| Revision as of 12:59, 18 July 2007 view sourceSciurinæ (talk | contribs)Autopatrolled, Rollbackers12,786 edits rv - banned user Serafin← Previous edit | Revision as of 13:46, 18 July 2007 view source 64.254.66.25 (talk) ←Blanked the pageNext edit → | ||
| Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
| {{redirect|Copernicus}} | |||
| <!--NOTE TO EDITORS: Please read the talk page before editing the two introductory paragraphs. These paragraphs represent a consensus on how best to present the essential information in the introduction. Other issues are discussed later in the article.--> | |||
| {{Infobox_Scientist | |||
| | name = Nicolaus Copernicus | |||
| | image = Nikolaus Kopernikus.jpg|150px | |||
| | image_width = 150px | |||
| | caption = Portrait from his hometown, ], beginning of the ]. | |||
| | birth_date = ], ], | |||
| | birth_place = ] (''Thorn''), ], ]. | |||
| | death_date = ], ], | |||
| | death_place = ] (''Frauenburg''), ], Poland. | |||
| | field = ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ]. | |||
| | work_institution = | |||
| | alma_mater = ], ], ], ]. | |||
| | doctoral_advisor = | |||
| | doctoral_students = | |||
| | known_for = first modern formulation of a ] theory of the ]. | |||
| | societies = | |||
| | prizes = | |||
| | spouse = | |||
| | children = (celibate cleric, no children) | |||
| | religion = ]. | |||
| | website = | |||
| | footnotes = | |||
| }} | |||
| {{TOCright}} | |||
| '''Nicolaus Copernicus''' (], ] – ], ]) was a ]an | |||
| <!-- please no assertion of nationality here; see section on his nationality, the discussion page and Misplaced Pages:Neutral point of view --> | |||
| ] who formulated the first explicitly ] model of the ]. His epochal book, '']'' (''On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres''), is often conceived as the starting point of modern ], as well as a central and defining ] in all the history of science. | |||
| Among the great ]s of the ], Copernicus was a ], astronomer, ], ], ], ], ], ], ] leader, ] and ]. Amid his extensive responsibilities, astronomy figured as little more than an avocation. | |||
| While the heliocentric theory had been formulated by ], ] and ] ]s centuries before Copernicus, his reiteration that the sun — rather than the ] — is at the center of the ] is considered among the most important ]s in the ]. | |||
| ==Life== | |||
| Nicolaus Copernicus was born in 1473 in the city of ] (''Thorn'') in ] province of the ].<ref>The Scientific World of Copernicus on the Occasion of the 500th Anniversary of His Birth 1473-1973 Barbara Bieńkowska - 1973 - Page 137 "His country was the province of ancient Royal Prussia, composed of his native Torun and Warmia, both components of the Polish state since 1454"</ref> He was educated at ], ], ] and ], and spent most of his working life within the ]ric of ] (Ermeland), in the town of ] (Frauenburg), where he died in 1543. | |||
| ===Childhood=== | |||
| ] | |||
| His father — a wealthy businessman, ] trader, and respected citizen of Toruń — died when Nicolaus was ten years old. Little is known of Copernicus' mother, Barbara Watzenrode, except that she was born into a rich merchant family and appears to have predeceased her husband. After the elder Copernicus' death, Nicolaus' maternal uncle, ], a church ] and later ] governor of the ], reared Nicolaus and his three siblings. The uncle's position helped Copernicus in the pursuit of a career within the church, enabling him to devote much time to his astronomy studies. | |||
| Copernicus had a brother and two sisters: | |||
| * Andreas became an ] at ]. | |||
| * Barbara became a ] nun. | |||
| * Katharina married Barthel Gertner, a businessman and city councillor. | |||
| ===Education=== | |||
| ]'s '']''.]] | |||
| In 1491 Copernicus enrolled at the ] (now Jagiellonian University), where he probably first encountered astronomy with the professor ]. This science soon fascinated him, and he began compiling a large library of books on the subject. Copernicus' library was later carried off as war booty by the Swedes, during ], and is now housed in the ]. | |||
| After four years at Kraków, followed by a brief stay back home at Toruń, Copernicus went to study ] and ] at the universities of ] and ]. | |||
| Copernicus' bishop uncle financed his education and wished for him to become a ] as well. However, while studying ] and ] at Bologna, Copernicus met the famous astronomer, ]. Copernicus attended Novara's lectures and became his disciple and assistant. The first observations that Copernicus made in 1497, together with Novara, are recorded in Copernicus' epochal book, '']''. | |||
| ]'s statue of a seated Copernicus holding an ], before the ], seat of the ], in ].]] | |||
| In 1497 Copernicus' uncle was ordained ], and Copernicus was named a ] at Frombork Cathedral, but he waited in Italy for the great ] of 1500. Copernicus went to ], where he observed a lunar ] and gave some lectures in astronomy and mathematics. | |||
| He would thus have visited Frombork only in 1501. As soon as he arrived, he requested and obtained permission to complete his studies in Padua, where he studied medicine (with Guarico and ]), including astrological medicine, and at ], where in 1503 he received his doctorate in ]. It has been surmised that it was in Padua that he encountered passages from ] and ] about opinions of the ancients on the movement of the Earth, and formed the first intuition of his own future theory. In 1504 Copernicus began collecting observations and ideas pertinent to his theory. | |||
| ===His Work=== | |||
| Having left Italy at the end of his studies, he came to live and work at ]. Some time before his return to Warmia, he received a position at the Collegiate Church of the Holy Cross in ] (Breslau), ], ], which he held for many years and only resigned for health reasons shortly before his death. Through the rest of his life, he performed astronomical observations and calculations, but only as time permitted and never in a professional capacity. | |||
| ===Coin reform=== | |||
| {{main|Copernicus and coin reform}} | |||
| Copernicus worked for years with the ]n ], with ] and advised the Polish king ] on ]. In 1526 Copernicus wrote a study on the value of ] ''Monetae Cudendae Ratio''. In it, Copernicus formulated an early iteration of the theory, now called "]," that "bad" (debased) ] drives "good" (un-debased) coinage out of circulation, 70 years before Gresham. He also formulated a version of ]. As governor of Warmia, he administered taxes and dealt out justice. | |||
| During these years, Copernicus also traveled extensively on government business and as a ], on behalf of the ] of Warmia. | |||
| ===Heliocentrism=== | |||
| In 1514 Copernicus made available to friends his '']'' (Little Commentary) — a short handwritten text describing his ideas about the heliocentric hypothesis . Thereafter he continued gathering data for a more detailed work. | |||
| ].]] | |||
| In 1533, ] delivered in ] a series of lectures outlining Copernicus' theory. The lectures were heard with interest by ] and several Catholic ]. | |||
| On ] ], ] ] wrote a letter to Copernicus from Rome: | |||
| :''Some years ago word reached me concerning your proficiency, of which everybody constantly spoke. At that time I began to have a very high regard for you... For I had learned that you had not merely mastered the discoveries of the ancient astronomers uncommonly well but had also formulated a new cosmology. In it you maintain that the earth moves; that the sun occupies the lowest, and thus the central, place in the universe... Therefore with the utmost earnestness I entreat you, most learned sir, unless I inconvenience you, to communicate this discovery of yours to scholars, and at the earliest possible moment to send me your writings on the sphere of the universe together with the tables and whatever else you have that is relevant to this subject...''<ref>http://webexhibits.org/calendars/year-text-Copernicus.html</ref> | |||
| By then Copernicus' work was nearing its definitive form, and rumors about his theory had reached educated people all over Europe. Despite urgings from many quarters, Copernicus delayed with the publication of his book, perhaps from fear of criticism — a fear delicately expressed in the subsequent ] of his masterpiece to ]. About this, ] ] and ] have written: | |||
| :"If Copernicus had any genuine fear of publication, it was the reaction of scientists, not clerics, that worried him. Other churchmen before him — ] (a French ]) in the fourteenth century and ] (a German ]) in the fifteenth — had freely discussed the possible motion of the earth, and there was no reason to suppose that the reappearance of this idea in the sixteenth century would cause a religious stir."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.asa3.org/ASA/PSCF/1987/PSCF9-87Lindberg.html |title=Beyond War and Peace: A Reappraisal of the Encounter between Christianity and Science |accessdate=2007-04-22 |format= |work=American Scientific Affiliation article}} - Paper originally published in ''Church History'' (Vol. 55, No. 3, Sept. 1986).</ref> | |||
| ===The book=== | |||
| ] | |||
| ].]] | |||
| Copernicus was still working on '']'' (even if not convinced that he wanted to publish it) when in 1539 ], a ] ], arrived in Frombork. ] had arranged for Rheticus to visit several astronomers and study with them. Rheticus became Copernicus' pupil, staying with him for two years, during which he wrote a book, '']'' (First Account), outlining the essence of Copernicus' theory. In 1542 Rheticus published a treatise on ] by Copernicus (later included in the second book of '']''). Under strong pressure from Rheticus, and having seen the favorable first general reception of his work, Copernicus finally agreed to give the book to his close friend, ], bishop of ] (Kulm), to be delivered to Rheticus for printing by ] at ] (Nürnberg). | |||
| Legend has it that the first printed copy of '']'' was placed in Copernicus' hands on the very day he died, allowing him to take farewell of his ''opus vitae'' (life's work). He is reputed to have woken from a ]-induced ], looked at his book, and died peacefully. | |||
| Copernicus was buried in Frombork Cathedral. Archeologists had long vainly searched for his remains when, on ], ], it was announced that in August that year Copernicus' skull had been discovered (see "]," below). | |||
| ==Copernican system== | |||
| {{main|Copernican heliocentrism}} | |||
| ===Predecessors=== | |||
| Early traces of a ] model are found in several anonymous ] texts composed in ] before the ]. Additionally, the ] astronomer and mathematician ] anticipated elements of Copernicus' work by over a thousand years. | |||
| ] in the ] elaborated some theories of ] (the daily rotation of the Earth on its axis, the revolution of Venus and Mercury around the Sun) to propose what was the first scientific model of a heliocentric solar system: the Earth and all other planets revolving around the Sun, the Earth rotating around its axis daily, the Moon in turn revolving around the Earth once a month. His heliocentric work has not survived, so we can only speculate about what led him to his conclusions. It is notable that, according to ], a contemporary of Aristarchus accused him of impiety for "putting the Earth in motion." | |||
| Copernicus cited ] and ] in a surviving early manuscript of his book, stating: "Philolaus believed in the mobility of the earth, and some even say that Aristarchus of ] was of that opinion." For reasons unknown (possibly from reluctance to quote pre-Christian sources), he did not include this passage in the published book. It has been argued that in developing the mathematics of heliocentrism Copernicus drew on not just the Greek, but also the work of ], especially the works of ] (]), ] (Urdi lemma) and ]. Copernicus also discussed the theories of ] and ] in his major work. | |||
| ===Ptolemy=== | |||
| ]. Medieval artist's rendition.]] | |||
| The prevailing theory in Europe as Copernicus was writing was that created by ] in his '']'', dating from about ]. The ] drew on many previous theories that viewed Earth as a stationary center of the universe. Stars were embedded in a large outer sphere which rotated relatively rapidly, while the planets dwelt in smaller spheres between — a separate one for each planet. | |||
| ===Copernicus=== | |||
| Copernicus' major theory was published in the book, '']'' (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres) during the year of his death, ], though he had arrived at his theory several decades earlier. | |||
| The Copernican system can be summarized in seven propositions, as Copernicus himself collected them in a Compendium of '']'' that was found and published in ]. | |||
| The major parts of Copernican theory are: | |||
| # Heavenly motions are uniform, eternal, and circular or compounded of several circles (epicycles). | |||
| # The center of the universe is near the Sun. | |||
| # Around the Sun, in order, are Mercury, Venus, Earth and Moon, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and the fixed stars. | |||
| # The Earth has three motions: daily rotation, annual revolution, and annual tilting of its axis. | |||
| # Retrograde motion of the planets is explained by the Earth's motion. | |||
| # The distance from the Earth to the sun is small compared to the distance to the stars. | |||
| The work itself was then divided into six books: | |||
| # General vision of the heliocentric theory, and a summarized exposition of his idea of the World | |||
| # Mainly theoretical, presents the principles of spherical astronomy and a list of stars (as a basis for the arguments developed in the subsequent books) | |||
| # Mainly dedicated to the apparent motions of the Sun and to related phenomena | |||
| # Description of the Moon and its orbital motions | |||
| # Concrete exposition of the new system | |||
| # Concrete exposition of the new system (continued) | |||
| ==Copernicanism== | |||
| ] | |||
| Copernicus' theory is of extraordinary importance in the history of human knowledge. Many authors suggest that few other persons have exerted a comparable influence on human culture in general and on ] in particular.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} There are parallels with the life of ], in that both men produced a short early description of their theories, but held back on a definitive publication until late in life, against a backdrop of controversy, particularly with regard to ]. | |||
| Many meanings have been ascribed to Copernicus' theory, apart from its strictly scientific import. His work affected ] as well as ], ] as well as ] of ]. Copernicus' rank as a scientist is often compared with that of ]. | |||
| Copernicus' work contradicted then-accepted religious dogma: it could be inferred that there was no need of an entity (God) that granted a ], power and life to the World and to human beings — science could explain everything that was attributed to Him. | |||
| Copernicanism, however, also opened a way to ], the view that a divine force, or divine being, pervades all that exists — a view that has since been developed further in modern ]. Immanentism also leads to ]: to the theory that it is perception that creates reality, that there is no underlying reality that exists independent of perception. Thus some argue that Copernicanism demolished the foundations of medieval science and ]. | |||
| A corollary of Copernicanism is that scientific law need not be congruent with appearance. This contrasts with ]'s system, which placed much more importance on the derivation of knowledge through the ]. | |||
| Copernicus' concept marked a ]. The publication of his '']'' is often taken to mark the beginning of the ], together with the publication of Andreas ]' '']''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.anselm.edu/homepage/dbanach/timel.htm |title= Timeline of the Scientific Revolution |accessdate=2007-04-22 |format= |work=Saint Anselm College article}}</ref> | |||
| ==Quotes== | |||
| ].]] | |||
| ].]] | |||
| ''']''': | |||
| :"Of all discoveries and opinions, none may have exerted a greater effect on the human spirit than the doctrine of Copernicus. The world had scarcely become known as round and complete in itself when it was asked to waive the tremendous privilege of being the center of the universe. Never, perhaps, was a greater demand made on mankind — for by this admission so many things vanished in mist and smoke! What became of our Eden, our world of innocence, piety and poetry; the testimony of the senses; the conviction of a poetic — religious faith? No wonder his contemporaries did not wish to let all this go and offered every possible resistance to a doctrine which in its converts authorized and demanded a freedom of view and greatness of thought so far unknown, indeed not even dreamed of." | |||
| ''']''': | |||
| :"It gave me pleasure to contemplate the right of the Polish nobleman to upset with his simple veto the determinations of a session; and the Pole Copernicus seemed to have made of this right against the determinations and presentations of other people, the greatest and worthiest use." | |||
| '''Copernicus''': | |||
| :"For I am not so enamored of my own opinions that I disregard what others may think of them. I am aware that a philosopher's ideas are not subject to the judgment of ordinary persons, because it is his endeavor to seek the truth in all things, to the extent permitted to human reason by God. Yet I hold that completely erroneous views should be shunned. Those who know that the consensus of many centuries has sanctioned the conception that the earth remains at rest in the middle of the heaven as its center would, I reflected, regard it as an insane pronouncement if I made the opposite assertion that the earth moves."<ref>''De Revolutionibus'', Preface</ref> | |||
| ] | |||
| :"For when a ship is floating calmly along, the sailors see its motion mirrored in everything outside, while on the other hand they suppose that they are stationary, together with everything on board. In the same way, the motion of the earth can unquestionably produce the impression that the entire universe is rotating." <ref>''De Revolutionibus'', Book 1, Chapter 8</ref> | |||
| :"Hence I feel no shame in asserting that this whole region engirdled by the moon, and the center of the earth, traverse this grand circle amid the rest of the planets in an annual revolution around the sun. Near the sun is the center of the universe. Moreover, since the sun remains stationary, whatever appears as a motion of the sun is really due rather to the motion of the earth."<ref>''De Revolutionibus'', Book 1, Chapter 10</ref> | |||
| : "At rest, however, in the middle of everything is the sun. For, in this most beautiful temple, who would place this lamp in another or better position than that from which it can light up the whole thing at the same time? For, the sun is not inappropriately called by some people the lantern of the universe, its mind by others, and its ruler by still others. ] labels it a visible god, and ], the all-seeing. Thus indeed, as though seated on a royal throne, the sun governs the family of planets revolving around it."<ref>''De Revolutionibus'', Book 1, Chapter 10</ref> | |||
| ] | |||
| ''' Declaration of the ], June 12, 2003''': | |||
| :"On the five hundred thirtieth anniversary of the birth, and the four hundred sixtieth anniversary of the death, of Mikołaj Kopernik, the Senate of the Polish Republic expresses its highest esteem and praise for this exceptional ], one of the greatest scientists in world history. Mikołaj Kopernik, world-famous astronomer and author of the landmark work, ''De revolutionibus orbium coelestium'', "stopped the Sun and moved the Earth." He distinguished himself for Poland as an exceptional mathematician, economist, lawyer, physician and priest, as well as defender of ] Castle during the Polish-Teutonic war. May the memory of his achievements endure and be a source of inspiration to future generations." | |||
| ''']''': | |||
| :"The nationality question has been a subject of various writings; an honoring controversy over the claim to the founder of our current world view is conducted between Poles and Germans, but as already mentioned nothing certain can be determined concerning the nationality of Copernicus' parents; the father seems to have been of Slavic birth, the mother German; he was born in a city whose municipal authorities and educated inhabitants were Germans, but which at the time of his birth was under Polish rule; he studied at the Polish capital, Kraków, then in Italy, and lived out his days as a canon in ]; he wrote Latin and German. ].]]In science, he is a man who belongs to no single nation, whose labors and strivings belong to the whole world, and we do not honor the Pole nor the German in Copernicus, but the man of free spirit, the great astronomer, the father of the new astronomy, the author of the true world view." | |||
| ''']''' (]) addressed the Polish people in 1999: | |||
| :"Poles and Germans have a common history of great scientists: Today we no longer perceive Copernicus, ], ] and ] as the property of one nation but as representatives of one transnational culture."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.msz.gov.pl/files/file_library/31/9909_316.doc |title=Address by Mr. Johannes Rau |accessdate=2007-04-22 |format=DOC |work=Public Speeches and Addresses |year=1999 |month=September }}</ref> | |||
| ==Grave== | |||
| ] Cathedral, Copernicus' burial place.]] | |||
| In August 2005, a team of archeologists led by Jerzy Gąssowski, head of an ] and ] institute in ], discovered what they believe to be Copernicus' grave and remains, after scanning beneath the floor of ] Cathedral. The find came after a year of searching, and the discovery was announced only after further research, on November 3. Gąssowski said he was "almost 100 percent sure it is Copernicus". | |||
| ] expert of the used the skull to reconstruct a face that closely resembled the features — including a broken nose and a scar above the left eye — on a Copernicus self-portrait.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.policja.pl/portal.php?serwis=pol&dzial=107&id=3837 |title=Czy tak wyglądał Mikołaj Kopernik? |accessdate=2007-04-22 |format= |work=In Polish}}</ref> The expert also determined that the skull had belonged to a man who had died about age 70 — Copernicus' age at the time of his death. | |||
| The grave was in poor condition, and not all the remains were found. The archeologists hoped to find deceased relatives of Copernicus in order to attempt ] identification. | |||
| ==Nationality== | |||
| ]'s ].]] | |||
| It remains to this day a matter of dispute whether Copernicus should be regarded as German or Polish.<ref name="Understanding Contemporary Germany">Stuart Parkes, Understanding Contemporary Germany. ISBN 0-415-14123-0</ref> | |||
| The ending "''–nik''" in the original form of the astronomer's name (''Kopernik''), meaning "one who works with (])," indicates Polish roots.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://glos.uni.torun.pl/2003/05/historia/ |title=O historii i o współczesności | |||
| |accessdate=2007-04-22 |format= |work=In Polish}}</ref> On the title page of Copernicus' epochal book, ''Nicolai Copernici Torinensis De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium Libri VI'' (Six Books on the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres, by Nicolaus Copernicus of Toruń), the astronomer's name appears in the ] form, "Nicolaus Copernicus." In ] references to Copernicus, the name is written "Nikolaus Kopernikus," each of the three "c's" being replaced with the letter "k". The ] rendering is "]". | |||
| ] (''Thorn'').]] | |||
| Copernicus' father, possibly a ] ],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://history-world.org/revolution_of_astronomy_by_coper.htm |title= Revolution Of Astronomy By Copernicus|accessdate=2007-04-22 |format= |work=International World History Project article}}</ref> had been a citizen of ] but had left ]'s capital in 1460 to move to ], known in German as Thorn. Most historians believe Copernicus' mother was German.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://history-world.org/revolution_of_astronomy_by_coper.htm |title=Revolution Of Astronomy By Copernicus|accessdate=2007-04-22 |format= |work=International World History Project article}}</ref> It has therefore been argued that Copernicus' "mother tongue" was German. While he was fluent in ]{{Fact|date=June 2007}}, no direct evidence survives of the extent of his knowledge of ]. His main language for written communication was ]. | |||
| An important inland port in the ], Toruń was also part of the ], which, some decades before Copernicus' birth, sought independence from the ], who had ruled the area for two hundred years and were imposing high taxes that hindered economic development. This led to the ] and the ]; Prussia's western part became part of the ] as "]," while the eastern part remained under the administration of the ]. | |||
| Copernicus was born and grew up in Toruń, then as now located in Poland, but (like many cities in Poland at that time) with a mainly German citizenry, and was therefore a subject of the ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/copernicus/#1 |title=Nicolaus Copernicus |accessdate=2007-04-22 |format= |work=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy}}</ref> This is cited as a major reason why he is commonly regarded as Polish. However, in Copernicus' time, nationality had yet to play as important a role as it would later, and people generally did not think of themselves primarily as Poles or Germans.<ref name="Davies">], God's Playground: A History of Poland, . ISBN 0-231-05353-3.</ref> Indeed, he might have considered himself to be both at the same time. | |||
| ] (''Allenstein'')]] | |||
| Following extended studies in Italy, Copernicus spent most of his working life as a ] in Royal Prussia which, though a part of the Polish crown, enjoyed substantial ] — it had its own ], monetary unit and treasury (which Copernicus famously labored to place on a sound footing) and army. | |||
| Copernicus also oversaw the defense of the castle of ] (''Allenstein'') at the head of Polish royal forces when they were besieged by the forces of ]. Copernicus also participated in the peace negotiations. Later, Albrecht called on Copernicus' services as physician and in 1551, published a volume of his astrological observations.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://salempress.com/Store/samples/great_lives_from_history_renaissance/great_lives_from_history_renaissance_nicolaus.htm |title=Great Lives from History: The Renaissance & Early Modern Era Nicolaus Copernicus |accessdate=2007-04-22 |format= |work=Salem Press summary of book}}</ref> | |||
| Copernicus remained for the rest of his life a ] of ] (]), and was a loyal subject of the Catholic ]s and the Catholic Polish King during the ]. | |||
| In 1757, Copernicus' book was removed from the ]'s '']'', the list of books banned by the ]. Ever since, Poles have claimed that Copernicus was a Pole and Germans that he was a German. Before Copernicus and his ideas were widely embraced, it had been the reverse. | |||
| Since 1842, a ] of Copernicus has been enshrined at the ]. In ], Copernicus was claimed to be purely German;<ref name"Majer">], Non-Germans Under the Third Reich: The Nazi Judicial and Administrative System in Germany and occupied Eastern Europe with special regard to occupied Poland, 1939-1945, . ISBN 0-8018-6493-3</ref> since 1945, German assertions have diminished. Acknowledgment of his connections to Poland notwithstanding, however, in Germany Copernicus is not considered "un-German" or "non-German." In 2003 he was declared eligible for the TV event organized by ], '']'' (Our Best), a ranking of the "greatest Germans". | |||
| ]'' ] with Copernicus identified, in Polish, as "MIKOŁAJ KOPERNIK." ]] | |||
| In Poland, in 1973, the 500th anniversary of Copernicus' birth was an occasion to celebrate the "great Pole"; a banknote was issued, bearing Copernicus' likeness. Thirty years later, on ], ], the Polish Senate declared him an "exceptional Pole." | |||
| These claims and counter-claims are somewhat anachronistic. In Copernicus' lifetime, "nationality" did not have the same meaning as today. Many ethnic Germans were loyal subjects of the Polish crown. The universal language of science was Latin, and academics throughout Europe communicated in that idiom. | |||
| ==See also== | |||
| ] 10-'']'' coins with Copernicus on ], minted 1959 (right) and 1968.]] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| ==Notes== | |||
| <div class="references-small"> | |||
| <references/> | |||
| ==References== | |||
| * Angus Armitage (1951). ''The World of Copernicus'', New York: Mentor Books. ISBN 0-8464-0979-8. | |||
| * ] (2004). ''The Book Nobody Read'', Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-303476-6. | |||
| * ] and Colin A. Russell, eds. (1991). ''The Rise of Scientific Europe, 1500-1800''. Dunton Green, Sevenoaks, Kent: Hodder & Stoughton: The Open University. ISBN 0-340-55861-X. | |||
| * ] - ''The Sleepwalkers: A History of Man's Changing Vision of the Universe'', New York: Grosset & Dunlap, (1963, c1959). ISBN 0448001594. | |||
| * ] (1973) ''The Astronomical Revolution: Copernicus – Kepler – Borelli'', Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-0504-1. | |||
| * ] (1957). ''The Copernican Revolution: Planetary Astronomy in the Development of Western Thought'', Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-17100-4. | |||
| </div> | |||
| ==Further reading== | |||
| *Danielson, Dennis, "The First Copernican: ] and the Rise of the Copernican Revolution", Walker & Company, 2006, ISBN 0-8027-1530-3 | |||
| ==External links== | |||
| {{wikiquote}} | |||
| {{commons|Nicolaus Copernicus}} | |||
| ;Primary Sources | |||
| * {{MacTutor Biography|id=Copernicus}} | |||
| * {{gutenberg author| id=Nicolaus+Copernicus | name=Nicolaus Copernicus}} | |||
| * — Full digital facsimile, Jagiellonian University | |||
| * {{pl icon}} | |||
| ;General | |||
| * | |||
| * Portraits of Copernicus: ; ; | |||
| * — Cambridge University: Copernicus had – of course – teachers with astrological activities and his tables were later used by astrologers. | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * — BBC article including image of Copernicus using facial reconstruction based on located skull | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * Parallax and the Earth's orbit | |||
| * Copernicus' model for Mars | |||
| * Retrograde Motion | |||
| * Copernicus'explanation for retrograde motion | |||
| * Geometry of Maximum Elongation | |||
| * Copernican Model | |||
| About ''De Revolutionibus'' | |||
| * | |||
| * — Full digital facsimile, Lehigh University | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| ;Legacy | |||
| * {{it icon}} — in Italian | |||
| * — Was One of the Greatest Scientific Works Really Ignored? All Things Considered. ] | |||
| * — A detailed critique of the rhetoric of De Revolutionibus | |||
| * | |||
| ;German-Polish cooperation | |||
| * {{de icon}}{{pl icon}} | |||
| * {{de icon}}{{en icon}}{{pl icon}} | |||
| * {{de icon}}{{pl icon}} German-Polish "Copernicus Prize" awarded to German and Polish scientists () () | |||
| <!-- Metadata: see ] --> | |||
| {{Persondata | |||
| |NAME= Copernicus, Nicolaus | |||
| |ALTERNATIVE NAMES= | |||
| |SHORT DESCRIPTION= ] | |||
| |DATE OF BIRTH= 19 February 1473, | |||
| |PLACE OF BIRTH= ] (''Thorn''), ], ]. | |||
| |DATE OF DEATH= 24 May 1543, | |||
| |PLACE OF DEATH= ] (''Frauenburg''), ] (''Ermeland''). | |||
| }} | |||
| {{DEFAULTSORT:Copernicus, Nicolaus}} | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| {{Link FA|sl}} | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||