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The term ''' Indian philosophy''' may refer to any of several traditions of philosophical thought that originated in ] or the ]. The Sanskrit term for "philosopher" is ''{{IAST|dārśanika}}'', one who is familiar with the systems of philosophy, or ''{{IAST|darśanas}}''.<ref>Apte, p. 497.</ref> The term ''' Indian philosophy''' may refer to any of several traditions of philosophical thought that originated in ].
⚫ <ref>Chatterjee and Datta (pp. 3-4.) state:"Indian philosophy denotes the philosophical speculations of all Indian thinkers, ancient or modern, Hindus or non-Hindus, theists or atheists Though there were many different schools and their views differed sometimes very widely, yet each school took care to learn the views of all the others
</ref>
The Sanskrit term for "philosopher" is ''{{IAST|dārśanika}}'', one who is familiar with the systems of philosophy, or ''{{IAST|darśanas}}''.<ref>Apte, p. 497.</ref>


Chatterjee and Datta give this definition, explaining that a cornerstone of Indian philosophy is a tradition of respect for multiple views:

⚫ <blockquote>"Indian philosophy denotes the philosophical speculations of all Indian thinkers, ancient or modern, Hindus or non-Hindus, theists or atheists....

Indian philosophy is marked... by a striking breadth of outlook which only testifies to its unflinching devotion to the search for truth. Though there were many different schools and their views differed sometimes very widely, yet each school took care to learn the views of all the others and did not come to any conclusions before considering thoroughly what others had to say and how their points could be met.... If the openness of mind -- the willingness to listen to what others have to say -- has been one of the chief causes of the wealth and greatness of Indian philosophy in the past, it has a definite moral for the future."<ref>Chatterjee and Datta, pp. 3-4.</ref>
</blockquote>


Indian philosophy is mainly spiritual, but the religion it seeds is not dogmatic and the philosophical ideas are not handed down ].<ref>''General characteristics of Indian thought'', in Radhakrishnan (1929)</ref> As ] wrote in one of the early systematic accounts on Indian philosophy:<ref>Radhakrishnan (1929), pp 27</ref> Indian philosophy is mainly spiritual, but the religion it seeds is not dogmatic and the philosophical ideas are not handed down ].<ref>''General characteristics of Indian thought'', in Radhakrishnan (1929)</ref> As ] wrote in one of the early systematic accounts on Indian philosophy:<ref>Radhakrishnan (1929), pp 27</ref>
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</blockquote> </blockquote>



==Periods==
⚫ === Hindu philosophy ===
⚫ Ancient Indian philosophy has been divided into broad divisions:<ref>''Periods of Indian Thought'', in Radhakrishnan (1929)</ref><ref>Radhakrishnan and Moore, pp. xviii-xxi.</ref>
{{main|Hindu philosophy}}
⚫ # The Vedic Period (1500 ]-600 BCE)
⚫ ] is roughly divided into the following periods:<ref>''Periods of Indian Thought'', in Radhakrishnan (1929)</ref><ref>Radhakrishnan and Moore, pp. xviii-xxi.</ref>
⚫ # The Epic period (600 BCE - 200 ])
# The Sutra Period (after 200 ]; "the first centuries of the Christian era") # The Vedic Period (1500 - 600 BCE)
⚫ # The Epic period (400 BCE - AD 200 )
⚫ # The Scholastic Period (from the Sutra Period to the 17th century ])
⚫ # The Sutra Period (after AD 200)
⚫ # The Scholastic Period (ca. 800 to 1600)


The ] Period marks the definite beginning of systematic philosophical thinking.<ref>Chatterjee and Datta, p. 10.</ref> A sutra-work consists of a collection of brief statements, aphorisms, or problems, with answers, objections, and possible replies. The ] of Bādarāyaṇa, for example, sums up and systematizes the philosophical teachings of various Vedic works, chiefly the Upanishads, and also mention and answer of both actual and possible objections to those views. It is the first ''systematic'' treatise on the Vedanta literature.<ref>Chatterjee and Datta, p. 10.</ref> Similarly we have for the Mimamsa the sutras of Jaimini, for the Nyaya the sutras of Gotama, for the Vaisheshika the sutras of Kanada, and for the Yoga the sutras of Patanjali. The ] Period marks the definite beginning of systematic philosophical thinking.<ref>Chatterjee and Datta, p. 10.</ref> A sutra-work consists of a collection of brief statements, aphorisms, or problems, with answers, objections, and possible replies. The ] of Bādarāyaṇa, for example, sums up and systematizes the philosophical teachings of various Vedic works, chiefly the Upanishads, and also mention and answer of both actual and possible objections to those views. It is the first ''systematic'' treatise on the Vedanta literature.<ref>Chatterjee and Datta, p. 10.</ref> Similarly we have for the Mimamsa the sutras of Jaimini, for the Nyaya the sutras of Gotama, for the Vaisheshika the sutras of Kanada, and for the Yoga the sutras of Patanjali.
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Because the sutra form is by nature brief, their meanings were not always clear. During the Scholastic Period this gave rise for interpretive commentaries (''{{IAST|bhāṣyas}}''), which play a major role in philosophical literature. In some cases, different authors wrote major commentaries on the same sutra-work, but with very different interpretations reflecting their own philosophical positions.<ref>Chatterjee and Datta, p. 11.</ref> In time, commentaries arose upon commentaries, and additional independent works were written in defense of particular views. Because the sutra form is by nature brief, their meanings were not always clear. During the Scholastic Period this gave rise for interpretive commentaries (''{{IAST|bhāṣyas}}''), which play a major role in philosophical literature. In some cases, different authors wrote major commentaries on the same sutra-work, but with very different interpretations reflecting their own philosophical positions.<ref>Chatterjee and Datta, p. 11.</ref> In time, commentaries arose upon commentaries, and additional independent works were written in defense of particular views.


==Common themes== ===Common themes===

Indian thinkers viewed philosophy as a practical necessity that needed to be cultivated in order to understand how life can best be led. It became a custom for Indian writers to explain at the beginning of philosophical works how it serves human ends ({{IAST|puruṣārtha}}).<ref>Chatterjee and Datta, p.12.</ref> Indian thinkers viewed philosophy as a practical necessity that needed to be cultivated in order to understand how life can best be led. It became a custom for Indian writers to explain at the beginning of philosophical works how it serves human ends ({{IAST|puruṣārtha}}).<ref>Chatterjee and Datta, p.12.</ref>


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<blockquote>A firm faith in 'an eternal moral order' dominates the entire history of Indian philosophy, barring the solitary exception of the ] materialists. It is the common atmosphere of faith in which all these systems, Vedic and non-Vedic, theistic and atheistic, move and breathe. The faith in an order -- a law that makes for regularity and righteousness and works in the gods, the heavenly bodies and all creatures -- pervades the imagination of the seers of ] which calls this inviolable moral order {{IAST|Ṛta}}.<ref>Chatterjee and Datta, p. 14.</ref></blockquote> <blockquote>A firm faith in 'an eternal moral order' dominates the entire history of Indian philosophy, barring the solitary exception of the ] materialists. It is the common atmosphere of faith in which all these systems, Vedic and non-Vedic, theistic and atheistic, move and breathe. The faith in an order -- a law that makes for regularity and righteousness and works in the gods, the heavenly bodies and all creatures -- pervades the imagination of the seers of ] which calls this inviolable moral order {{IAST|Ṛta}}.<ref>Chatterjee and Datta, p. 14.</ref></blockquote>


== Overviews == ===Schools===

=== Hinduism ===
⚫ {{main|Hindu philosophy}}
Many ] intellectual traditions were codified during the medieval period of Brahmanic-Sanskritic scholasticism into a standard list of six orthodox (]) systems, the "Six Philosophies" (''{{IAST|ṣaddarśana}}''), all of which cite ] authority as their source:<ref>Flood, op. cit., p. 231-2.</ref><ref>Chatterjee and Datta, p. 5.</ref><ref>Michaels, p. 264.</ref> Many ] intellectual traditions were codified during the medieval period of Brahmanic-Sanskritic scholasticism into a standard list of six orthodox (]) systems, the "Six Philosophies" (''{{IAST|ṣaddarśana}}''), all of which cite ] authority as their source:<ref>Flood, op. cit., p. 231-2.</ref><ref>Chatterjee and Datta, p. 5.</ref><ref>Michaels, p. 264.</ref>
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The ] schools, including ] and ], also developed. The ] schools, including ] and ], also developed.


==Buddhist philosophy==
===Buddhism===
{{main|Buddhism|Buddhist philosophy}} {{main|Buddhist philosophy}}
Buddhist philosophy is a system of beliefs based on the teachings of ], an ] prince later known as the ]. Buddhism is a ] philosophy, one whose tenets are not especially concerned with the existence or nonexistence of a God or gods. The question of God is largely irrelevant in Buddhism, though some sects (notably ]) do ] a number of gods drawn in from local indigenous belief systems. Buddhist philosophy is a system of beliefs based on the teachings of ], an ] prince later known as the ]. Buddhism is a ] philosophy, one whose tenets are not especially concerned with the existence or nonexistence of a God or gods. The question of God is largely irrelevant in Buddhism, though some sects (notably ]) do ] a number of gods drawn in from local indigenous belief systems.


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Buddhism shares many philosophical views with Hinduism, such as belief in ], a cause-and-effect relationship between all that has been done and all that will be done. Events that occur are held to be the direct result of previous events. The ultimate goal for both Hindu and Buddhist practitioners is to eliminate karma (both good and bad), end the cycle of rebirth and suffering, and attain freedom (] or ]). Buddhism shares many philosophical views with Hinduism, such as belief in ], a cause-and-effect relationship between all that has been done and all that will be done. Events that occur are held to be the direct result of previous events. The ultimate goal for both Hindu and Buddhist practitioners is to eliminate karma (both good and bad), end the cycle of rebirth and suffering, and attain freedom (] or ]).


==Jaini philosophy==
===Jainism===
{{main|Jainism}} {{main|Jainism}}
Jaina philosophy, was founded by ] (599-527 BCE). ] is a basic principle of Jainism positing that reality is perceived differently from different points of view, and that no single point of view is completely true. Jain doctrine states that only Kevalis, those who have infinite knowledge, can know the true answer, and that all others would only know a part of the answer. Anekantavada is related to the Western philosophical doctrine of ]. Jaina philosophy, was founded by ] (599-527 BCE). ] is a basic principle of Jainism positing that reality is perceived differently from different points of view, and that no single point of view is completely true. Jain doctrine states that only Kevalis, those who have infinite knowledge, can know the true answer, and that all others would only know a part of the answer. Anekantavada is related to the Western philosophical doctrine of ].


==Political philosophy== ==Political philosophy==

The ], attributed to the ] minister ], is one of the early Indian texts devoted to ]. It is dated to 4th century BCE and discusses ideas of statecraft and economic policy. The ], attributed to the ] minister ], is one of the early Indian texts devoted to ]. It is dated to 4th century BCE and discusses ideas of statecraft and economic policy.


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* A recommended reading guide from the philosophy department of ]: * A recommended reading guide from the philosophy department of ]:



{{Indian Philosophy}} {{Indian Philosophy}}


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Revision as of 09:46, 13 May 2007

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The term Indian philosophy may refer to any of several traditions of philosophical thought that originated in India. 

The Sanskrit term for "philosopher" is dārśanika, one who is familiar with the systems of philosophy, or darśanas.


Indian philosophy is mainly spiritual, but the religion it seeds is not dogmatic and the philosophical ideas are not handed down ex cathedra. As S. Radhakrishnan wrote in one of the early systematic accounts on Indian philosophy:

The supremacy of religion and of social tradition in life does not hamper the free pursuit of philosophy. It is a strange paradox, and yet nothing more than the obvious truth that while the social life of an individual is bound by the rigours of caste, he is free to roam in the matter of opinion. Reason freely questions and criticises the creeds in which men are born. That is why the heretic, the sceptic, the unbeliever, the rationalist and the free-thinker, the materialist and the hedonist all flourish in the soil of India. The Mahābhārata says: "There is no muni who has not an opinion of his own."


Hindu philosophy

Main article: Hindu philosophy

Sanskrit literature is roughly divided into the following periods:

  1. The Vedic Period (1500 - 600 BCE)
  2. The Epic period (400 BCE - AD 200 )
  3. The Sutra Period (after AD 200)
  4. The Scholastic Period (ca. 800 to 1600)

The Sutra Period marks the definite beginning of systematic philosophical thinking. A sutra-work consists of a collection of brief statements, aphorisms, or problems, with answers, objections, and possible replies. The Brahma-sūtra of Bādarāyaṇa, for example, sums up and systematizes the philosophical teachings of various Vedic works, chiefly the Upanishads, and also mention and answer of both actual and possible objections to those views. It is the first systematic treatise on the Vedanta literature. Similarly we have for the Mimamsa the sutras of Jaimini, for the Nyaya the sutras of Gotama, for the Vaisheshika the sutras of Kanada, and for the Yoga the sutras of Patanjali.

Because the sutra form is by nature brief, their meanings were not always clear. During the Scholastic Period this gave rise for interpretive commentaries (bhāṣyas), which play a major role in philosophical literature. In some cases, different authors wrote major commentaries on the same sutra-work, but with very different interpretations reflecting their own philosophical positions. In time, commentaries arose upon commentaries, and additional independent works were written in defense of particular views.

Common themes

Indian thinkers viewed philosophy as a practical necessity that needed to be cultivated in order to understand how life can best be led. It became a custom for Indian writers to explain at the beginning of philosophical works how it serves human ends (puruṣārtha).

The idea of ṛta, translated as "righteousness" or "the cosmic and social order" by Gavin Flood, plays a pervasive role, as Chatterjee and Datta explain:

A firm faith in 'an eternal moral order' dominates the entire history of Indian philosophy, barring the solitary exception of the Cārvāka materialists. It is the common atmosphere of faith in which all these systems, Vedic and non-Vedic, theistic and atheistic, move and breathe. The faith in an order -- a law that makes for regularity and righteousness and works in the gods, the heavenly bodies and all creatures -- pervades the imagination of the seers of Ṛg-veda which calls this inviolable moral order Ṛta.

Schools

Many Hindu intellectual traditions were codified during the medieval period of Brahmanic-Sanskritic scholasticism into a standard list of six orthodox (astika) systems, the "Six Philosophies" (ṣaddarśana), all of which cite Vedic authority as their source:

  • Nyaya, the school of logic
  • Vaisheshika, the atomist school
  • Samkhya, the enumeration school
  • Yoga, the school of Patanjali (which assumes the metaphysics of Samkhya)
  • Purva Mimamsa (or simply Mimamsa), the tradition of Vedic exegesis, with emphasis on Vedic ritual, and
  • Vedanta (also called Uttara Mimamsa), the Upanishadic tradition, with emphasis on Vedic philosophy.

These are often coupled into three groups for both historical and conceptual reasons: Nyaya-Vaishesika, Samkhya-Yoga, and Mimamsa-Vedanta.

The six systems mentioned here are not the only orthodox systems, they are the chief ones, and there are other orthodox schools such as the "Grammarian" school following Bhartrhari. Schools that do not accept the authority of the Vedas are by definition unorthodox systems, and among these is the Carvaka or materialistic school.

The Vedanta school is further divided into six sub-schools: Advaita (monism/nondualism), Visishtadvaita (monism of the qualified whole), Dvaita (dualism), Dvaitadvaita (dualism-nondualism), Suddhadvaita, and Achintya Bheda Abheda schools.

The shramana schools, including Jainism and Buddhism, also developed.

Buddhist philosophy

Main article: Buddhist philosophy

Buddhist philosophy is a system of beliefs based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, an Indian prince later known as the Buddha. Buddhism is a non-theistic philosophy, one whose tenets are not especially concerned with the existence or nonexistence of a God or gods. The question of God is largely irrelevant in Buddhism, though some sects (notably Tibetan Buddhism) do venerate a number of gods drawn in from local indigenous belief systems.

From its inception, Buddhism has had a strong philosophical component. Buddhism is founded on the rejection of certain orthodox Hindu philosophical concepts. The Buddha criticized all concepts of metaphysical being and non-being, and this critique is inextricable from the founding of Buddhism.

Buddhism shares many philosophical views with Hinduism, such as belief in karma, a cause-and-effect relationship between all that has been done and all that will be done. Events that occur are held to be the direct result of previous events. The ultimate goal for both Hindu and Buddhist practitioners is to eliminate karma (both good and bad), end the cycle of rebirth and suffering, and attain freedom (Moksha or Nirvana).

Jaini philosophy

Main article: Jainism

Jaina philosophy, was founded by Mahavira (599-527 BCE). Anekantavada is a basic principle of Jainism positing that reality is perceived differently from different points of view, and that no single point of view is completely true. Jain doctrine states that only Kevalis, those who have infinite knowledge, can know the true answer, and that all others would only know a part of the answer. Anekantavada is related to the Western philosophical doctrine of Subjectivism.

Political philosophy

The Arthashastra, attributed to the Mauryan minister Chanakya, is one of the early Indian texts devoted to political philosophy. It is dated to 4th century BCE and discusses ideas of statecraft and economic policy.

However the political philosophy most closely associated with India is the one of ahimsa (non-violence) and Satyagraha, popularized by Mahatma Gandhi during the Indian struggle for independence. It was influenced by the Indian Dharmic philosophy (particularly the Bhagvata Gita) and Jesus, as well as, secular writings of authors such as Leo Tolstoy, Henry David Thoreau and John Ruskin. In turn it influenced the later movements for independence and civil rights led by Nelson Mandela and Martin Luther King, Jr..

See also

Notes

  1. Chatterjee and Datta (pp. 3-4.) state:"Indian philosophy denotes the philosophical speculations of all Indian thinkers, ancient or modern, Hindus or non-Hindus, theists or atheists Though there were many different schools and their views differed sometimes very widely, yet each school took care to learn the views of all the others
  2. Apte, p. 497.
  3. General characteristics of Indian thought, in Radhakrishnan (1929)
  4. Radhakrishnan (1929), pp 27
  5. Periods of Indian Thought, in Radhakrishnan (1929)
  6. Radhakrishnan and Moore, pp. xviii-xxi.
  7. Chatterjee and Datta, p. 10.
  8. Chatterjee and Datta, p. 10.
  9. Chatterjee and Datta, p. 11.
  10. Chatterjee and Datta, p.12.
  11. Flood, pp. 45, 47.
  12. Chatterjee and Datta, p. 14.
  13. Flood, op. cit., p. 231-2.
  14. Chatterjee and Datta, p. 5.
  15. Michaels, p. 264.
  16. Chatterjee and Datta, p. 5.
  17. Chatterjee and Datta, p. 5.
  18. Gandhi (1961) p. iii

References

  • Apte, Vaman Shivram (1965). The Practical Sanskrit-English Dictionary (Fourth Revised and Enlarged Edition ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. ISBN 81-208-0567-4. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  • Chatterjee, Satischandra (1984). An Introduction to Indian Philosophy (Eighth Reprint Edition ed.). Calcutta: University of Calcutta. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Flood, Gavin (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-43878-0. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  • Gandhi, M.K. (1961). Non-Violent Resistance (Satyagraha). New York: Schocken Books.
  • Michaels, Axel (2004). Hinduism: Past and Present. New York: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-08953-1.
  • Radhakrishnan, S (1929). Indian Philosophy, Volume 1. Muirhead library of philosophy (2nd edition ed.). London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)
  • Stevenson, Leslie (2004). Ten theories of human nature. Oxford University Press. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help) 4th edition.

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