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:''See ] for the religious demographics of the Republic of India.'' :''See ] for the religious demographics of the Republic of India.''


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⚫ ] attracts thousands of devotees.]]


⚫ ] in ], ] attracts thousands of devotees.]]
⚫ '''Indian religions''' as the name suggests, are a category of religions that originated in ] or the ]. They are ], ], ] and ] in the order of founding. It forms a subgroup of the larger class of "]". These religions share similarities in core beliefs, mode of worship, and associated practices due to their common history of origin, and some mutual influences. They all derive directly from ] philosophies.

⚫ '''Indian religions''' as the name suggests, are a category of religions that originated in ] or the ]. They are ], ], ], and ]. It forms a subgroup of the larger class of "]". These religions share similarities in core beliefs, mode of worship, and associated practices due to their common history of origin, and some mutual influences.


The other major class of religions is the ] or Semitic religions. Other lesser known classes grouped by geographic categories are Middle Eastern religions, Far Eastern religions, African religions, American religions, Oceanic religions and classical religions of ancient Greece and Rome.<ref name = EB>Adams, C. J., , ], 2007. Accessed: ], ]</ref> The other major class of religions is the ] or Semitic religions. Other lesser known classes grouped by geographic categories are Middle Eastern religions, Far Eastern religions, African religions, American religions, Oceanic religions and classical religions of ancient Greece and Rome.<ref name = EB>Adams, C. J., , ], 2007. Accessed: ], ]</ref>
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] has its direct foundation in the ] of India, and thus has no known founder. It has various ]/], primarily ], ], ], ] besides much smaller groups like ], and more recent ] and ]. About 90% of Hindus reside in the ], accounting for 83% of its population.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html |title=Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents |accessdate=2007-07-10 |work= |publisher=Adherents.com }}</ref> ] has its direct foundation in the ] of India, and thus has no known founder. It has various ]/], primarily ], ], ], ] besides much smaller groups like ], and more recent ] and ]. About 90% of Hindus reside in the ], accounting for 83% of its population.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html |title=Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents |accessdate=2007-07-10 |work= |publisher=Adherents.com }}</ref>


Ancient India had two philosophical streams of thought, the Shramana Religions; and the Vedic Religion (Hinduism). ] and ], both are a continuation of ] traditions which has co-existed with the Vedic tradition.<ref>Y. Masih (2000) In : A Comparative Study of Religions, Motilal Banarsidass Publ : Delhi, ISBN 8120808150 Page 18. "There is no evidence to show that Jainism and Buddhism ever subscribed to vedic sacrifices, vedic deities or caste. They are parallel or native religions of India and have contributed to much to the growth of even classical Hinduism of the present times" </ref> Both streams have existed side by side for many thousands of years, influencing each other and in turn being influenced by each other.
] and ], both of which originated around the fifth and sixth centuries B.C<ref>''''The term "shramana" is from the root shram, meaning "to exert oneself" or "to practice austerities," and refers to non-Indo-Brahmanical mendicant groups that began to appear in North India some time around the sixth century B.C.E.</ref> are derivatives of ] teaching, qualify as ] traditions, while ] is of more recent foundation, originating in the 15th century. Buddhism was historically founded and ], but suffered a ] in its homeland. It remains more widespread in ].

A great Hindu scholar, Lokmanya Tilak went on record to credit Jainism with influencing Hinduism and thus leading to the cessation of animal sacrifice in Vedic rituals. The venerable Bal Gangadhar Tilak has described Jainism as the originator of Ahimsa.

This is what he wrote in a letter printed in “Bombay Samachar”. Mumbai:10 Dec, 1904. "In ancient times, innumerable animals were butchered in sacrifices. Evidence in support of this is found in various poetic compositions such as the Meghaduta. But the credit for the disappearance of this terrible massacre from the brahminical religion goes to Jainism." - Bal Gangadhar Tilak

On the other hand, ] is of more recent foundation, originating in the 15th century. Buddhism was historically founded and ], but suffered a ] in its homeland. It remains more widespread in ].



==Common traits== ==Common traits==
Sometimes summarised as "Dharmic" religions or dharmic traditions, Jainism, Hinduism, and Buddhism share key concepts derived from the ] terminology of ]. <ref>]. From the River of Heaven: Hindu and Vedic Knowledge for the Modern Age. Pg 27. Berkeley, California: Book Passage Press, 1990. ISBN 1878423010.</ref><!--- note that only parts of the preceding long sentence are supported by the listed references. user: Andries 16 Sept.2007--><ref>] "Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism share with Hinduism the concept of dharma along with other key concepts, and the four religions may be said to belong to the dharmic tradition."</ref><ref>Westerlund, David ''Questioning the Secular State: The Worldwide Resurgence of Religion in Politics'' page 16 "may provide some possibilities for co-operation with Sikhs, Jains and Buddhists, who like Hindus are regarded as adherents of ‘dharmic' religions."</ref>Likewise, common traits can be observed in both the ritual and the literary sphere. Thus, the head-anointing ritual of '']'' is of importance in all three traditions. In literature, many classical Hindu narratives have Buddhist or Jain versions.<ref>c.f. ], s.v. "Jainism > Jainism, Hinduism, and Buddhism"</ref>All three traditions have notions of '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'' and '']''. Sometimes summarised as "Dharmic" religions or dharmic traditions, Jainism, Hinduism, and Buddhism share certain key concepts which are interpreted differently by different concepts. <ref>]. From the River of Heaven: Hindu and Vedic Knowledge for the Modern Age. Pg 27. Berkeley, California: Book Passage Press, 1990. ISBN 1878423010.</ref><!--- note that only parts of the preceding long sentence are supported by the listed references. user: Andries 16 Sept.2007--><ref>] "Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism share with Hinduism the concept of dharma along with other key concepts, and the four religions may be said to belong to the dharmic tradition."</ref><ref>Westerlund, David ''Questioning the Secular State: The Worldwide Resurgence of Religion in Politics'' page 16 "may provide some possibilities for co-operation with Sikhs, Jains and Buddhists, who like Hindus are regarded as adherents of ‘dharmic' religions."</ref>Likewise, common traits can be observed in both the ritual and the literary sphere. Thus, the head-anointing ritual of '']'' is of importance in all three traditions. In literature, many classical Hindu narratives have Buddhist or Jain versions.<ref>c.f. ], s.v. "Jainism > Jainism, Hinduism, and Buddhism"</ref>All three traditions have notions of '']'', '']'', '']'' and '']''. Of course, these terms may be perceived differently by different religions. For instance, for a Hindu, dharma is his duty. For a Jain, dharma is his conduct. For a Hindu, dharma is piety. For a Jain, dharma is righteousness. Similarly, for a Hindu, yoga is the cessation of all thought activities of the mind. <ref>"yogascittavrttinirodhah" Sutra 1 of Patanjali's Yogadarshana </ref>. Whereas, Jain epistemology sees yoga as the sum total of all the activities of mind, speech and body.


== History == == History ==


{{seealso|Religious thinkers of India|history of Hinduism|history of Buddhism|history of Yoga}} {{seealso|Religious thinkers of India|history of Hinduism|history of Buddhism|Jainism|history of Yoga}}


===Prehistory=== ===Prehistory===
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{{main|Shramana}} {{main|Shramana}}


Buddhism and Jainism parallely arose from shramana movements of 5th and 6th century B.C. They have Vedantic influence into their beliefs as is evident from the mention of some Jaina Tirthankars and philosophies like ] in the Vedas. Jain Tirthankar, ] (599–527 BC, though possibly 549–477 BC), stressed five vows, including '']'' (non-violence) and '']'' (non-stealing). The historical ], who founded Buddhism, was born to the ] clan just before ] (which lasted from 546–324 BCE) rose to power. His family was native to the plains of ], in what is now southern ]. Buddhism and Jainism are a continuation of the Sramana tradition. <ref>These were not direct outgrowths of Vedism, instead, were concurrent streams of thought in ancient India. S. Cromwell Crawford, review of L. M. Joshi, Brahmanism, Buddhism and Hinduism, Philosophy East and West (1972): "'''Alongside Brahmanism was the non-Aryan Shramanic culture with its roots going back to prehistoric times."''' </ref>24th Jain Tirthankar, ] (599–527 BCE), stressed five vows, including '']'' (non-violence), ] (truthfulness), '']''(non-stealing) and ] (non-attachment). The historical ], who founded Buddhism, was born to the ] clan just before ] (which lasted from 546–324 BCE) rose to power. His family was native to the plains of ], in what is now southern ].


===Vedanta=== ===Vedanta===
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{{main|Buddhism in India|Silk Road transmission of Buddhism|Greco-Buddhism}} {{main|Buddhism in India|Silk Road transmission of Buddhism|Greco-Buddhism}}
{{see|Mauryan period|Gupta period}} {{see|Mauryan period|Gupta period}}
] peaked during the reign of ] of the ], who patronised ] and unified the Indian subcontinent in the 3rd century BCE. He sent missionaries abroad, allowing Buddhism to spread across Asia.<ref name="Heehs_2002_106">{{harvnb|Heehs|2002|p=106}}.</ref> ] declined following the loss of royal patronage offered by the ] and such kingdoms as ] and ]. ] in India peaked during the reign of ] of the ], who patronised ] and unified the Indian subcontinent in the 3rd century BCE. He sent missionaries abroad, allowing Buddhism to spread across Asia.<ref name="Heehs_2002_106">{{harvnb|Heehs|2002|p=106}}.</ref> ] declined following the loss of royal patronage offered by the ] and such kingdoms as ] and ].


===Rise of classical Hinduism=== ===Rise of classical Hinduism===
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After 200 CE, several schools of thought were formally codified in ], including ], ], ], ], ] and ].<ref name="Radhaxviii-xxi">{{harvnb|Radhakrishnan|Moore|1967|p=xviii–xxi}}.</ref> Hinduism, otherwise a highly theistic religion, hosted ]; the thoroughly ] and anti-religious philosophical ] school that originated in India around the 6th century BCE is probably the most explicitly atheistic school of Indian philosophy. Carvaka is classified as a '']'' ("heterodox") system; it is not included among the six schools of Hinduism generally regarded as orthodox. It is noteworthy as evidence of a materialistic movement within Hinduism.<ref name="Radha227">{{harvnb|Radhakrishnan|Moore|1967|p=227–249}}.</ref> Our understanding of Carvaka philosophy is fragmentary, based largely on criticism of the ideas by other schools, and it is no longer a living tradition.<ref name="RChatterjee55">{{harvnb|Chatterjee|Datta|1984|p=55}}.</ref> Other Indian philosophies generally regarded as atheistic include ] and ]. After 200 CE, several schools of thought were formally codified in ], including ], ], ], ], ] and ].<ref name="Radhaxviii-xxi">{{harvnb|Radhakrishnan|Moore|1967|p=xviii–xxi}}.</ref> Hinduism, otherwise a highly theistic religion, hosted ]; the thoroughly ] and anti-religious philosophical ] school that originated in India around the 6th century BCE is probably the most explicitly atheistic school of Indian philosophy. Carvaka is classified as a '']'' ("heterodox") system; it is not included among the six schools of Hinduism generally regarded as orthodox. It is noteworthy as evidence of a materialistic movement within Hinduism.<ref name="Radha227">{{harvnb|Radhakrishnan|Moore|1967|p=227–249}}.</ref> Our understanding of Carvaka philosophy is fragmentary, based largely on criticism of the ideas by other schools, and it is no longer a living tradition.<ref name="RChatterjee55">{{harvnb|Chatterjee|Datta|1984|p=55}}.</ref> Other Indian philosophies generally regarded as atheistic include ] and ].


] in ] is one of the world's largest mosques.]]
⚫ Between 400 BCE and 1000 CE, Hinduism expanded as the ] continued.<ref name="BBC ethics2">{{cite web |title=The rise of Jainism and Buddhism |work=Religion and Ethics—Hinduism: Other religious influences |publisher=BBC |date=] ] |accessdate=2007-04-21 |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/hinduism/history/history_2.shtml }}</ref> Buddhism subsequently became effectively extinct in India.


⚫ Between 400 BCE and 1000 CE, Hinduism expanded as the ] continued.<ref name="BBC ethics2">{{cite web |title=The rise of Jainism and Buddhism |work=Religion and Ethics—Hinduism: Other religious influences |publisher=BBC |date=] ] |accessdate=2007-04-21 |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/hinduism/history/history_2.shtml }}</ref> Buddhism subsequently became effectively extinct in India.




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{{main|Religion in India|Hindu reform movements|Hindutva|Communalism (South Asia)}} {{main|Religion in India|Hindu reform movements|Hindutva|Communalism (South Asia)}}


Communalism has played a key role in shaping the religious history of modern India. ] was ] along religious lines into two states—the Muslim-majority ] (comprising what is now the ] and the ]) and the Hindu-majority ] (later the Republic of India). The 1947 ] inaugurated rioting among Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs in Punjab, Bengal, Delhi, and other parts of India; 500,000 died as a result of the violence. The twelve million refugees that moved between the newly founded nations of India and Pakistan composed one of the largest mass migrations in modern history.{{cref|Δ}}<ref name="Symonds_1950_74">{{harvnb|Symonds|1950|p=74}}.</ref> Since its independence, India has periodically witnessed large-scale violence sparked by underlying tensions between sections of its majority Hindu and minority Muslim communities. The Republic of India is secular; though it is often considered a Hindu holy land (''punyabhumi''), its government recognises no official religion. In recent decades, communal tensions and religion-based politics have become more prominent.<ref name="Ludden_1996_253">{{harvnb|Ludden|1996|p=253}}.</ref> Communalism has played a key role in shaping the religious history of modern India. ] was ] along religious lines into two states—the Muslim-majority ] (comprising what is now the ] and the ]) and the Hindu-majority ] (later the Republic of India). The 1947 ] inaugurated rioting among Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs in Punjab, Bengal, Delhi, and other parts of India; 500,000 died as a result of the violence. The twelve million refugees that moved between the newly founded nations of India and Pakistan composed one of the largest mass migrations in modern history.{{cref|Δ}}<ref name="Symonds_1950_74">{{harvnb|Symonds|1950|p=74}}.</ref> Since its independence, India has periodically witnessed large-scale violence sparked by underlying tensions between sections of its majority Hindu and minority Muslim communities. The Republic of India is secular; though it is often considered a Hindu holy land (''punyabhumi''), its government recognises no official religion. In recent decades, communal tensions and religion-based politics have become more prominent.<ref name="Ludden_1996_253">{{harvnb|Ludden|1996|p=253}}.</ref>


Looking at the population of the ] considered as a whole the present (as of 2007, according to the ]) distribution of religious adherence in the follow-up states of ] is: Looking at the population of the ] considered as a whole the present (as of 2007, according to the ]) distribution of religious adherence in the follow-up states of ] is:
*]: 80% Hindu, 13% Muslim, 2% Christian, 2% Sikh (1,100 M) *]: 80% Hindu, 13% Muslim, 2% Christian, 2% Sikh (1,100 M)
*]: 97% Muslim, 2% Hindu, 1% Christian (165 M) *]: 97% Muslim, 2% Hindu, 1% Christian (165 M)
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{{Mergefrom|Hinduism and Buddhism|date=September 2007}} {{Mergefrom|Hinduism and Buddhism|date=September 2007}}


''Astika'' and ''nastika'' are technical terms in ] used to classify ] and persons, according to whether they accept the authority of the ] as supreme revealed scriptures, or not. By this definition, ], ], ], ], ] and ] are classified as ''astika'' schools; while ], ] and ] are considered ''nastika'' schools. ''Astika'' and ''nastika'' are used to categorise religions. Those religions that believe that God is the central doer in this world, are termed as astika. Those religions that do not believe that God is the prime mover and doer in this world, are classified as nastika religions. From this point of view, the Vedic religion (aka Hinduism) is an astika religion, whereas Jainism and Buddhism are nastika relgions.

Yet another definition of the terms astika and nastika, followed by Adi Shankaracarya, classifies religions and persons as astika and nastika, according to whether they accept the authority of the main Hindu texts, the ] as supreme revealed scriptures, or not. By this definition, ], ], ], ], ] and ] are classified as ''astika'' schools; while ] is classified as a ''nastika'' schools. By this definition, both Jainism and Buddhism are classified as nastika religions since they do not accept the authority of the Vedas.

⚫ All three religions, Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism agree that Jainism and Buddhism do not accept the authority of the Vedas. Despite a general ''doctrinal'' tolerance in the Hindu tradition, history shows instances of hostility against Jains such as in Tamil Nadu in the 7th century when Hindu Shaiva poets and teachers popularized the notion of Jains (or ''Samanars'' in Tamil) as villains opposed to the Shaiva creed. In modern India, Jains share a variety cultural and linguistic affinities with other religious communities.


⚫ The historical relationship of the Shramana traditions and Hinduism is somewhat controversial. Jainism has been variously labeled an "offshoot" or "reform movement" of Hinduism, and an ] social movement, a lesser twin of Buddhism, a religion of "extreme asceticism", a pacifist creed. Despite a general ''doctrinal'' tolerance in the Hindu tradition, history shows instances of hostility against Jains such as in Tamil Nadu in the 7th century when Hindu Shaiva poets and teachers popularized the notion of Jains (or ''Samanars'' in Tamil) as villains opposed to the Shaiva creed. In modern India, Jains share a variety cultural and linguistic affinities with other religious communities.


==Shramana traditions== ==Shramana traditions==

Revision as of 11:34, 25 September 2007

See Religion in India for the religious demographics of the Republic of India.


Statue of Jain God Bahubali in Shravanabelagola, Karnataka attracts thousands of devotees.

Indian religions as the name suggests, are a category of religions that originated in India or the Indian subcontinent. They are Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, and Sikhism. It forms a subgroup of the larger class of "Eastern religions". These religions share similarities in core beliefs, mode of worship, and associated practices due to their common history of origin, and some mutual influences.

The other major class of religions is the Abrahamic religions or Semitic religions. Other lesser known classes grouped by geographic categories are Middle Eastern religions, Far Eastern religions, African religions, American religions, Oceanic religions and classical religions of ancient Greece and Rome.

Hinduism has its direct foundation in the Historical Vedic religion of India, and thus has no known founder. It has various sects/denominations, primarily Shaivism, Shaktism, Vaishnavism, Smartha besides much smaller groups like Shrauta, and more recent Hindu reform movements and Ayyavazhi. About 90% of Hindus reside in the Republic of India, accounting for 83% of its population.

Ancient India had two philosophical streams of thought, the Shramana Religions; and the Vedic Religion (Hinduism). Buddhism and Jainism, both are a continuation of Shramana traditions which has co-existed with the Vedic tradition. Both streams have existed side by side for many thousands of years, influencing each other and in turn being influenced by each other.

A great Hindu scholar, Lokmanya Tilak went on record to credit Jainism with influencing Hinduism and thus leading to the cessation of animal sacrifice in Vedic rituals. The venerable Bal Gangadhar Tilak has described Jainism as the originator of Ahimsa.

This is what he wrote in a letter printed in “Bombay Samachar”. Mumbai:10 Dec, 1904. "In ancient times, innumerable animals were butchered in sacrifices. Evidence in support of this is found in various poetic compositions such as the Meghaduta. But the credit for the disappearance of this terrible massacre from the brahminical religion goes to Jainism." - Bal Gangadhar Tilak

On the other hand, Sikhism is of more recent foundation, originating in the 15th century. Buddhism was historically founded and spread from India, but suffered a decline in its homeland. It remains more widespread in East Asia.


Common traits

Sometimes summarised as "Dharmic" religions or dharmic traditions, Jainism, Hinduism, and Buddhism share certain key concepts which are interpreted differently by different concepts. Likewise, common traits can be observed in both the ritual and the literary sphere. Thus, the head-anointing ritual of abhiseka is of importance in all three traditions. In literature, many classical Hindu narratives have Buddhist or Jain versions.All three traditions have notions of karma, dharma, yoga and moksha. Of course, these terms may be perceived differently by different religions. For instance, for a Hindu, dharma is his duty. For a Jain, dharma is his conduct. For a Hindu, dharma is piety. For a Jain, dharma is righteousness. Similarly, for a Hindu, yoga is the cessation of all thought activities of the mind. . Whereas, Jain epistemology sees yoga as the sum total of all the activities of mind, speech and body.

History

See also: Religious thinkers of India, history of Hinduism, history of Buddhism, Jainism, and history of Yoga

Prehistory

File:Pashupati.gif
A Harappan seal excavated at Mohenjo Daro showing a "Pashupati" figure in sitting in what is reminiscent of the padma asana posture (roughly 2000 BC).

Evidence attesting to prehistoric religion in the Indian subcontinent derives from scattered Mesolithic rock paintings depicting dances and rituals. Neolithic pastoralists inhabiting the Indus River Valley buried their dead in a manner suggestive of spiritual practices that incorporated notions of an afterlife and belief in magic. Other South Asian Stone Age sites, such as the Bhimbetka rock shelters in central Madhya Pradesh and the Kupgal petroglyphs of eastern Karnataka, contain rock art portraying religious rites and evidence of possible ritualised music. The Harappan people of the Indus Valley Civilisation, which lasted from 3300–1700 BCE and was centered around the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra river valleys, may have worshiped an important mother goddess symbolising fertility. Excavations of Indus Valley Civilisation sites show seals with animals and "fire‑altars", indicating rituals associated with fire. A linga-yoni of a type similar to that which is now worshiped by Hindus has also been found.

The Indus-Valley diety of Pashupatinath is very similar to the Hindu god, Shiva which may also indicate the stretching of the Vedic origin to the IVC.

Vedic religion

Main article: historical Vedic religion

The root of Hinduism, and which lay the foundation of the belief systems of the Dharmic religions, the religious practices of Vedic times are followed nearly verbatim today by Hindus. However, the period is most significant for the composition of the four Vedas and some Upanishads (essentially commentaries on the Vedas), which today are the canonical texts of Hinduism andare thesource for much of the belief matrix of the Dharmic religions.

The Vedas reflect the liturgy of Late Bronze Age to Early Iron Age (Vedic period) Indo-Aryan ritualism in India. The religious practices centered on a clergy administering rituals/rites and sacrifices. The Brahmanas, and some of the older Upanishads (BAU, ChU, JUB) are also considered Vedic. Elements of Vedic religion reach back into Proto-Indo-Iranian times. The Vedic period is held to have ended around 500 BC. Specific rituals and sacrifices of the Vedic religion include:

Shramana

Main article: Shramana

Buddhism and Jainism are a continuation of the Sramana tradition. 24th Jain Tirthankar, Mahavira (599–527 BCE), stressed five vows, including ahimsa (non-violence), satya (truthfulness), asteya(non-stealing) and aparigraha (non-attachment). The historical Gautama Buddha, who founded Buddhism, was born to the Shakya clan just before Magadha (which lasted from 546–324 BCE) rose to power. His family was native to the plains of Lumbini, in what is now southern Nepal.

Vedanta

Main article: Vedanta

Rise and spread of Buddhism

Main articles: Buddhism in India, Silk Road transmission of Buddhism, and Greco-Buddhism Further information: Mauryan period and Gupta period

Buddhism in India peaked during the reign of Asoka the Great of the Mauryan Empire, who patronised Buddhist teachings and unified the Indian subcontinent in the 3rd century BCE. He sent missionaries abroad, allowing Buddhism to spread across Asia. Indian Buddhism declined following the loss of royal patronage offered by the Kushan Empire and such kingdoms as Magadha and Kosala.

Rise of classical Hinduism

Main articles: decline of Buddhism in India, Hindu philosophy, and Pala Empire Further information: Puranas

After 200 CE, several schools of thought were formally codified in Indian philosophy, including Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Purva-Mimamsa and Vedanta. Hinduism, otherwise a highly theistic religion, hosted atheistic schools; the thoroughly materialistic and anti-religious philosophical Carvaka school that originated in India around the 6th century BCE is probably the most explicitly atheistic school of Indian philosophy. Carvaka is classified as a nastika ("heterodox") system; it is not included among the six schools of Hinduism generally regarded as orthodox. It is noteworthy as evidence of a materialistic movement within Hinduism. Our understanding of Carvaka philosophy is fragmentary, based largely on criticism of the ideas by other schools, and it is no longer a living tradition. Other Indian philosophies generally regarded as atheistic include Classical Samkhya and Purva Mimamsa.

The Jama Masjid in Delhi is one of the world's largest mosques.

Between 400 BCE and 1000 CE, Hinduism expanded as the decline of Buddhism in India continued. Buddhism subsequently became effectively extinct in India.


Modern India

Main articles: Religion in India, Hindu reform movements, Hindutva, and Communalism (South Asia)

Communalism has played a key role in shaping the religious history of modern India. British India was partitioned along religious lines into two states—the Muslim-majority Dominion of Pakistan (comprising what is now the Islamic Republic of Pakistan and the People's Republic of Bangladesh) and the Hindu-majority Union of India (later the Republic of India). The 1947 Partition of India inaugurated rioting among Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs in Punjab, Bengal, Delhi, and other parts of India; 500,000 died as a result of the violence. The twelve million refugees that moved between the newly founded nations of India and Pakistan composed one of the largest mass migrations in modern history. Since its independence, India has periodically witnessed large-scale violence sparked by underlying tensions between sections of its majority Hindu and minority Muslim communities. The Republic of India is secular; though it is often considered a Hindu holy land (punyabhumi), its government recognises no official religion. In recent decades, communal tensions and religion-based politics have become more prominent.

Looking at the population of the Indian subcontinent considered as a whole the present (as of 2007, according to the CIA Factbook) distribution of religious adherence in the follow-up states of British India is:

  • India: 80% Hindu, 13% Muslim, 2% Christian, 2% Sikh (1,100 M)
  • Pakistan: 97% Muslim, 2% Hindu, 1% Christian (165 M)
  • Bangladesh: 83% Muslim, 16% Hindu (150 M)
  • Myanmar: 89% Buddhist, 4% Muslim, 4% Christian (43 M)
  • Sri Lanka: 70% Buddhist, 7% Hindu, 7% Muslim, 7% Christian (20 M)

In total yielding 61% Hindus, 29% Muslims, 5% Buddhists, 2% Christians and 1% Sikhs.

Vedic ritualism and Vedanta

Main articles: Vedic Brahmanism, Shrauta, and Vedanta

Astika and Nastika philosophy

Further information: Astika, Hindu philosophy, and Buddhism and Hinduism
It has been suggested that Hinduism and Buddhism be merged into this article. (Discuss) Proposed since September 2007.

Astika and nastika are used to categorise religions. Those religions that believe that God is the central doer in this world, are termed as astika. Those religions that do not believe that God is the prime mover and doer in this world, are classified as nastika religions. From this point of view, the Vedic religion (aka Hinduism) is an astika religion, whereas Jainism and Buddhism are nastika relgions.

Yet another definition of the terms astika and nastika, followed by Adi Shankaracarya, classifies religions and persons as astika and nastika, according to whether they accept the authority of the main Hindu texts, the Vedas as supreme revealed scriptures, or not. By this definition, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Raja Yoga, Purva Mimamsa and Vedanta are classified as astika schools; while Charvaka is classified as a nastika schools. By this definition, both Jainism and Buddhism are classified as nastika religions since they do not accept the authority of the Vedas.

All three religions, Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism agree that Jainism and Buddhism do not accept the authority of the Vedas. Despite a general doctrinal tolerance in the Hindu tradition, history shows instances of hostility against Jains such as in Tamil Nadu in the 7th century when Hindu Shaiva poets and teachers popularized the notion of Jains (or Samanars in Tamil) as villains opposed to the Shaiva creed. In modern India, Jains share a variety cultural and linguistic affinities with other religious communities.


Shramana traditions

Main articles: Shramana and Jainism and Buddhism

Sikhism

Main article: Sikhism Further information: Sikhism and Jainism and Sikhism and Hinduism
It has been suggested that Sikhism and Jainism be merged into this article. (Discuss) Proposed since September 2007.
It has been suggested that Sikhism and Hinduism be merged into this article. (Discuss) Proposed since September 2007.

Sikhism originated in fifteenth century Northern India with the teachings of Nanak and nine successive human gurus. The principal belief in Sikhism is faith in Vāhigurū— represented by the sacred symbol of ēk ōaṅkār. Sikhism's traditions and teachings are distinctly associated with the history, society and culture of the Punjab. Adherents of Sikhism are known as Sikhs (students or disciples) and number over 23 million across the world.

Notes

  1. Adams, C. J., Classification of religions: Geographical, Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2007. Accessed: September 5, 2007
  2. "Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents". Adherents.com. Retrieved 2007-07-10.
  3. Y. Masih (2000) In : A Comparative Study of Religions, Motilal Banarsidass Publ : Delhi, ISBN 8120808150 Page 18. "There is no evidence to show that Jainism and Buddhism ever subscribed to vedic sacrifices, vedic deities or caste. They are parallel or native religions of India and have contributed to much to the growth of even classical Hinduism of the present times"
  4. Frawley, David. From the River of Heaven: Hindu and Vedic Knowledge for the Modern Age. Pg 27. Berkeley, California: Book Passage Press, 1990. ISBN 1878423010.
  5. Encarta encyclopedia "Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism share with Hinduism the concept of dharma along with other key concepts, and the four religions may be said to belong to the dharmic tradition."
  6. Westerlund, David Questioning the Secular State: The Worldwide Resurgence of Religion in Politics page 16 "may provide some possibilities for co-operation with Sikhs, Jains and Buddhists, who like Hindus are regarded as adherents of ‘dharmic' religions."
  7. c.f. Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. "Jainism > Jainism, Hinduism, and Buddhism"
  8. "yogascittavrttinirodhah" Sutra 1 of Patanjali's Yogadarshana
  9. Heehs 2002, p. 39 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFHeehs2002 (help).
  10. "Ancient Indians made 'rock music'". BBC News. 19 March 2004. Retrieved 2007-08-07. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  11. Fowler 1997, p. 90 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFFowler1997 (help).
  12. These were not direct outgrowths of Vedism, instead, were concurrent streams of thought in ancient India. S. Cromwell Crawford, review of L. M. Joshi, Brahmanism, Buddhism and Hinduism, Philosophy East and West (1972): "Alongside Brahmanism was the non-Aryan Shramanic culture with its roots going back to prehistoric times."
  13. Heehs 2002, p. 106 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFHeehs2002 (help).
  14. Radhakrishnan & Moore 1967, p. xviii–xxi harvnb error: no target: CITEREFRadhakrishnanMoore1967 (help).
  15. Radhakrishnan & Moore 1967, p. 227–249 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFRadhakrishnanMoore1967 (help).
  16. Chatterjee & Datta 1984, p. 55 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFChatterjeeDatta1984 (help).
  17. "The rise of Jainism and Buddhism". Religion and Ethics—Hinduism: Other religious influences. BBC. 26 July 2004. Retrieved 2007-04-21. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  18. Symonds 1950, p. 74 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSymonds1950 (help).
  19. Ludden 1996, p. 253 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFLudden1996 (help).

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