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Bodhidharma, woodblock print by Yoshitoshi, 1887.
Names (details)
Known in English as:	Bodhidharma
Sanskrit:	बोधिधर्म
Traditional Chinese:	菩提達摩
Chinese abbreviation:	達摩
Hanyu Pinyin:	Pútídámó
Wade-Giles:	P'u-t'i-ta-mo
Japanese:	達磨 Daruma
Korean:	보리달마 Boridalma
Vietnamese:	Bồ-đề-đạt-ma

Bodhidharma (ca. 6th century CE) was the Buddhist monk traditionally credited as the founder of Chán (Zen) Buddhism in China. Very little contemporary biographical information on Bodhidharma is extant, and subsequent accounts became layered with legend, but most accounts agree that he was a South Indian monk who journeyed to southern China and subsequently relocated northwards. The accounts differ on the date of his arrival, with one early account claiming that he arrived during the Liú Sòng Dynasty (420–479) and later accounts dating his arrival to the Liáng Dynasty (502–557). The accounts are, however, generally agreed that he was primarily active in the lands of the Northern Wèi Dynasty (386–534).

Biography

Contemporary accounts

There are two known extant accounts written by contemporaries of Bodhidharma.

Yáng Xuànzhī

The Record of the Buddhist Monasteries of Luoyang (洛陽伽藍記 Luòyáng Qiélánjì), was compiled in 547 by Yáng Xuànzhī, a writer and translator of Mahāyāna Buddhist texts into the Chinese language. Yang identifies Bodhidharma as a Persian (波斯國胡人 bō-sī guó hú rén) from Central Asia (西域 xī yù):

At that time there was a monk of the Western Region named Bodhidharma, a Persian Central Asian. He traveled from the wild borderlands to China. Seeing the golden disks reflecting in the sun, the rays of light illuminating the surface of the clouds, the jewel-bells on the stupa blowing in the wind, the echoes reverberating beyond the heavens, he sang its praises. He exclaimed: "Truly this is the work of spirits." He said: "I am 150 years old, and I have passed through numerous countries. There is virtually no country I have not visited. But even in India there is nothing comparable to the pure beauty of this monastery. Even the distant Buddha realms lack this." He chanted homage and placed his palms together in salutation for days on end.

According to one modern source, the temple referred to—Yǒngníngsì (永寧寺)—was built in 516 and destroyed in 526, thus dating Yang's sighting of Bodhidharma to these years. Another source states that Yongningsi was destroyed in 536.

Bodhidharma's original name was Bodhitara. The suffix "dharma" means duty in context of Dharmic religions. Yáng Xuànzhī may have been honoring another dharma teacher with the suffix (of dharma). There have been other Indian monks sharing the prefix of "Bodhi" (Sanskrit word for "awakening" or "enlightenment"), such as Bodhiruci, regarded as the patriarch of the Ti-Lun School.

Bernard Faure notes that "Bodhidharma’s name appears sometimes truncated as Bodhi, or more often as Dharma (Ta-mo). In the first case, it may be confused with another of his rivals, Bodhiruci."

Tánlín

The second account by a person who seems to have encountered Bodhidharma was written by Tánlín (曇林; 506–574), who was likely one of Bodhidharma's disciples. Tanlin's brief biography of the "Dharma Master" is found in his preface to the Two Entrances and Four Acts, a text traditionally attributed to Bodhidharma, and is the first text to identify Bodhidharma as a South Indian:

The Dharma Master was a South Indian of the Western Region. He was the third son of a great Indian king His ambition lay in the Mahayana path, and so he put aside his white layman's robe for the black robe of a monk Lamenting the decline of the true teaching in the outlands, he subsequently crossed distant mountains and seas, traveling about propagating the teaching in Han and Wei.

Tanlin's account was the first to mention that Bodhidharma attracted disciples, specifically mentioning Dàoyù (道育) and Huìkě, the latter of whom would later figure very prominently in the Bodhidharma literature. Tanlin's account also implies that Bodhidharma was probably a prince of the Pallava dynasty of South India, indicating that he may have been born at the Pallava capital of Kanchipuram.

Later accounts

Dàoxuān

In the 7th-century historical work Further Biographies of Eminent Monks (續高僧傳 Xù gāosēng zhuàn), Dàoxuān (道宣; 596-667) possibly drew on Tanlin's preface as a basic source, but made several significant additions:

Firstly, Daoxuan adds more detail concerning Bodhidharma's origins, writing that he was "of South Indian Brahman stock" (南天竺婆羅門種 nán tiānzhú póluómén zhŏng). Broughton notes that Bodhidharma's royal pedigree implies that he was of the Kshatriya warrior caste, though South Indian inscriptions in the 4th and 5th centuries imply that the Pallava dynasty also had Brahmin origins; hence, they may have belonged to the caste of Braham-Kshatriya (Brahmin in origin and Kshatriya by profession).

Secondly, more detail is provided concerning Bodhidharma's journeys. Tanlin's original is imprecise about Bodhidharma's travels, saying only that he "crossed distant mountains and seas" before arriving in Wei. Daoxuan's account, however, implies "a specific itinerary": "He first arrived at Nan-yüeh during the Sung period. From there he turned north and came to the Kingdom of Wei". This implies that Bodhidharma had travelled to China by sea, and that he had crossed over the Yangtze River.

Thirdly, Daoxuan suggests a date for the Bodhidharma's arrival in China. He writes that Bodhidharma makes landfall in the time of the Song, thus making his arrival no later than the time of the Song's fall to the Southern Qi Dynasty in 479.

Finally, Daoxuan provides information concerning Bodhidharma's death. Bodhidharma, he writes, died at Luo River Beach, where he was interred by his disciple Huike, possibly in a cave. According to Daoxuan's chronology, Bodhidharma's death must have occurred prior to 534, the date of the Northern Wei Dynasty's fall, because Huike subsequently leaves Luoyang for Ye. Furthermore, the use of the Luo River Beach as an execution grounds suggests that Bodhidharma may have died in the mass executions at Heyin in 528. Supporting this possibility is a report in the Taishō shinshū daizōkyō stating that a Buddhist monk was among the victims at Heyin.

Epitaph for Fărú

The idea of a lineage of Chan Buddhism in China dates back to the epitaph for Fărú (法如 638–689), a disciple of the 5th patriarch Hóngrĕn (弘忍 601–674), which gives a line of descent identifying Bodhidharma as the first patriarch.

Yǒngjiā Xuánjué

In the Song of Enlightenment (證道歌 Zhèngdào gē) of Yǒngjiā Xuánjué (665-713)—one of the chief disciples of Huìnéng, the 6th patriarch of Chan Buddhism—it is written that Bodhidharma was the 28th patriarch in a line of descent from Mahākāśyapa, a disciple of Śākyamuni Buddha, and the first patriarch of Chan Buddhism:

Mahakashyapa was the first, leading the line of transmission;

Twenty-eight Fathers followed him in the West;

The Lamp was then brought over the sea to this country;

And Bodhidharma became the First Father here:

His mantle, as we all know, passed over six Fathers,

And by them many minds came to see the Light.

The idea of a line of descent from Śākyamuni Buddha became an important part of the lineage tradition of the Chan/Zen school.

Anthology of the Patriarchal Hall

Another later source of Bodhidharma's biography—and by far the most detailed—is found in the Anthology of the Patriarchal Hall (祖堂集 Zǔtángjí) of 952. By the time of this text, the basic account given by Daoxuan had received nearly all of the elements that are considered by Chan/Zen practitioners today to form the core of the story of Bodhidharma.

Bodhidharma is said to have been a disciple of Prajñātāra, thus establishing the latter as the 27th patriarch in India.

Also, the Anthology of the Patriarchal Hall relates that Bodhidharma arrived in southern China, following a three-year journey, not during the Song period, but rather in 527, during the time of the Liang Dynasty.

Bodhidharma, prior to crossing the Yangtze River into Wei, is also said to have visited the Liang court in present-day Nanjing, but left soon after an encounter with Emperor Wu which made him realize that staying there would be fruitless. This encounter—which actually appeared for the first time around 758, in the appendix to a text by Shénhuì (神會), a disciple of Huineng—would later form the basis of the first kōan of the collection, the Blue Cliff Record.

Finally, as opposed to Daoxuan's figure of "over 150 years", the Anthology of the Patriarchal Hall states that Bodhidharma died at the age of 150. He was then buried on Mount Xiong'er (熊耳山 Xióng'ĕr Shān) to the west of Luoyang. However, three years after the burial, in the Pamir Mountains, Sòngyún (宋雲)—an official of one of the later Wei kingdoms—encountered Bodhidharma, who claimed to be returning to India and was carrying a single sandal. Bodhidharma predicted the death of Songyun's ruler, a prediction which was borne out upon the latter's return. Bodhidharma's tomb was then opened, and only a single sandal was found inside.

Insofar as, according to the Anthology of the Patriarchal Hall, Bodhidharma left the Liang court in 527 and relocated to Mount Song near Luoyang and the Shaolin Monastery, where he " a wall for nine years, not speaking for the entire time", his date of death can have been no earlier than 536. Moreover, his encounter with the Wei official indicates a date of death no later than 554, three years before the fall of the last Wei kingdom.

Dàoyuán

Subsequent to the Anthology of the Patriarchal Hall, the only dated addition to the biography of Bodhidharma is in the 1004 Jingde Records of the Transmission of the Lamp (景德傳燈錄 Jĭngdé chuándēng lù), by Dàoyuán (道原), where it is stated that Bodhidharma's original name had been Bodhitāra but had been changed by his master Prajñātāra.

After Death

Soon after his death, someone supposedly witnessed Bodhidharma walking back towards India barefoot and with a single shoe in hand. His grave was later exhumed, and according to legend, the only thing found in it was the shoe he left behind.

For nine years he had remained and nobody knew him;

Carrying a shoe in hand he went home quietly, without ceremony.

Practice and teaching

Meditation

Tanlin, in the preface to Two Entrances and Four Acts, and Daoxuan, in the Further Biographies of Eminent Monks, mention a practice of Bodhidharma's termed "wall-gazing" (壁觀 bìguān). Both Tanlin and Daoxuan associate this "wall-gazing" with "quieting mind" (安心 ān xīn). Elsewhere, Daoxuan also states: "The merits of Mahāyāna wall-gazing are the highest". These are the first mentions in the historical record of what may be a type of meditation being ascribed to Bodhidharma.

In the Two Entrances and Four Acts, traditionally attributed to Bodhidharma, the term "wall-gazing" also appears:

Those who turn from delusion back to reality, who meditate on walls, the absence of self and other, the oneness of mortal and sage, and who remain unmoved even by scriptures are in complete and unspoken agreement with reason.

Exactly what sort of practice Bodhidharma's "wall-gazing" was remains uncertain. Nearly all accounts have treated it either as an undefined variety of meditation, as Daoxuan and Dumoulin, or as a variety of seated meditation akin to the zazen (坐禪; Chinese: zuòchán) that later became a defining characteristic of Chan and Zen Buddhism; the latter interpretation is particularly common among those working from a Chan/Zen standpoint. There have also, however, been interpretations of "wall-gazing" as a non-meditative phenomenon.

The Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra

The Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra, one of the Mahāyāna Buddhist sūtras, is a highly "difficult and obscure" text whose basic thrust is to emphasize "the inner enlightenment that does away with all duality and is raised above all distinctions". It is among the first and most important texts in the Yogācāra, or "Consciousness-only", school of Mahāyāna Buddhism.

One of the recurrent emphases in the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra is a lack of reliance on words to effectively express reality:

If, Mahamati, you say that because of the reality of words the objects are, this talk lacks in sense. Words are not known in all the Buddha-lands; words, Mahamati, are an artificial creation. In some Buddha-lands ideas are indicated by looking steadily, in others by gestures, in still others by a frown, by the movement of the eyes, by laughing, by yawning, or by the clearing of the throat, or by recollection, or by trembling.

In contrast to the ineffectiveness of words, the sūtra instead stresses the importance of the "self-realization" that is "attained by noble wisdom" and occurs "when one has an insight into reality as it is": "The truth is the state of self-realisation and is beyond categories of discrimination". The sūtra goes on to outline the ultimate effects of an experience of self-realization:

will become thoroughly conversant with the noble truth of self-realisation, will become a perfect master of his own mind, will conduct himself without effort, will be like a gem reflecting a variety of colours, will be able to assume the body of transformation, will be able to enter into the subtle minds of all beings, and, because of his firm belief in the truth of Mind-only, will, by gradually ascending the stages, become established in Buddhahood.

One of the fundamental Chan/Zen texts attributed to Bodhidharma is a four-line stanza whose first two verses echo the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra's disdain for words and whose second two verses stress the importance of the insight into reality achieved through "self-realization":

A special transmission outside the scriptures,

Not founded upon words and letters;

By pointing directly to mind

It lets one see into nature and attain Buddhahood.

The stanza, in fact, is not Bodhidharma's, but rather dates to the year 1108. Nonetheless, there are earlier texts which explicitly associate Bodhidharma with the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra. Daoxuan, for example, in a late recension of his biography of Bodhidharma's successor Huike, has the sūtra as a basic and important element of the teachings passed down by Bodhidharma:

In the beginning Dhyana Master Bodhidharma took the four-roll Laṅkā Sūtra, handed it over to Huike, and said: "When I examine the land of China, it is clear that there is only this sutra. If you rely on it to practice, you will be able to cross over the world."

Another early text, the Record of the Masters and Disciples of the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra (楞伽師資記 Léngqié shīzī jì) of Jìngjué (淨覺; 683–750), also mentions Bodhidharma in relation to this text. Jingjue's account also makes explicit mention of "sitting meditation", or zazen:

For all those who sat in meditation, Master Bodhi also offered expositions of the main portions of the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra, which are collected in a volume of twelve or thirteen pages, bearing the title of Teaching of Dharma.

In other early texts, the school that would later become known as Chan (Zen) is sometimes referred to as the "Laṅkāvatāra school" (楞伽宗 Léngqié zōng).

Portrayals of Bodhidharma

Throughout Buddhist art, Bodhidharma is depicted as a rather ill-tempered, profusely bearded and wide-eyed barbarian. He is described as "The Blue-Eyed Barbarian" 藍眼睛的野人 (lán yǎnjīngde yěrén) in Chinese texts.

The Anthology of the Patriarchal Hall (952) identifies Bodhidharma as the 28th Patriarch of Buddhism in an uninterrupted line that extends all the way back to the Buddha himself. Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki contends that Zen's growth in popularity during the 7th and 8th centuries attracted criticism that it had "no authorized records of its direct transmission from the founder of Buddhism" and that Zen historians made Bodhidharma the 28th patriarch of Buddhism in response to such attacks.

Legends

Bodhidharma and the martial arts?

The Yi Jin Jing credits Shaolin Kung Fu to Bodhidharma, which would make him an important influence on the martial arts of East Asia in general. However, both the attribution of Shaolin Kung Fu to Bodhidharma and the authenticity of the Yi Jin Jing itself have been discredited by historians including Tang Hao, Xu Zhen and Matsuda Ryuchi. This argument is summarized by modern historian Lin Boyuan in his Zhongguo wushu shi as follows:

As for the “Yi Jin Jing” (Muscle Change Classic), a spurious text attributed to Bodhidharma and included in the legend of his transmitting martial arts at the temple, it was written in the Ming dynasty, in 1624 CE, by the Daoist priest Zining of Mt. Tiantai, and falsely attributed to Bodhidharma. Forged prefaces, attributed to the Tang general Li Jing and the Southern Song general Niu Gao were written. They say that, after Bodhidharma faced the wall for nine years at Shaolin temple, he left behind an iron chest; when the monks opened this chest they found the two books “Xi Sui Jing” (Marrow Washing Classic) and “Yi Jin Jing” within. The first book was taken by his disciple Huike, and disappeared; as for the second, “the monks selfishly coveted it, practicing the skills therein, falling into heterodox ways, and losing the correct purpose of cultivating the Real. The Shaolin monks have made some fame for themselves through their fighting skill; this is all due to having obtained this manuscript.” Based on this, Bodhidharma was claimed to be the ancestor of Shaolin martial arts. This manuscript is full of errors, absurdities and fantastic claims; it cannot be taken as a legitimate source.

Matsuda can trace the Yi Jin Jing back no further than 1827 and Lin Boyuan dates the text to 1624. Even then, the association of Bodhidharma with martial arts only becomes widespread as a result of the 1904–1907 serialization of the novel The Travels of Lao Ts'an in Illustrated Fiction Magazine.

Shaolin monastery records state that two of its very first monks, Huiguang and Sengchou, were expert in the martial arts years before the arrival of Bodhidharma. The Taishō Tripiṭaka documents Sengchou's skill with the tin staff.

Bodhidharma is associated with the idea that spiritual, intellectual and physical excellence are an indivisible whole necessary for enlightenment. Such an approach to enlightenment ultimately proved highly attractive to the Samurai class in Japan, who made Zen their way of life, following their encounter with the martial-arts-oriented Zen Rinzai School introduced to Japan by Eisai in the 12th century. Yet in some versions of his legend, Bodhidharma's focus was so single-minded during his nine years of meditation that his legs atrophied.

Encounter with Emperor Liang

According to the Anthology of the Patriarchal Hall, in 527 during the Liang Dynasty, Bodhidharma, the first Patriarch of Zen, visited the Emperor Wu, a fervent patron of Buddhism. The emperor asked Bodhidharma, "What is the highest meaning of noble truth?" Bodhidharma answered, "There is no noble truth." The emperor then asked Bodhidharma, "Who is standing before me?" Bodhidharma answered, "I don't know." The emperor then asked Bodhidharma, "How much karmic merit have I earned by ordaining Buddhist monks, building monasteries, having sutras copied, and commissioning Buddha images?" Bodhidharma answered, "None."

From then on, the emperor refused to listen to whatever Bodhidharma had to say. Although Bodhidharma came from India to China to become the first patriarch of China, the emperor refused to recognize him. Since he refused to believe in what Bodhidharma told him, he practically missed his chance to come face to face with someone who was important to Buddhism. Bodhidharma knew that he would face difficulty in the near future, but had the emperor been able to leave the throne and yield it to someone else, he could have avoided his fate of starving to death.

According to the teaching, Emperor Wu's past life was as a bhikshu. While he cultivated in the mountains, a monkey would always steal and eat the things he planted for food, as well as the fruit in the trees. One day, he was able to trap the monkey in a cave and blocked the entrance of the cave with rocks, hoping to teach the monkey a lesson. However, after two days, the bhikshu found that the monkey had died of starvation.

Supposedly, that monkey was reincarnated into Hou Jing of the Northern Wei Dynasty, who led his soldiers to attack Nanjing. After Nanjing was taken, the emperor was held in captivity in the palace and was not provided with any food, and was left to starve to death. Though Bodhidharma wanted to save him and brought forth a compassionate mind toward him, the emperor failed to recognize him, so there was nothing Bodhidharma could do. Thus, Bodhidharma had no choice but to leave Emperor Wu to die and went into meditation in a cave for nine years.

Nine years of gazing at a wall

Failing to make a favorable impression in Southern China, Bodhidharma is said to have retreated to the northern Chinese kingdom of Wei to a cave near the Shaolin Monastery where he "faced a wall for nine years, not speaking for the entire time".

In one version of the story, he is said to have fallen asleep seven years into his nine years of wall-gazing. Becoming angry with himself, he cut off his eyelids to prevent it from happening again.

In another version of the story, after the nine years, Bodhidharma “passed away, seated upright”.

In another, Bodhidharma disappeared, leaving behind the Yi Jin Jing.

In yet another version of the legend, Bodhidharma's legs atrophied after nine years of sitting, which is why Japanese Bodhidharma dolls have no legs.

Teaching

In one legend, Bodhidharma refused to resume teaching until his would-be student, Hui-k'o, who had kept vigil for weeks in the deep snow outside of the monastery, cut off his own right arm to demonstrate sincerity.

The lineage of Bodhidharma and his disciples

In the Two Entrances and Four Acts and the Continued Biographies of Eminent Monks, Daoyu and Huike are the only explicitly identified disciples of Bodhidharma. The Jingde Records of the Transmission of the Lamp gives Bodhidharma four disciples who, in increasing order of understanding, are Daofu, who attains Bodhidharma's skin; the nun Dharani, who attains Bodhidharma's flesh; Daoyu, who attains Bodhidharma's bone; and Huike, who attains Bodhidharma's marrow.

• Bodhidharma
  • Daoyu
  • Yuan (Yuan-chi?)
    • Tao-chih
  • Huike
    • Tanlin (506–574)
    • Huineng (638-713)
      • Hsuan-chueh (665-713)
    • Layman Hsiang
    • Hua-kung
    • Yen-kung
    • Dhyana Master Na
    • Dhyana Master Ho
      • Hsuan-ching
      • Ching-ai
        • T'an-yen
        • Tao-an
        • Tao-p'an
        • Chih-tsang
        • Seng-chao
        • P'u-an
          • Ching-yuan (1067-1120)

Works attributed to Bodhidharma

• The Outline of Practice or Two Entrances
• The Bloodstream Sermon
• The Breakthrough Sermon
• The Wake-Up Sermon

Notes

1. Broughton 54–55
2. Ibid. 55
3. Reid and Croucher 26
4. Denkoroku: Record of the Transmission of Luminosity by Keizan Jokin zenji, translated by Anzan Hoshin roshi and Joshu Dainen zenji
5. Faure, Bernard, Bodhidharma as Textual and Religious Paradigm in History of Religions, Vol. 25, No. 3. (Feb., 1986)
6. ^ Dumoulin (2005), 88
7. Broughton 8
8. Ibid. 9
9. Zvelebil 125–126
10. ^ Dumoulin (2005), 87
11. ^ Broughton 2
12. Mahajan 705–707
13. ^ Broughton 56
14. Broughton 139
15. Dumoulin, Heinrich (1993). "Early Chinese Zen Reexamined: A Supplement to Zen Buddhism: A History", 37.
16. Chang, Chung-Yuan (1967). "Ch'an Buddhism: Logical and Illogical".
17. Suzuki, Daisetz Teitaro (1948). Manual Of Zen Buddhism, 50.
18. McRae, John R. "The Antecedents of Encounter Dialogue in Chinese Ch'an Buddhism".
19. ^ Lin 1996:182
20. Watts, Alan (1958) 32.
21. Broughton 9, 66. Broughton translates 壁觀 as "wall-examining".
22. Taishō Shinshū Daizōkyō, Vol. 50, No. 2060, p. 551c 06(02)
23. Broughton 9
24. ^ Dumoulin 96
25. Red Pine 3, emphasis added. Broughton 9 offers a more literal rendering of the key phrase 凝住壁觀 (níngzhù bìguān) as " in a coagulated state abides in wall-examining".
26. E.g., see Keizan Jokin-zenji "Chapter 29: Bodhidharma" in Denkoroku: Record of the Transmission of Luminosity; Child, Simon, "In the Spirit of Chan".
27. Viz. Broughton 67–68, where a Tibetan Buddhist interpretation of "wall-gazing" as being akin to Dzogchen is offered.
28. Suzuki, Daisetz Teitaro. "Preface" in The Lankavatara Sutra: A Mahayana Text; 1932.
29. Kohn 125
30. Sutton 1
31. Suzuki, Daisetz Teitaro. The Lankavatara Sutra: A Mahayana Text, XLII.
32. Ibid. XI(a)
33. Ibid. XVI
34. Ibid. IX
35. Ibid. VIII
36. Dumoulin 85
37. Dumoulin 102
38. Broughton 62
39. Taishō Shinshū Daizōkyō, Vol. 85, No. 2837, p. 1285b 17(05)
40. The "volume" referred to is the Two Entrances and Four Acts.
41. Dumoulin 89
42. Dumoulin 52
43. Soothill and Hodous
44. Suzuki (1949), 168
45. Lin, Boyuan (1996). Zhōngguó wǔshù shǐ 中國武術史 (in Chinese). Taipei 臺北: Wǔzhōu chūbǎnshè 五洲出版社. p. 183.
46. Matsuda Ryuchi 松田隆智 (1986). Zhōngguó wǔshù shǐlüè 中國武術史略 (in Chinese). Taipei 臺北: Danqing tushu.
47. Lin 1996:183
48. Henning, Stanley (1994). "Ignorance, Legend and Taijiquan" (PDF). Journal of the Chenstyle Taijiquan Research Association of Hawaii. 2 (3): 1–7. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
49. Canzonieri, Salvatore (1998). "History of Chinese Martial Arts: Jin Dynasty to the Period of Disunity". Han Wei Wushu. 3 (9). {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
50. Dumoulin 2005:86
51. Broughton 2–3
52. Maguire, Jack. Essential Buddhism. ISBN 0-671-04188-6, p. 58.
53. Lin 1996:183
54. Dumoulin 86
55. Maguire, Jack. Essential Buddhism. ISBN 0-671-04188-6, p. 58.
56. In the Jingde Records of the Transmission of the Lamp, Dharani repeats the words said by the nun Yuanji in the Two Entrances and Four Acts, possibly identifying the two with each other.

References

• Broughton, Jeffrey L. The Bodhidharma Anthology: The Earliest Records of Zen. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999. ISBN 0-520-21972-4.
• Dumoulin, Heinrich; Heisig, James W.; and Knitter, Paul F. Zen Buddhism: A History, India & China. Bloomington: World Wisdom Inc., 2005. ISBN 0-941532-89-5.
• Ferguson, Andrew. Zen's Chinese Heritage: The Masters and their Teachings. Somerville: Wisdom Publications, 2000. ISBN 0-86171-163-7.
• Kohn, Michael H.; tr. The Shambhala Dictionary of Buddhism and Zen. Boston: Shambhala, 1991.
• Lin, Boyuan. 中國武術史 (Zhōngguó wǔshù shǐ). 臺北 (Taipei): 五洲出版社 (Wǔzhōu chūbǎnshè), 1996.
• Mahajan, Vidya Dhar. Ancient India. S. Chand & Co., 1972. OCLC 474621.
• Red Pine; tr. The Zen Teaching of Bodhidharma: A Bilingual Edition. New York: North Point Press, 1989. ISBN 0-86547-399-4.
• Reid, Howard and Croucher, Michael. The Fighting Arts: Great Masters of the Martial Arts. Simon & Schuster, 1983. ISBN 0-671-47273-9.
• Soothill, William Edward and Hodous, Lewis. A Dictionary of Chinese Buddhist Terms. London: RoutledgeCurzon, 1995.
• Sutton, Florin Giripescu. Existence and Enlightenment in the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra: A Study in the Ontology and Epistemology of the Yogācāra School of Mahāyāna Buddhism. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1991. ISBN 0-7914-0172-3.
• Suzuki, Daisetz Teitaro. Essays in Zen Buddhism. New York: Grove Press, 1949. ISBN 0-8021-5118-3.
• Watts, Alan. The Way of Zen. New York: Vintage Books, 1985. ISBN 0-375-70510-4
• ---. The Spirit of Zen. New York: Grove Press, 1958.
• Williams, Paul. Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations. ISBN 0-415-02537-0.
• Zvelebil, K. V. "The Sound of the One Hand" in Journal of the American Oriental Society 107 (1), 1987.

See also

• Chán
• Zen
• Buddhism in China
• List of Buddhist topics
• Bodhidharma

External links

• Essence of Mahayana Practice By Bodhidharma, with annotations. Also known as "The Outline of Practice."
• Bodhidharma

Template:Buddhism2

• Zen Patriarchs
• Indian philosophers
• Northern Wei Buddhists
• Indian Buddhists
• Indian Chinese