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| ] ]) gave her name to the historic era]] | |||
| The '''Victorian era''' (strictly, 1837-1901) of the ] marked the height of the British ] and the apex of the ]. Although commonly used to refer to the period of ] rule between 1837 and 1901, scholars debate whether the Victorian period—as defined by a variety of sensibilities and political concerns that have come to be associated with the Victorians—actually begins with the passage of the ]. The era was preceded by the ] and succeeded by the ]. This era roughly coincided with the ] era of continental Europe and other non-english speaking countries. | |||
| ==Introduction== | |||
| Queen Victoria had the ], and the cultural, political, economic, industrial and scientific changes that occurred during her reign were remarkable. When Victoria ascended to the throne, Britain was essentially ] and ]; upon her death, the country was highly ] and connected by an expansive ]. The first decades of Victoria's reign witnessed a series of epidemics (] and ], most notably), crop failures and economic collapses. There were riots over ] and the repeal of the ], which had been established to protect British agriculture during the ] in the early part of the ]. | |||
| Discoveries by ] and ] began to examine centuries of assumptions about man and the world, about science and history, and, finally, about religion and philosophy. As the country grew increasingly connected by an expansive network of railway lines, small, previously isolated communities were exposed and entire economies shifted as cities became more and more accessible. | |||
| The mid-Victorian period also witnessed significant social changes: an evangelical revival occurred alongside a series of legal changes in women's rights. While women were not enfranchised during the Victorian period, they did gain the legal right to their property upon marriage through the ], the right to divorce, and the right to fight for custody of their children upon separation. | |||
| The period is often characterised as a long period of peace and economic, colonial, and industrial consolidation, temporarily disrupted by the ], although Britain was at war every year during this period. Towards the end of the century, the policies of ] led to increasing colonial conflicts and eventually the ] and the ]. Domestically, the agenda was increasingly liberal with a number of shifts in the direction of gradual political reform and the widening of the franchise. | |||
| In the early part of the era the ] was dominated by the two parties, the ] and the ]. From the late 1850s onwards the Whigs became the ]. Many prominent statesmen led one or other of the parties, including ], Sir ], ], ], ], ] and ]. The unsolved problems relating to ] played a great part in politics in the later Victorian era, particularly in view of Gladstone's determination to achieve a political settlement. | |||
| In May of 1857, the ], a widespread revolt in ] against the rule of the ], was sparked by '']s'' (native Indian soldiers) in the Company's army. The rebellion, involving not just sepoys but many sectors of the Indian population as well, was largely quenched after a year. In response to the Mutiny, the East India Company was abolished in August 1858 and India came under the direct rule of the ], beginning the period of the ]. | |||
| In January 1858, the ] ] responded to the ] plot against ] emperor ], the bombs for which were purchased in ], by attempting to make such acts a felony, but the resulting uproar forced him to resign. | |||
| In July 1866, an angry crowd in ], protesting ]'s resignation as prime minister, was barred from ] by the ]; they tore down iron railings and trampled the flower beds. Disturbances like this convinced Derby and Disraeli of the need for further parliamentary reform. | |||
| During 1875, Britain purchased ]'s shares in the ] as the ]n nation was forced to raise money to pay off its debts. | |||
| In 1882 Egypt became a ] of Great Britain after ] occupied land surrounding the Suez Canal in order to secure the vital ], and the passage to India. | |||
| In 1884 the ] was founded in London by a group of ] ]s, including ] ], ], and ], to promote socialism. ] and ] would be among many famous names to later join this society. | |||
| On Sunday, ], ], tens of thousands of people, many of them ] or unemployed, gathered in ] to demonstrate against British coercion in Ireland. ] Commissioner Sir ] ordered armed soldiers and 2,000 police constables to respond. Rioting broke out, hundreds were injured and two people died. This event was referred to as ]. | |||
| ==Culture== | |||
| This inescapable sense of newness resulted in a deep interest in the relationship between modernity and cultural continuities. ] became increasingly significant in the period, leading to the ] between Gothic and ] ideals. ]'s architecture for the new ], which had been badly damaged in an 1834 fire, built on the medieval style of ], the surviving part of the building. It constructed a narrative of cultural continuity, set in opposition to the violent disjunctions of ], a comparison common to the period, as expressed in ]'s '']'' and ]' '']''. Gothic was also supported by the critic ], who argued that it epitomised communal and inclusive social values, as opposed to Classicism, which he considered to epitomise mechanical standardisation. | |||
| The middle of the century saw ] of 1851, the first ] and showcased the greatest innovations of the century. At its centre was ], an enormous, modular glass and iron structure - the first of its kind. It was condemned by Ruskin as the very model of mechanical dehumanisation in design, but later came to be presented as the prototype of ]. The emergence of photography, which was showcased at the Great Exhibition, resulted in significant changes in Victorian art. ] was influenced by photography (notably in his portrait of Ruskin) as were other ] artists. It later became associated with the ] and ] techniques that would dominate the later years of the period in the work of artists such as ] and ]. | |||
| ==Social institutions== | |||
| Prior to the Industrial Revolution, Britain had a very rigid ] consisting of three distinct ]: the ] and ], the ], and the ] | |||
| The ] was known as the aristocracy. It included the Church and ] and had great power and wealth. This class consisted of about two percent of the population, who were born into nobility and who owned the majority of the land. It included the ], lords spiritual and temporal, the ], great officers of state, and those above the degree of ]. These people were privileged and avoided ]es. | |||
| The middle class consisted of the ] - the middle working class. It was made up of factory owners, bankers, shopkeepers, merchants, lawyers, engineers, businessmen, traders, and other professionals. These people could be sometimes extremely rich, but in normal circumstances they were not privileged, and they especially resented this. There was a very large gap between the middle class and the lower class. | |||
| The British lower class was divided into two sections: "the working class" (labourers), and "the poor" (those who were not working, or not working regularly, and were receiving public charity). The lower class contained men, women, and children performing many types of labour, including factory work, ], ]ing, mining, and other jobs. Both the poorer class and the middle class had to endure a large burden of tax. This third class consisted of about eighty-five percent of the population. | |||
| Industrialisation changed the class structure dramatically in the late ]. Hostility was created between the upper and lower classes. As a result of industrialisation, there was a huge boost of the middle and working class. As the Industrial Revolution progressed there was further social division. Capitalists, for example, employed industrial workers, who were one component of the working classes (each class included a wide range of occupations of varying status and income; there was a large gap, for example, between skilled and unskilled labour), but beneath the industrial workers was a submerged "under class" sometimes referred to as the "sunken people," which lived in ]. The under class were more susceptible to exploitation and were therefore exploited. | |||
| The government consisted of a ] headed by Queen Victoria. Only the royalty could rule. Other politicians came from the aristocracy. The system was criticised by many as being in favour of the upper classes, and during the late 18th century, philosophers and writers began to question the social status of the nobility. | |||
| ==Events== | |||
| In 1842, a law was passed to ban women and children working in mines. | |||
| In 1849, 2,000 people a week died in a cholera epidemic. | |||
| In 1851, The Great Exhibition (the first World's Fair) was held in The Crystal Palace, with great success and international attention. | |||
| In 1859, ] published "]", which led to great religious doubt and insecurity. | |||
| In 1861, ] died; Queen Victoria refused to go out in public for many years, and when she did she wore a widow's ] instead of the crown. | |||
| In 1888, the ] known as ] murdered and mutilated five (and possibly more) ] on the streets of ], leading to world-wide press coverage and hysteria. Newspapers used the deaths to bring greater focus on the plight of the unemployed and to attack police and political leaders. The killer was never caught, and the affair contributed to Sir Charles Warren's resignation. | |||
| In 1891, education became free for every child. | |||
| ] stands in the shadow of ] Abbey ] ]] | |||
| == Entertainment == | |||
| Popular forms of entertainment vary by socioeconomic class. Victorian England, like the periods before it, was interested in theatre and the arts. Music, drama, and opera were widely attended. There were, however, other forms of entertainment. Gambling at cards in establishments popularly called casinos was wildly popular during the period--so much so that evangelical and reform movements specifically targeted such establishments in their efforts to stop gambling, drinking, and prostitution. | |||
| ] and 'The ]' became popular in the Victorian era typically associated with the British brass band. The band stand is a simple construction which not only creates an ornamental focal point, it also serves acoustic requirements whilst providing shelter for the changeable British weather. It was common to hear the sound of a brass band whilst strolling through parklands. At this time musical recording was still very much a novelty. | |||
| Another form of entertainment involved 'spectacles' where paranormal events, such as ], communication with the dead (by way of ] or ]), ] conjuring and the like, were carried out to the delight of crowds and participants. Such activities were very popular during this time compared to others in recent Western history. | |||
| ==Science, technology and engineering== | |||
| ] in ]]] | |||
| The impetus of the Industrial Revolution had already occurred, but it was during this period that the full effects of industrialisation made themselves felt, leading to the ] of the ]. The revolution led to the rise of railways across the country and great leaps forward in ], most famously by ]. | |||
| Another great engineering feat in the Victorian Era was the ] system in London. It was designed by ] in 1858. He proposed to build 82 ]s of ] linked with over 1,000 miles of street ]s. Many problems were found but the sewers were completed. After this, Bazalgette designed the ] which housed sewers, ]s and the ]. | |||
| During the Victorian era, science grew into the discipline it is today. In addition to the increasing professionalism of university science, many Victorian gentlemen devoted their time to the study of natural history. | |||
| ] was realised in 1839 by ] in France and ] in ]. By 1900, hand-held ]s were available. | |||
| <!--In January 1863, Prime Minister Gladstone opened the first section of the ].--> | |||
| Although initially developed in the early years of the 19th century, ] became widespread during the Victorian era in industry, homes, public buildings and the streets. The invention of the ] gas ] in the 1890s greatly improved light output and ensured its survival as late as the 1960s. Hundreds of gas works were constructed in cities and towns across the country. In 1882, incandescent ]s were introduced to London streets, although it took many years before they were installed everywhere. | |||
| ==Prostitution== | |||
| Beginning in the late 1840s, major news organisations, clergymen and single women became increasingly interested in ], which came to be known as "The Great Social Evil." Although estimates of the number of prostitutes in London by the 1850s vary widely (in his landmark study, ''Prostitution'', ] reported that the police estimated there were 8,600 in 1857 London alone), it is enough to say that the number of women working the streets became increasingly difficult to ignore. | |||
| When the 1851 census publicly revealed a 4% demographic imbalance in favour of women (i.e. 4% more women than men), the problem of prostitution began to shift from a moral/religious cause to a ] one. The 1851 census showed that the population of Great Britain was roughly 18 million; this meant that roughly 750,000 women would remain unmarried simply because there were not enough men. These women came to be referred to as "superfluous women" or "redundant women," and many essays were published discussing what, precisely, ought to be done with them. | |||
| While the Magdalen Hospital had been "reforming" prostitutes since the mid-18th century, the years between 1848 and 1870 saw a veritable explosion in the number of institutions working to "reclaim" these "fallen women" from the streets and retrain them for entry into respectable society—usually for work as domestic servants. The theme of prostitution and the "fallen woman" (an umbrella term used to describe any women who had ] out of ]) became a staple feature of mid-Victorian ] and ]. In the writings of ], ] and others, ] began to be seen as a ], rather than just a fact of urban life. | |||
| When ] passed the first of the ] in 1864 (which allowed the local constabulary to force any woman suspected of ] to submit to its inspection), ]'s crusade to repeal the CD Acts yoked the anti-prostitution cause with the emergent ]. Butler attacked the long-established ] of sexual morality. | |||
| Prostitutes were often presented as victims in ] such ]'s poem ''The Bridge of Sighs'', ]'s novel '']'' and ]' novel '']''. The emphasis on the purity of women found in such works as ]'s '']'' led to the portrayal of the prostitute and fallen woman as soiled, corrupted, and in need of cleansing. | |||
| This emphasis on female purity was allied to the stress on the ] role of women, who helped to create a space free from the ] and ] of the city. In this respect the prostitute came to have symbolic significance as the embodiment of the violation of that divide. The double standard remained in force. ] ] introduced in 1857 allowed for a man to divorce his wife for ], but a woman could only divorce if adultery was accompanied by ]. The anonymity of the city led to a large increase in prostitution and unsanctioned sexual relationships. Dickens and other writers associated prostitution with the mechanisation and industrialisation of modern life, portraying prostitutes as human commodities consumed and thrown away like refuse when they were used up. Moral reform movements attempted to close down ]s, something that has sometimes been argued to have been a factor in the concentration of street-prostitution in ] by the late 1880s. | |||
| By the time the CD Acts were repealed in 1886, Victorian England had been completely transformed. This era, which at its outset looked no different from the century before it, would end resembling far more the era that would follow. | |||
| ==See also== | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
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| * ] | |||
| * '']'' | |||
| ==Sources and further reading== | |||
| *]. ''Victorian People and Ideas: A Companion for the Modern Reader of Victorian Literature''. W.W. Norton & Company: 1974. ISBN 0-393-09376-X. | |||
| *Burton, Antoinette (editor). ''Politics and Empire in Victorian Britain: A Reader''. Palgrave Macmillan: 2001. ISBN 0-312-29335-6. | |||
| *], ''The Bourgeois Experience: Victoria to Freud'', 5 volumes, Oxford University Press, 1984-1989 | |||
| *Flanders, Judith. ''Inside the Victorian Home: A Portrait of Domestic Life in Victorian England''. W.W. Norton & Company: 2004. ISBN 0-393-05209-5. | |||
| *Mitchell, Sally. ''Daily Life in Victorian England''. Greenwood Press: 1996. ISBN 0-313-29467-4. | |||
| *] ''The Victorians''. Arrow Books: 2002. ISBN 0-09-945186-7 | |||
| ==External links and references== | |||
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| * Compiled by a retired librarian | |||
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Revision as of 21:45, 25 September 2007
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