that they lacked other affiliations — an important point that typological thinking obscures. Also, different data and algorithms might give different results, which would illustrate the complexity of biological heritage and its interpretation."

Genetic studies on modern Egyptians

Genetic analysis of modern Egyptians reveals that they have paternal lineages common to other indigenous Afroasiatic speaking populations in North Africa, West Asia, Anatolia and Horn of Africa; Some studies have proposed the view that these lineages would have spread into North Africa and Horn of Africa from Western Asia during the Neolithic Revolution and were maintained by the predynastic period.

A study by Krings et al. (1999) on mitochondrial DNA clines along the Nile Valley found that a Eurasian cline runs from Northern Egypt to Southern Sudan and a Sub-Saharan cline from Southern Sudan to Northern Egypt, derived from a sample size of 224 individuals (68 Egyptians, 80 Nubians, 76 southern Sudanese). The study also found Egypt and Nubia have low and similar amounts of divergence for both mtDNA types, which is consistent with historical evidence for long-term interactions between Egypt and Nubia. However, there are significant differences between the composition of the mtDNA gene pool of the Egyptian samples and that of the Nubians and Southern Sudanese samples. The diversity of the Eurasian mtDNA type was highest in Egypt and lowest in southern Sudan, whereas the diversity of the sub-Saharan mtDNA type was lowest in Egypt and highest in southern Sudan. The authors suggested in their conclusion that Egypt and Nubia had more genetic contact than either did with southern Sudan and that the migration from north to south was either earlier or lesser in the extent of gene flow than the migration from south to north.

A study by Luis et al. (2004) found that the male haplogroups in a sample of 147 Egyptians were E1b1b (36.1%, predominantly E-M78), J (32.0%), G (8.8%), T (8.2%), and R (7.5%). The study found that "Egypt's NRY frequency distributions appear to be much more similar to those of the Middle East than to any sub-Saharan African population, suggesting a much larger Eurasian genetic component ... The cumulative frequency of typical sub-Saharan lineages (A, B, E1b1a) is 3.4% in Egypt ... whereas the haplogroups of Eurasian origin (Groups C, D, and F–Q) account for 59% ." E1b1b subclades are characteristic of some Afro-Asiatic speakers and are believed to have originated in either the Middle East, North Africa, or the Horn of Africa. Cruciani et al. (2007) suggests that E-M78, E1b1b predominant subclade in Egypt, originated in Northeastern Africa (Egypt and Libya in the study), with a corridor for bidirectional migrations between northeastern and eastern Africa (at least 2 episodes between 23.9 and 17.3 ky and 18.0–5.9 ky ago), trans-Mediterranean migrations directly from northern Africa to Europe (mainly in the last 13.0 ky), and flow from northeastern Africa to western Asia between 20.0 and 6.8 ky ago. Cruciani et al. proposed that E-M35, the parent clade of E-M78, originated in Eastern Africa during the Palaeolithic and subsequently spread to Northeastern Africa, 23.9–17.3 ky ago. Cruciani et al. also state that the presence of E-M78 chromosomes in Eastern Africa can be only explained through a back migration of chromosomes that had acquired the M78 mutation in Northeast Africa.

Other studies have shown that modern Egyptians have genetic affinities primarily with populations of North Africa and the Middle East, and to a lesser extent the Horn of Africa and European populations. Another study states that "the information available on individual groups in Ethiopia and North Africa is fairly limited but sufficient to show that they are all separate from sub-Saharan Africans and that North Africans and East Africans (such as Ethiopians) are clearly separate", and concluded that most Ethiopians came from an admixture and that the larger fraction of Sub-Saharan genes came during the Neolithic times "before the beginning of the Egyptian civilisation". The study also found the gene frequency of North African populations and, to a lesser extent, East Africa to be intermediate between Africa and Europe. In addition, some studies suggest ties with populations in the Middle East, as well as some groups in southern Europe, and a closer link to other North Africans.

A 2004 mtDNA study of 58 upper Egyptian individuals included 34 individuals from Gurna, a small settlement on the hills opposite Luxor. The 34 individuals from Gurna exhibited the haplogroups: M1 (6/34 individuals, 17.6%), H (5/34 individuals, 14.7%), L1a (4/34 individuals, 11.8%) and U (3/34 individuals, 8.8%). The M1 haplotype frequency in Gurna individuals (6/34 individuals, 17.6%) is similar to that seen in Ethiopian population (20%), along with a West Eurasian component different in haplogroup distribution in the Gurna individuals. However, the M1 haplotypes from Gurna individuals exhibited a mutation that is not present in Ethiopian population; whereas this mutation was present in non-M1 haplotype individuals from Gurna. Nile Valley Egyptians do not show the characteristics that were shown by the Gurna individuals. The results of the study suggested that the sample of Gurna individuals had retained elements of an ancestral genetic structure from an ancestral East African population, characterized by a high M1 haplogroup frequency. Another 2004 mtDNA study featured the Gurna individuals samples, and clustered them together with the Ethiopian and Yemeni groups, in between the Near Eastern and other African sample groups.

A 2005 genetic study found close affinities of eastern sub-Saharan populations with Egypt in the phylogenetic trees through analysis of the short DNA sequences. The authors suggested that the influential role of the Nile River served as a migratory route and an agent of genetic flow which contributed to present-day heterogeneity in Egypt.

Though there has been much debate of the origins of haplogroup M1 a 2007 study had concluded that M1 has West Asia origins not a Sub Saharan African origin, although the majority of the M1a lineages found outside and inside Africa had a more recent East African origin, as a result of "the first M1 backflow to Africa, dated around 30,000 ". The study states that "the most ancient dispersals of M1 occurred in northwestern Africa, reaching also the Iberian Peninsula, instead of Ethiopia", and states that the evidence points to either "that the Near East was the most probable origin of the primitive M1 dispersals, West into Africa and East to Central Asia ... the Sinai Peninsula as the most probable gate of entrance of this backflow to Africa" or "that M1 is an autochthonous North African clad that had its earliest spread in northwestern areas marginally reaching the Near East and beyond".

However, other authors have proposed the view that the M haplogroup developed in Africa before the 'Out of Africa' event around 50,000 years ago, and dispersed from North Africa or East Africa 10,000 to 20,000 years ago. Quintana-Murci et al. stated in reference to the M haplogroup that "Its variation and geographical distribution suggest that Asian haplogroup M separated from eastern-African haplogroup M more than 50,000 years ago. Two other variants (489C and 10873C) also support a single origin of haplogroup M in Africa".

A 2003 Y-chromosome study was performed by Lucotte on modern Egyptians, with haplotypes V, XI, and IV being most common. Haplotype V is common among all North Africans and has a low frequency outside the North African region. Haplotypes V, XI, and IV are all predominantly North African/Horn of African/Sub-Saharan African (related to Bantu expansion) haplotypes, respectively, and they are far more dominant in Egyptians than in Middle Eastern or European groups. The pattern of diversity for these variants in the Egyptian Nile Valley was largely the product of population events that occurred in the late Pleistocene to mid-Holocene through the First Dynasty.

Keita (2008) examined a published Y-chromosome dataset on Afro-Asiatic populations and remarked that a key subclade of E-M35, namely the key lineage E-M78, was shared between the populations in the locale of original Egyptian speakers and modern Cushitic speakers from the Horn of Africa. These lineages are present in modern Egyptians, Berbers, Cushitic speakers from the Horn of Africa, and Semitic speakers in the Near-East. He noted that variants are also found in the Aegean and Balkans. The origin of E-M35 was in East Africa, whereas the origin of its subclade mutation E-M78 was in Northeast Africa (the area of Egypt and Libya). This parent clade and its subclade mutations in general were dominant in a core portion of Afro-Asiatic speaking populations which included Cushitic, Egyptian, Berber groups, and Semitic speakers from the Near East, where Semitic speakers showed a decline in frequency going west to east in the Levantine-Syria region. He concluded that "the genetic data give population profiles that clearly indicate males of African origin, as opposed to being of Asian or European descent" but acknowledged that the biodiversity does not indicate any specific set of skin colors or facial features as populations were subject to microevolutionary pressures.

Babiker, H et al. (2011) examined the genotypes of 15 STRs for 498 individuals from 18 Sudanese populations and featured comparative genotype data with Egypt, Somalia and the Karamoja population from Uganda. Overall, the results showed that the genotypes of individuals from northern Sudan clustered with those of Egypt, the Somali population was found to be genetically distinct and individuals from southern Sudan clustered with those from the Karamoja population. The study determined that similarity of the Nubian and Egyptian populations suggested that migration, potentially bidirectional, occurred along the Nile river Valley, which is consistent with the historical evidence for long-term interactions between Egypt and Nubia.

An allele frequency comparative study led by the Egyptian Army Major General Doctor Tarek Taha conducted STR analysis in 2020 between the two main Egyptian ethnic groups, Muslims and Christians, each group represented by a sample of 100 unrelated healthy individuals, supported the conclusion that Egyptian Muslims and Egyptian Christians genetically originate from the same ancestors.

A Nov 2023 study by Hammarén et al isolated the non-african parts of the genomes of modern day northeast Africans found that Sudanese Copts and Egyptian muslims from Cairo bore most similarities to Levantines, unlike other populations in the region which had predominant genetic contributions from the Arabian peninsula rather than Levant for their Non-African genetic component. The study also found that Egyptian muslims and Sudanese Copts are genetically most similar to Middle Eastern groups rather than the other African populations, they estimated the admixture date for modern Egyptians with Eurasians to have occurred around the 14th century, however the authors noted that "most, if not all, of the populations in this study have or have had admixture with populations from the Middle East during the Arab expansion, and this newer admixture is obscuring older admixture patterns". The study overall points that the distribution of Eurasian ancestry in modern Eastern and Northeast Africa is the result of more recent migrations, many of which are recorded in historical texts rather than ancient one.

Y-DNA haplogroups

A study by Arredi et al., which analyzed 275 samples from five populations in Algeria, Tunisia, and Egypt, as well as published data from Moroccan populations, suggested that the North African pattern of Y-chromosomal variation, including in Egypt, is largely of Neolithic origin. The study analyzed North African populations, including North Egyptians and South Egyptians, as well as samples from southern Europe, the Middle East, and sub-Saharan Africa, and revealed the following conclusions about the male-lineage variation in North Africa: "The lineages that are most prevalent in North Africa are distinct from those in the regions to the immediate north and south: Europe and sub-Saharan Africa ... two haplogroups predominate within North Africa, together making up almost two-thirds of the male lineages: E3b2 and J* (42% and 20%, respectively). E3b2 is rare outside North Africa, and is otherwise known only from Mali, Niger, and Sudan to the immediate south, and the Near East and Southern Europe at very low frequencies. Haplogroup J reaches its highest frequencies in the Middle East".

A study by Lucotte using the Y-chromosome of 274 male individuals (162 from Lower Egypt, 66 from Upper Egypt, 46 from Lower Nubia) found that the main haplotype V has higher frequency in the North than in the South, and haplotype XI has higher frequency in the South than in the North, whereas haplotype IV is found in the South (highest in Lower Nubia). The study states that haplotype IV is also characteristic of Sub-Saharan populations. Remarking on Lucotte's Y-chromosome study, which found that haplotypes V, XI, and IV are most common, Keita states that "a synthesis of evidence from archaeology, historical linguistics, texts, distribution of haplotypes outside Egypt, and some demographic considerations lends greater support to the establishment, before the Middle Kingdom, of the observed distributions of the most prevalent haplotypes V, XI, and IV. It is suggested that the pattern of diversity for these variants in the Egyptian Nile Valley was largely the product of population events that occurred in the late Pleistocene to mid-Holocene through the First Dynasty". Keita later states "Later, mid-Holocene climatic-driven migrations led to a major settlement of the valley in Upper Egypt and Nubia, but less so in Lower Egypt, by diverse Saharans with haplotypes IV, XI, and V. These people fused with the indigenous valley peoples, as did Near Easterners with VII and VIII, but perhaps also some V".

In 2005, based on review of Lucotte's and other published studies dealing with the contemporary Y-Chromosome variation in Egypt, Keita stated haplotype V, should be more appropriately called “Horn-supra-saharan African" and is indigenous to Africa, with the haplotypes V, XI and IV all associated with the M35/215 subclade. Keita and Boyce concluded: "There was no wholesale population replacement. This is not especially surprising because there is no evidence that the earliest Arabic-speakers, who came as teachers of Islam, intended to replace the indigenous populations biologically." They further elaborated that “The peoples of the Egyptian and northern Sudanese Nile valley, and supra-Saharan Africa now speak Arabic in the main, but as noted, this largely represents language shift. Ancient Egyptian is Afroasiatic, and current inhabitants of the Nile Valley should be understood as being in the main, although not wholly, descendants of the pre-Neolithic regional inhabitants, although this apparently varies by geography, as indicated by the frequency of Near Eastern haplotypes/lineages.”

The major downstream mutations within the M35 subclade are M78 and M81. There are also other M35 lineages, e.g., M123. In Egypt, haplotypes VII and VIII are associated with the J haplogroup, which is predominant in the Near East.

Distribution of E1b1b1a (E-M78) and its subclades

Mitochondrial DNA

In 2009 mitochondrial data was sequenced for 277 unrelated Egyptian individuals by Jessica L Saunier et al. in the journal Forensic Science International, as follows

• R0 and its subgroups (31.4%)
• L3 (12.3%); and Asian origin (n = 33)

including M (6.9%)

• T (9.4%)
• U (9.0%)
• J (7.6%)
• N (5.1%)
• K (4.7%)
• L2 (3.6%)
• L1 (2.5%)
• I (3.2%)
• W (0.7%)
• X (1.4%); African origin (n = 57) including L0 (2.2%)

Autosomal DNA

Mohamed, T et al. (2009) in their study of nomadic Bedouins featured a comparative study with a worldwide population database and a sample size of 153 Bedouin males. Their analysis discovered that both Muslim Egyptians and Coptic Christians showed a distinct North African cluster at 65%. This is their predominant ancestral component, and unique to the geographic region of Egypt.

In a 2019 study that analyzed the autosomal make-up of 21 modern North African genomes and other populations using Ancient DNA reference populations, this sample of Egyptian genomes were found to share more affinity with Middle Eastern populations compared to other North Africans. Egyptians carry more of the Caucasus hunter gatherer / Iran Neolithic component compared to other North Africans, more of the Natufian related component and less of the Iberomaurusian related component than other North Africans, and also less of the Steppe / European hunter gatherer component, consistent with Egypt's geographical proximity to southwest Asia.

Coptic Christians

A Y-DNA sample of Copts from Egypt was analyzed in Éric Crubézy et al. 2010. The Y-DNA profile was:

• 74% E1b1
• 7% G
• 3% T
• 1% J1
• 15% ambiguous.

Cruzby further added that “The haplotype E1b1 has a fairly wide distribution across Africa, but never had been described with such frequency in this area”. He also noted that Ethiopia was one of the areas in the world where the haplotype was most common. Cruzby suggested that this shared lineage could be attributed to the contacts between Coptic Christian communities in both Egypt and Ethiopia although the overlaps between the religious communities were rare.

In Sudan

According to Y-DNA analysis by Hassan et al. (2008), 45% of Copts in Sudan (of a sample of 33) carry haplogroup J1. Next most common was E1b1b, the most common haplogroup in North Africa. Both paternal lineages are common among other regional Afroasiatic-speaking populations, such as Beja, Ethiopians, and Sudanese Arabs, as well as non-Afroasiatic-speaking Nubians. E1b1b reaches its highest frequencies among North African and Horn of Africa populations such as Amazighs and Somalis. The next most common haplogroups borne by Copts are R1b (15%), most common in Europe, and the widespread African haplogroup B (15%). According to the study, the presence of haplogroup B may also be consistent with the historical record in which southern Egypt was colonized by Nilotic populations during the early state formation.

Maternally, Hassan (2009) found that the majority of Copts in Sudan (of a sample of 29) carried descendants of the macrohaplogroup N; of these, haplogroup U6 was most frequent (28%), followed by T1 (17%). In addition, Copts carried 14% M1 and 7% L1c.

A 2015 study by Dobon et al. identified an ancestral autosomal component of West Eurasian origin that is common to many modern Afroasiatic-speaking populations in Northeast Africa. Known as the Coptic component, it peaks among Egyptian Copts who settled in Sudan over the past two centuries, they also formed a separated group in PCA, a close outlier to other Egyptians, Afroasiatic-speaking Northeast Africans and Middle East populations. The Coptic component evolved out of a main North African and Middle Eastern ancestral component that is shared by other Egyptians and also found at high frequencies among other Afroasiatic-speaking populations in Northeast Africa (~70%), who carry a Nilo-Saharan element as well. The scientists suggest that this points to a common origin for the general population of Egypt. They also associate the Coptic component with Ancient Egyptian ancestry, without the later Arabic influence that is present among other Egyptians, especially people of the Sinai.

In another 2017 study that genotyped and analyzed the same populations including Sudanese Copts and Egyptians, The ADMIXTURE analyses and the PCA displayed the genetic affinity of the Copts to the Egyptian population. Assuming few clusters, the Copts appeared admixed between Near Eastern/European populations and northeastern Sudanese and look similar in their genetic profile to the Egyptians. Assuming greater number of clusters (K≥18), the Copts formed their own separate ancestry component that was shared with Egyptians but can also be found in Arab populations. This behavior in the admixture analyses is consistent with shared ancestry between Copts and Egyptians and/or additional genetic drift in the Copts. The Egyptians and Copts showed low levels of genetic differentiation (FST = 0.00236), lower levels of genetic diversity and greater levels of RoH compared to other northeast African groups, including Arab and Middle Eastern groups that share ancestry with the Copts and Egyptians. A formal test did not find significant admixture into the Egyptians from other tested groups (X), and the Copts and Egyptians displayed similar levels of European or Middle Eastern ancestry (Copts were estimated to be of 69.54% ± 2.57 European ancestry, and the Egyptians of 70.65% ± 2.47 European ancestry). Taken together, these results point to that the Copts and the Egyptians have a common history linked to smaller population sizes, and that Sudanese Copts have remained relatively isolated since their arrival to Sudan with only low levels of admixture with local northeastern Sudanese groups.

See also

• Ancient Egyptian race controversy
• Demographics of Egypt
• Genetic history of Africa
• Genetic history of North Africa
• Genetic history of the Middle East
• Genetic studies on Arabs
• Population history of Egypt

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