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| '''Ancient ]''' was a ] that grew from a small agricultural community founded on the ] circa the ] to a massive ] straddling the ]. In its twelve-century existence, Roman civilization shifted from a ], to a ] based on a combination of ] and ], to an ] ]. It came to dominate ] and the entire area surrounding the ] through ] and ]. | |||
| The Roman empire went into decline. The ], including ], ], and Italy, broke into independent kingdoms in the ]. The eastern empire, governed from ], is usually referred to as the ] after ], the traditional date for the "fall of Rome" and for the subsequent onset of the ], also known as the ]. | |||
| Roman civilization is often grouped into "]" with ], a civilization that inspired much of the ]. Ancient Rome contributed greatly to the development of ], ], ], ], ], ] and ] in the ], and its ] continues to have a major influence on the world today. | |||
| [[Image:Roman Republic Empire map.gif|300px|thumb|Area under Roman control | |||
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| ]] | |||
| ==History== | |||
| {{further|] and ]}} | |||
| ===Monarchy=== | |||
| {{main|Roman Kingdom}} | |||
| ] in ] by ], who were raised by a she-wolf.]] | |||
| According to ], Rome was ] on ], ] by twin descendants of the ] prince ], ].<ref>Adkins, 1998. page 3.</ref> The Latin King ] of ] was ejected from his throne by his cruel brother ] and Numitor's daughter, ], gave birth to Romulus and Remus.<ref name="FoundofRome">. Accessed ]-].</ref><ref name="Livy8">Livy, 1998. page 8.</ref> The new king feared that Romulus and Remus would take back the throne, so they were to be drowned.<ref name="Livy8">Livy, 1998. page 8.</ref> A she-wolf (or a shepard's wife in some accounts) saved and raised them, and when they were old enough, they returned the throne of Alba Longa to Numitor.<ref name="CaesarandChrist">Durant, 1944. Pages 12-14.</ref><ref>Livy, 1998. pages 9-10.</ref> The twins then founded their own city, but Romulus killed Remus in a quarrel over which one of them was to reign as the first of seven ], as well as become the source of the city's name.<ref>Livy, 1998. pages 10-11.</ref> As the city was bereft of women, legend says that the Latins invited the ] to a festival and stole their unmarried maidens, leading to the integration of the Latins and the Sabines.<ref>. Accessed ]-].</ref> | |||
| The city of ] grew from settlements around a ford on the river ], a crossroads of traffic and trade.<ref name="CaesarandChrist">a</ref> According to ] evidence, the village of Rome was probably founded sometime in the ], though it may go back as far as the ], by members of the ] of Italy, on the top of the ].<ref>], who had previously settled to the north in ], seem to have established political control in the region by the late ], forming the aristocratic and monarchial elite. The Etruscans apparently lost power in the area by the late ], and at this point, the original Latin and Sabine tribes reinvented their government by creating a ], with much greater restraints on the ability of rulers to exercise power.<ref>''Ancient Rome and the Roman Empire'' by Michael Kerrigan. Dorling Kindersley, London: 2001. ISBN 0-7894-8153-7. page 12.</ref> | |||
| ==Culture== | |||
| {{main|Culture of ancient Rome}} | |||
| ===Games and activities=== | |||
| {{Unreferencedsect|date=September 2006}} | |||
| The youth of Rome had several forms of play and exercise, such ], ], ], and ].<ref name=Cassononsports>Casson, 1998. pages 98-108.</ref> In the countryside, pastimes for the wealthy also included fishing and hunting.<ref name=SPQRonline>. SPQR Online. Written ]. Accessed ]-].</ref> The Romans also had several forms of ball playing, including one resembling ].<ref name=Cassononsports/> ] and ] were extremely popular pastimes.<ref name=Cassononsporsts/> Women did not participate in these activities. For the wealthy, dinner parties presented an opportunity for enterntainment, sometimes featuring ], ], and ].<ref name=Adkinsonparties>Adkins, 1998. page 350.</ref> Plebeians sometimes enjoyed such parties through clubs or associations, although recreational dining usually meant patronizing ].<ref name=Adkinsonparties/> Children entertained themselves with ] and such games as ].<ref name=SPQRonline/><ref name=Adkinsonparties/> | |||
| A popular form of entertainment were ]ial combats. Gladiators fought either to the death, or to "first blood" with a variety of weapons and in a variety of different scenarios. These fights achieved their height of popularity under the emperor ], who placed the final outcome of the combat firmly in the hands of the emperor with a hand gesture. Contrary to popular representations in film, several experts believe the gesture for death was not "thumbs down". Although no one is certain as to what the gestures were, some experts conclude that the emperor would signify "death" by holding a raised fist to the winning combatant and then extending his thumb upwards, while "mercy" was indicated by a raised fist with no extended thumb.<ref>. Encyclopedia Romana. University of Chicago. Accessed ]-].</ref> Animal shows were also popular with the Romans, where foreign animals were either displayed for the public or combined with gladiatorial combat. A prisoner or gladiator, armed or unarmed, was thrown into the arena and an animal was released. Gladiators fought in games held only ten days per year, and could earn the ancient Roman equivalent of 500,000 EUR for competing in a single fight to the death.{{Fact|date=April 2007}} | |||
| The '']'', another popular site in Rome, was primarily used for ] and ], although it was also used in many other events.<ref>. Encyclopedia Romana. University of Chicago. Accessed ]-].</ref> It could hold up to 385,000 people;<ref></ref> people all over Rome would visit it. Two temples, one with seven large eggs and one with seven dolphins, laid in the middle of the track of Circus Maximus, and whenever the racers made a lap, one of each would be removed. This was done to keep the spectators and the racers informed on the race statistics. Other than sports, the Circus Maximus was also an area of ] and ]. Higher authorities, like the emperor, also attended games in the Circus Maximus, as it was rude not to. They, knights, and many other people who were involved with the race sat in reserved seats located above everyone else. It was also found rude for emperors to root for a team. The Circus Maximus was created in 600 BC and hosted the last horse racing game in 549, lasting for over a millennium. | |||
| ==Technology== | |||
| {{main|Ancient Roman technology}} | |||
| ], the first portable calculating device, helped speed up the use of ].]] | |||
| Ancient Rome boasted the most impressive technological feats of its day, utilizing many advancements that would be lost in the ] and not be rivaled again until the ] and ]. However, though adept at adopting and synthesizing other cultures' technologies, the Roman civilization was not especially innovative or progressive. Many practical Roman innovations were adopted from earlier Greek designs. The development of new ideas was rarely encouraged; Roman society considered the articulate soldier who could wisely govern a large household the ideal, and ] made no provisions for ] or the promotion of invention. The concept of "scientists" and "engineers" did not yet exist, and advancements were often divided based on craft, with groups of ] jealously guarding new technologies as ]s. Nevertheless, a number of vital technological breakthroughs were spread and thoroughly utilized by Rome, contributing to an enormous degree to Rome's dominance and lasting influence in Europe. | |||
| <!--Add paragraphs on Roman calendar, numerals and counting system, etc. here. Possibly some info on Roman boats, though Rome's navy can be addressed under "Military". --> | |||
| ===Engineering and architecture=== | |||
| {{main|Roman architecture|Roman engineering|Roman military engineering}} | |||
| ] in ] is a ] built in ca. ]. It is one of France's top tourist attractions and a ].]] | |||
| ] constituted a large portion of Rome's technological superiority and legacy, and contributed to the construction of hundreds of roads, bridges, aqueducts, baths, theaters and arenas. Many monuments, such as the ], ], and ], still remain as testaments to Roman engineering and culture. | |||
| The Romans were particularly renowned for their ], which is grouped with Greek traditions into "]". However, for the course of the Roman Republic, Roman architecture remained stylistically almost identical to ]. Although there were many differences between Roman and Greek building types, Rome borrowed heavily from Greece in adhering to strict, formulaic building designs and proportions. Aside from two new ] of columns, ] and ], and from the ], which was derived from the ] ], Rome had relatively few architectural innovations until the end of the Roman Republic. | |||
| It was at this time, in the ], that Romans started to widely use ] (which was invented in the late ]), a powerful ] derived from ] which soon supplanted ] as the chief Roman building material and allowed for numerous daring architectural schemata. Also in the 1st century BC, ] wrote '']'', possibly the first complete treatise on architecture in history. In the late ], Rome also began to make use of ] soon after its invention in ], which occurred about 50 BC, and ]s took the Empire by storm after samples were retrieved during ]'s campaigns in Greece. | |||
| ] (''Via Appia''), a road connecting the city of ] to the southern parts of ], remains usable even today.]] | |||
| Concrete made possible the paved, durable ]s, many of which were still in use a thousand years after the fall of Rome. The construction of a vast and efficient travel network throughout the Roman Empire dramatically increased Rome's power and influence. Originally constructed for military purposes, to allow ]s to be rapidly deployed, these highways had enormous economic significance, solidifying Rome's role as a trading crossroads—the origin of the phrase "all roads lead to Rome". The Roman government maintained way stations which provided refreshments to travelers at regular intervals along the roads, constructed bridges where necessary, and established a system of horse relays for ]s that allowed a dispatch to travel up to 800 km (500 miles) in 24 hours. | |||
| The Romans constructed numerous ] to supply water to cities and industrial sites and to assist in ]. The city of Rome itself was supplied by eleven aqueducts with a combined length of 350 km (260 miles).<ref name=frontinus>Frontinus</ref> Most aqueducts were constructed below the surface, with only small portions above ground supported by arches. Powered entirely by ], the aqueducts transported very large amounts of water with an efficiency that remained unsurpassed for two thousand years. Sometimes, where depressions deeper than 50 metres had to be crossed, ]s were used to force water uphill.{{ref|waterhistory}} | |||
| The Romans also made major advancements in ]. Romans were particularly famous for their public ], called '']'', which were used for both hygienic and social purposes. Many Roman houses came to have ]s and ], and a complex ] system, the '']'', was used to drain the local ]es and carry waste into the Tiber river. Some historians have speculated that the use of ] pipes in sewer and plumbing systems led to widespread ] which contributed to the decline in ] and general decay of Roman society leading up to the ]. However, lead content would have been minimized because the flow of water from aqueducts could not be shut off; it ran continuously through public and private outlets into the drains, and only a small number of taps were in use.<ref>''Roman Aqueducts and Water Supply'' by A.T. Hodge (1992)</ref> | |||
| ==Military== | |||
| {{main|Military history of ancient Rome|Roman military|Structural history of the Roman military|Roman army|Roman navy}} | |||
| ] in the Victoria and Albert museum, London.]] | |||
| The early Roman army (circa 500 BCE) was, like those of other contemporary city-states influenced by Greek civilization, a citizen '']'' which practiced ] tactics. It was small (the population of free males of military age was then about 9,000) and organized in five classes (in parallel to the '']'', the body of citizens organized politically), with three providing hoplites and two providing light infantry. The early Roman army was tactically limited and its stance during this period was essentially defensive. <ref>John Keegan, ''A History of Warfare'', Alfred A. Knopf (New York 1993) , p.263; David Potter, "The Roman Army and Navy," in Harriet I. Flower, editor, ''The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic'', Cambridge University Press (Cambridge U.K. 2004) , pp. 67-69. For a discussion of hoplite tactics and their sociocultural setting, see Victor Davis Hanson, ''The Western Way of War: Infantry Battle in Classical Greece'', Alfred A. Knopf (New York 1989) .</ref> By the third century BCE, the Romans abandoned the hoplite formation in favor of a more flexible system in which smaller groups of 120 to 160 men soldiers, called "]," could maneuver more independently on the battlefield. A group of 30 maniples fighting in three mutually supporting lines of ten maniples each, with supporting troops, constituted a legion. An early Republican legion consisted of five sections, each of which was equipped differently and had different places in formation -- the three lines of manipular heavy infantry ('']'', '']'' and ''])'', a force of light infantry ('']'') and the cavalry ('']''). With the new organization came a new orientation toward the offensive and a much more aggressive posture toward adjoining city-states.<ref>Keegan, p. 264; Potter, pp. 69-70.</ref> | |||
| At nominal full strength, an early Republican legion would have included 3,600 to 4,800 heavy infantry, several hundred light infantry and several hundred cavalrymen, for a total of 4,000 to 5,000 men.<ref>Keegan, p.264; Adrian Goldsworthy, ''The Roman Army at War 100 BC - AD 200'', Oxford University Press (Oxford 1996) , p. 33; Jo-Ann Shelton, ed., ''As the Romans Did: A Sourcebook in Roman Social History'', Oxford University Press (New York 1998), pp. 245-249.</ref> Legions were often significantly understrength from recruitment failures or following periods of active service due to accidents, battle casualties, disease and desertion. During the Civil War, Pompey's legions in the east were at full strength because recently recruited, while Caesar's legions were in many cases well below nominal strength after long active service in Gaul. This pattern also held true for auxiliary forces.<ref>Goldsworthy, ''The Roman Army'', pp. 22-24, 37-38; Adrian Goldsworthy, ''Caesar: Life of a Colossus'', Yale University Press (New Haven 2006) , pp. 384, 410-411, 425-427. Another important factor discussed by Goldsworthy was absence of legionaries on detached duty.</ref> | |||
| As described by Goldsworthy, both the Greek and Roman phalanx and the early Republican legions were intended to fight large scale battles involving a single quick, decisive clash with the enemy. At this they were generally very successful.<ref>Goldsworthy, ''The Roman Army'', pp. 33, 37.</ref> At the time of the ] in the late Republic (circa 100 BCE), further organizational change created a more flexible, resilient and versatile force. The legion was now divided into ten cohorts of 480 men each, comprised of three of the old maniples (now called ] or "centuries" commanded by a ]).<ref>Later in the Imperial period, the first cohort grew to a nominal strength of 800 men organized in five ''centuriae'' commanded by the ''primi ordines'', the senior centurions of the legion. Goldsworthy, ''The Roman Army'', p.14.</ref> Moreover, the ''velites'' (light infantry) and (probably) the ''equites'' were eliminated and replaced by ] (auxiliary units of cavalry, archers and slingers, and light infantry, usually recruited from non-citizens). There were no other subdivisions within a legion, but many men with specialized skills -- medics, engineers, technicians, artillerymen -- were included among the legionaries.<ref>Goldsworthy, ''The Roman Army'', pp. 16-17.</ref> The centuries in a cohort had a unified command structure and were experienced at working with the other centuries in the cohort as a unit. A legion organized in cohorts was easier to control, and cohorts could easily be detached and act independently where that was useful on the battlefield or a separate smaller force was needed. Accordingly, legions organized in cohorts could conduct operations of almost any scale.<ref>Goldsworthy, ''The Roman Army'', pp.33-35.</ref> | |||
| Three long-term trends characterized the development of the Roman army over its history: increasing professionalization, a widening of the base for recruitment, and an increase in the variety and flexibility of military units. Until the late Republican period, the typical legionary was a property-owning citizen farmer from a rural areas (an ''adsiduus'') who served for particular (often annual) campaigns,<ref>Between 343 BCE and 241 BCE, the Roman army fought every year except for five. Stephen P. Oakley, "The Early Republic," in Harriet I. Flower, editor, ''The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic'', Cambridge University Press (Cambridge U.K. 2004) , p. 27.</ref> and who supplied his own equipment and, in the case of ''equites'', his own mount. Harris suggests that down to 200 BCE, the average rural farmer (who survived) might participate in six or seven campaigns. Freedmen and slaves (wherever resident) and urban citizens did not serve except in rare emergencies.<ref> P. A. Brunt, "Army and Land in the Roman Republic," in ''The Fall of the Roman Republic and Related Essays'', Oxford University Press (Oxford 1988) , p.253; William V. Harris, ''War and Imperialism in Republican Rome 327-70 B.C.'', Oxford University Press (Oxford 1979) , p. 44.</ref> After 200 BCE, economic conditions in rural areas deteriorated as manpower needs increased, so that the property qualifications for service were gradually reduced. Beginning with ] in 107 BCE, citizens without property and some urban-dwelling citizens (''proletarii'') were enlisted and provided with equipment, although most legionaries continued to come from rural areas. Terms of service became continuous and long -- up to twenty years if emergencies required it although Brunt argues that six or seven years was more typical.<ref>Keegan, pp. 273-274; Brunt, pp. 253-259; Harris, pp. 44-50.</ref> Beginning in the third century BCE, legionaries were paid ''stipendium'' (amounts are disputed but Caesar famously "doubled" payments to his troops to 225 ] a year), could anticipate booty and donatives (distributions of plunder by commanders) from successful campaigns and, beginning at the time of Marius, often were granted allotments of land upon retirement.<ref>Keegan, p. 264; Brunt, pp. 259-265; Potter, pp. 80-83.</ref> Cavalry and light infantry attached to a legion (the ''auxilia'') were often recruited in the areas where the legion served. These troops were familiar with local conditions and fought in a style adapted to the local terrain.<ref>Goldsworthy, ''The Roman Army'', pp. 35-36.</ref> Caesar formed a legion, the Fifth Alaudae, from non-citizens in Transalpine Gaul to serve in his campaigns in Gaul.<ref>Goldsworthy, ''Caesar'', pp. 391.</ref> During the Civil War when large armies were required, both sides raised legions from non-citizens, as Goldsworthy notes, "without bothering with the formality of granting citizenship to the men on enlistment."<ref>Goldsworthy, ''The Roman Army'', pp. 35-36.</ref> By the time of Caesar Augustus, the ideal of the citizen-soldier had been abandoned and the legions had become fully professional. Legionaries were paid 900 ] a year and could expect a payment of 12,000 ''sesterces'' on retirement.<ref>Karl Christ, ''The Romans'', University of California Press (Berkeley, 1984), pp. 74-76 .</ref> | |||
| At the end of the ], Augustus reorganized Roman military forces, discharging soldiers and disbanding legions. He retained 28 legions, which were now based in permanent camps on the frontier along the Rhine and Danube Rivers and in Syria. Comprised of about 150,000 citizen legionaries, an approximately equal number of ''auxilia'' and a navy of unknown size, this establishment remained the standard until late in the history of the Empire.<ref> Christopher S. Mackay, ''Ancient Rome: A Military and Political History,'' Cambridge University Press, (Cambridge, U.K. 2004), pp. 249-250. Mackay points out that the number of legions (not necessarily the number of legionaries) grew to 30 by 125 CE and 33 during the ] period (200-235 CE).</ref> During the ], with a few exceptions,<ref>For example, the Pannonian Revolt (CE 6-9), periodic wars against the Parthians, and campaigns by Domitian and Trajan against the Dacians.</ref> warfare was conducted on a smaller scale. The ''auxilia'' were not organized into larger units but remained independent cohorts, and legionary troops themselves often operated as groups of cohorts rather than as full legions. A new versatile type of unit, the ''cohortes equitatae'', combining cavalry and legionaries in a single formation could be stationed at garrisons or outposts, could fight on their own as balanced small forces or could combine with other similar units as a larger legion-sized force. This increase in organizational flexibility over time helped ensure the long-term success of Roman military forces.<ref>Goldsworthy, ‘’The Roman Army’’, p.36-37.</ref> | |||
| The Emperor ] (253-268 CE) began yet another reorganization that created the final military structure of the late Empire. Withdrawing some legionaries from the fixed bases on the border, Gallienus created mobile forces (the '']'' or field armies) and stationed them behind and at some distance from the borders as a strategic reserve. This reduced the need to move troops from one province to another to reinforce the border in case of attacks. The border troops (''limitanei'') stationed at fixed bases continued to be the first line of defense. The Emperor ] (284-305 CE) reversed this reorganization but it became the norm by the middle of the fourth century CE. Diocletian also introduced the so-called ] under which the Eastern and Western halves of the Empire were each governed by an "Augustus" (Emperor) and a "Caesar" (junior Emperor), who resided at different locations near the borders and commanded troops within their respective regions.<ref> Mackay, pp. 275, 279-281.</ref> The basic unit of the field army was the "regiment," ''legiones'' or ''auxilia'' for infantry and ''vexellationes'' for cavalry. Evidence suggests that nominal strengths may have been 1,200 men for infantry regiments and 600 for cavalry, although many records show lower actual troop levels (800 and 400). Many infantry and cavalry regiments operated in pairs under the command of a '']''. In addition to Roman troops, the field armies included regiments of "barbarians" recruited from allied tribes and known as '']''. By 400 CE, ''foederati'' regiments had become permanently established units of the Roman army, paid and equipped by the Empire, led by a Roman tribune and used just as Roman units were used. In addition to the ''foederati'', the Empire also used groups of barbarians to fight along with the legions as "allies" without integration into the field armies. Under the command of the senior Roman general present, they were led at lower levels by their own officers.<ref>Hugh Elton, ''Warfare in Roman Europe AD 350-425'', Oxford University Press (Oxford 1996) pp. 89-96.</ref> | |||
| The nature of military leadership evolved greatly over the course of the history of Rome. Under the monarchy, the hoplite armies would have been led by the kings of Rome. During the early and middle Roman Republic, military forces were under the command of one of the two elected ] for the year. During the later Republic, members of the Roman Senatorial elite, as part of the normal sequence of elected public offices known as the ], would have served first as ] (often posted as deputies to field commanders), then as ] (sometimes posted as provincial governors in charge of military forces in the relevant province), then as consul (supreme command of all military forces). Following the end of a term as praetor or consul, a Senator might be appointed by the Senate as a ] or ] (depending on the highest office previously held) to govern a foreign province. More junior officers (down to but not including the level of centurion) were selected by their commanders from their own ] or those recommended by political allies among the Senatorial elite.<ref>T. Correy Brennan, "Power and Process Under the Republican 'Constitution'," in Harriet I. Flower, editor, ''The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic'', Cambridge University Press (Cambridge U.K. 2004) , Chapter 2; Potter, pp. 66-88; Goldsworthy, ''The Roman Army'', pp. 121-125. Julius Caesar's most talented, effective and reliable subordinate in Gaul, ], was recommended to him by ]. Goldsworthy, ''The Roman Army'', p. 124.</ref> Under Augustus, whose most important political priority was to place the military under a permanent and unitary command, the Emperor was the legal commander of each legion but exercised that command through a ] (legate) he appointed from the Senatorial elite. In a province with a single legion, the legate would command the legion (''legatus legionis'') and also serve as provincial governor, while in a province with more than one legion, each legion would be commanded by a legate and the legates would be commanded by the provincial governor (also a legate but of higher rank).<ref>Mackay, pp. 245-252.</ref> During the later stages of the Imperial period (beginning perhaps with ]), the Augustan model was abandoned. Provincial governors were stripped of military authority, and command of the armies in a group of provinces was given to generals (]) appointed by the Emperor. These were no longer members of the Roman elite but men who came up through the ranks and had seen much practical soldiering. With increasing frequency, these men attempted (sometimes successfully) to usurp the positions of the Emperors who had appointed them. Decreased resources, increasing political chaos and civil war eventually left the Western Empire vulnerable to attack and takeover by neighboring barbarian peoples.<ref>MacKay, pp. 295-296 and Chapters 23-24.</ref> | |||
| Comparatively less is known about the Roman navy than the Roman army. Prior to the middle of the third century BCE, officials known as ''duumviri navales'' commanded a fleet of twenty ships used mainly to control piracy. This fleet was given up in 278 CE and replaced by allied forces. The ] required that Rome build large fleets, and it did so largely with the assistance of and financing from allies. This reliance on allies continued to the end of the Roman Republic. The ] was the main warship on both sides of the Punic Wars and remained the mainstay of Roman naval forces until replaced by the time of Caesar Augustus by lighter and more maneuverable vessels. As compared with a ], the quinquireme permitted the use of a mix of experienced and inexperienced crewmen (an advantage for a primarily land-based power), and its lesser maneuverability permitted the Romans to adopt and perfect ] using a troop of approximately 40 marines in lieu of the ]. Ships were commanded by a ], a rank equivalent to a centurion, who were usually not citizens. Potter suggests that because the fleet was dominated by non-Romans, the navy was considered non-Roman and allowed to atrophy in times of peace.<ref>This paragraph is based upon Potter, pp. 76-78.</ref> | |||
| Available information suggests that by the time of the late Empire (350 CE), the Roman navy comprised a number of fleets including both warships and merchant vessels for transportation and supply. Warships were oared sailing galleys with three to five banks of oarsmen. Fleet bases included such ports as Ravenna, Arles, Aquilea, Misenum and the mouth of the Somme River in the West and Alexandria and Rhodes in the East. Flotillas of small river craft (''classes'') were part of the ''limitanei'' (border troops) during this period, based at fortified river harbors along the Rhine and the Danube. The fact that prominent generals commanded both armies and fleets suggests that naval forces were treated as auxiliaries to the army and not as an independent service. The details of command structure and fleet strengths during this period are not well known although it is known that fleets were commanded by prefects.<ref>This discussion is based upon Elton, pp. 97-99 and 100-101.</ref> | |||
| ==Ancient Rome in popular culture== | |||
| *] (1960) a film directed by ], starring ] | |||
| *] (1969) a film directed by ] | |||
| * The ] (1991 - 2007) series of novels by ] | |||
| *] (2000) a film directed by ], starring ] | |||
| *] (2004) a popular ] set in the late ], in which the player's objective is to conquer most of ] and become ]. | |||
| *] (2005) a novel by ] | |||
| *] (2006) a novel by ] | |||
| *] (2006) a TV series (]) created by ], ] and ]. | |||
| ==Scholarly studies== | |||
| The interest in studying ancient Rome arose presumably during the ] in ]. ] wrote a work ''Reflections on the Causes of the Grandeur and Declension of the Romans''. The first major work was '']'' by ], which encompassed the period from the end of 2nd century to the fall of the Byzantine Empire in ]. Like Montesquieu Gibbon paid high tribute to the virtue of Roman citizens. ] was a founder of the criticism and wrote ''The Roman History'', carried until the ]. Niebuhr has made an attempt to determine the way the Roman tradition appeared. According to him, Romans, like other people, had a historical ] which was preserved mainly in the noble families. During the ] period the work titled ''The History of Romans'' by ] appeared. It highlighted the ]ean period popular at the time. '']'', '']'' and '']'', all by ], became very important milestones. Later the work ''Greatness and Decline of Rome'' by ] was published. The Russian work ''Очерки по истории римского землевладения, преимущественно в эпоху Империи'' (''The Outlines on Roman Landownership History, Mainly During the Empire'') by ] contained information on the economy of ], one of the greatest landowners during the end of Republic. | |||
| ==See also== | |||
| {{commonscat|Romans}} | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| {{Ancient Rome}} | |||
| ==Notes== | |||
| {{reflist|2}} | |||
| ==References== | |||
| *{{cite book | |||
| | first = Lesley | |||
| | last = Adkins | |||
| | coauthors = Roy Adkins | |||
| | year = 1998 | |||
| | title = Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome | |||
| | publisher = Oxford University Press | |||
| | location = Oxford | |||
| | id = ISBN 0-19-512332-8 | |||
| }} | |||
| *{{cite book | |||
| | first = Lionel | |||
| | last = Casson | |||
| | year = 1998 | |||
| | title = Everyday Life in Ancient Rome | |||
| | publisher = The John Hopkins University Press | |||
| | location = Baltimore | |||
| | id = ISBN 0-8018-5992-1 | |||
| }} | |||
| *{{cite book | |||
| | first = William | |||
| | last = Duiker | |||
| | coauthors = Jackson Spielvogel | |||
| | year = 2001 | |||
| | title = World History | |||
| | edition = Third edition | |||
| | publisher = Wadsworth | |||
| | id = ISBN 0-534-57168-9 | |||
| }} | |||
| *{{cite book | |||
| | first = Will | |||
| | last = Durant | |||
| | year = 1944 | |||
| | title = The Story of Civilization, Volume III: Caesar and Christ | |||
| | publisher = Simon and Schuster, Inc. | |||
| }} | |||
| *{{cite book | |||
| | first = Hugh | |||
| | last = Elton | |||
| | year = 1996 | |||
| | title = Warfare in Roman Europe AD350-425 | |||
| | publisher = Oxford University Press | |||
| | location = Oxford | |||
| | id = 0-19-815241-8 | |||
| }} | |||
| *{{cite book | |||
| | first = Harriet I. | |||
| | last = Flower (editor) | |||
| | year = 2004 | |||
| | title = The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic | |||
| | publisher = Cambridge University Press | |||
| | location = Cambridge, U.K. | |||
| | id = 0-521-00390-3 | |||
| }} | |||
| *], '']'' | |||
| *{{cite book | |||
| | first = Adrian Keith | |||
| | last = Goldsworthy | |||
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| | publisher = Thames and Hudson, Ltd. | |||
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| | id = 0-500-05124-0 | |||
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| *]. ''The Rise of Rome, Books 1-5,'' translated from ] by T.J. Luce, 1998. Oxford World's Classics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-282296-9. | |||
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| | year = 1989 | |||
| | title = Of Arms and Men: A History of War, Weapons, and Aggression | |||
| | publisher = Oxford University Press | |||
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| | month = September | |||
| | title = The Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Rome | |||
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| | last = Cassius Dio | |||
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| | accessdate = 2006-12-17 }} | |||
| ==Further reading== | |||
| * Cowell, Frank Richard. ''Life in Ancient Rome''. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1961 (paperback, ISBN 0-399-50328-5). | |||
| * Gabucci, Ada. ''Rome (Dictionaries of Civilizations; 2)''. Berkekely: University of California Press, 2007 (paperback, ISBN 0520252659). | |||
| * Wyke, Maria. ''Projecting the Past: Ancient Rome, Cinema, and History''. New York; London: Routledge, 1997 (hardcover, ISBN 0-415-90613-X, paperback, ISBN 0-415-91614-8). | |||
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