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	{\| class="infobox" style="font-size:85%"
	\|<span font-size=100%>'''The Bible''' is</span>
	* '''Part of ] '''
	:(see ] below)
	* '''Part of a series on ] '''
	:(see ] below)
	\|}

	'''Bible''' refers to the ] collections of ] or books of ] and ].<ref></ref> ] vary according to these religious traditions and among their denominations. These variations reflect a range of ], ] and ].

	The ] version of the Bible is often called the ''Holy Bible'', ''Scriptures'', or ''Word of God''. It divides the books of the Bible into two parts: the 46 Books of the ] primarily sourced from the Tanakh (with some variations), and the 27 Books of the ] containing books originally written primarily in ].<ref>http://www.pcusa.org/101/101-bible.htm</ref> ] versions of the Christian Bible omit the seven books not considered canonical by Protestants. Additional versions exist, such as the ] and ] Old Testament canons which contain books not found in the Tanakh, but that are found in the ] ], the oldest of several ancient translations of the Hebrew Bible into Greek.

	The ] version of the Bible, often referred to as the 39 Books of the ''']''' or ''']''', includes the books common to both the Christian and Jewish biblical canons.<ref>See Patrick H. Alexander The SBL Handbook of Style. Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson Publishers. ISBN 1-56563-487-X.</ref> The ] is traditionally considered by believers to be ]'s direct words and thus thought to be the most sacred part. Much of the ] is derived from the Torah.

	==Etymology==
	].]]According to the , the word bible<ref></ref> is from Anglo-Latin ''biblia'', traced from the same word through Medieval Latin and Late Latin, as used in the phrase ''biblia sacra'' ("holy books"). This stemmed from the term ('']:'' {{polytonic\|τὰ βιβλία τὰ ἅγια}} ''Ta biblia ta hagia'', "the holy books"), which derived from ''biblion'' ("paper" or "scroll," the ordinary word for "]"), which was originally a diminutive of ''byblos'' ("Egyptian papyrus"), possibly so called from the name of the ]n port from which Egyptian ] was exported to Greece.

	Biblical scholar Mark Hamilton states that the Greek phrase ''Ta biblia'' ("the books") was "an expression Hellenistic Jews used to describe their sacred books several centuries before the time of Jesus,"<ref> on PBS's site </ref> and would have referred to the ].<ref></ref> The Online Etymology Dictionary states, "The Christian scripture was referred to in ] as ''Ta Biblia'' as early as c.223."

	== Hebrew Bible ==
	{{main\| Hebrew Bible\| Tanakh\| Old Testament}}
	The ] (]: {{hebrew\|תנ"ך}}) consists of 39 books. "Hebrew" in "]" may refer to either the ] or to the ] who historically used Hebrew as a spoken language, and have continuously used the language in prayer and study, or both.

	Tanakh is an acronym for the three parts of the Hebrew Bible: the ] ("Teaching/Law" also known as the ]), ] ("Prophets"), and ] ("Writings," or ]), and is used commonly by Jews but unfamiliar to many English speakers and others {{ref_harvard\|Alexander\|Alexander 1999, p. 17\|none}}.
	(See ]).

	===Torah===
	{{main\|Torah}}
	The ], or "Instruction," is also known as the "Five Books" of ], thus ] from Hebrew meaning "fivesome," and ] from Greek meaning "five scroll-cases."
	{{Judaism}}
	The Torah comprises the following five books:
	*1. ], Ge—Bereshit (בראשית)
	*2. ], Ex—Shemot (שמות)
	*3. ], Le—Vayikra (ויקרא)
	*4. ], Nu—Bamidbar (במדבר)
	*5. ], Dt—Devarim (דברים)

	The Hebrew book titles come from the first words in the respective texts. The Hebrew title for Numbers, however, comes from the fifth word of that text.

	The Torah focuses on three moments in the changing relationship between God and people. The first eleven chapters of Genesis provide accounts of the ] (or ordering) of the world, and the history of God's early relationship with humanity. The remaining thirty-nine chapters of Genesis provide an account of God's covenant with the Hebrew ]s, ], ] and ] (also called ]), and Jacob's children (the "]"), especially ]. It tells of how God commanded Abraham to leave his family and home in the city of ], eventually to settle in the land of ], and how the Children of Israel later moved to Egypt. The remaining four books of the Torah tell the story of ], who lived hundreds of years after the patriarchs. His story coincides with the story of the liberation of the Children of Israel from slavery in ], to the renewal of their covenant with God at ], and their wanderings in the desert until a new generation would be ready to enter the land of Canaan. The Torah ends with the death of Moses.

	Traditionally, the Torah contains the ], or commandments, of God, revealed during the passage from slavery in the land of Egypt to freedom in the land of Canaan. These commandments provide the basis for ] (Jewish religious law).

	The Torah is divided into fifty-four portions which are read in turn in Jewish liturgy, from the beginning of Genesis to the end of Deuteronomy, each ]. The cycle ends and recommences at the end of ], which is called ].

	===Nevi'im===
	{{main\|Nevi'im}}
	The ], or "Prophets," tell the story of the rise of the Hebrew monarchy, its division into two kingdoms, and the prophets who, in God's name, judged the kings and the Children of Israel. It ends with the conquest of the Kingdom of Israel by the Assyrians and the conquest of the Kingdom of Judah by the Babylonians, and the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem. Portions of the prophetic books are read by Jews on the Sabbath (]). The ] is read on ].

	According to Jewish tradition, Nevi'im is divided into eight books. Contemporary translations subdivide these into seventeen books.

	The Nevi'im comprise the following eight books:
	* 6. ], Js—Yehoshua (יהושע)
	* 7. ], Jg—Shoftim (שופטים)
	* 8. ], includes First and Second, 1Sa–2Sa—Shemuel (שמואל)
	* 9. ], includes First and Second, 1Ki–2Ki—Melakhim (מלכים)
	* 10. ], Is—Yeshayahu (ישעיהו)
	* 11. ], Je—Yirmiyahu (ירמיהו)
	* 12. ], Ez—Yekhezkel (יחזקאל)
	* 13. Twelve, includes all ]—Tre Asar (תרי עשר)
	**a. ], Ho—Hoshea (הושע)
	**b. ], Jl—Yoel (יואל)
	**c. ], Am—Amos (עמוס)
	**d. ], Ob—Ovadyah (עבדיה)
	**e. ], Jh—Yonah (יונה)
	**f. ], Mi—Mikhah (מיכה)
	**g. ], Na—Nahum (נחום)
	**h. ], Hb—Havakuk (חבקוק)
	**i. ], Zp—Tsefanya (צפניה)
	**j. ], Hg—Khagay (חגי)
	**k. ], Zc—Zekharyah (זכריה)
	**l. ], Ml—Malakhi (מלאכי)

	===Ketuvim===
	{{main\|Ketuvim}}
	The ], or "Writings" or "Scriptures," may have been written during or after the ] but no one can be sure. According to Rabbinic tradition, many of the psalms in the book of ] are attributed to ]; ] is believed to have written ] in his youth, ] at the prime of his life, and ] at old age; and the prophet ] is thought to have written ]. The ] is the only biblical book that centers entirely on a non-Jew. The book of Ruth tells the story of a non-Jew (specifically, a ]ite) who married a Jew and, upon his death, followed in the ways of the Jews; according to the Bible, she was the great-grandmother of ]. Five of the books, called "The Five Scrolls" (Megilot), are read on Jewish holidays: Song of Songs on ]; the ] on ]; ] on the ]; Ecclesiastes on ]; and the ] on ]. Collectively, the Ketuvim contain lyrical poetry, philosophical reflections on life, and the stories of the prophets and other Jewish leaders during the Babylonian exile. It ends with the Persian decree allowing Jews to return to Jerusalem to rebuild the Temple.

	The Ketuvim comprise the following eleven books:
	*14. ], Ps—Tehillim (תהלים)
	*15. ], Pr—Mishlei (משלי)
	*16. ], Jb—Iyyov (איוב)
	*17. ], So—Shir ha-Shirim (שיר השירים)
	*18. ], Ru—Rut (רות)
	*19. ], La—Eikhah (איכה), also called Kinot (קינות)
	*20. ], Ec—Kohelet (קהלת)
	*21. ], Es—Ester (אסתר)
	*22. ], Dn—Daniel (דניאל)
	*23. ], Ea, includes ], Ne—Ezra (עזרא), includes Nehemiah (נחמיה)
	*24. ], includes First and Second, 1Ch–2Ch—Divrei ha-Yamim (דברי הימים), also called Divrei (דברי)

	===Hebrew Bible translations and editions===
	{{main\|Bible translations}}
	{{refimprove\|date=November 2006}}

	The Tanakh was mainly written in ], with some portions (notably in ] and ]) in ].

	Some time in the 2nd or ], the ] was translated into ], and over the next century, other books were translated (or composed) as well. This translation became known as the ] and was widely used by Greek-speaking Jews, and later by Christians. It differs somewhat from the later standardized Hebrew (]). This translation was promoted by way of a legend that seventy separate translators all produced identical texts.

	From the ] to the ], Jewish scholars today known as ] compared the text of all known ]s in an effort to create a unified, standardized text. A series of highly similar texts eventually emerged, and any of these texts are known as Masoretic Texts (MT). The Masoretes also added ] points (called ]) to the text, since the original text only contained consonant letters. This sometimes required the selection of an interpretation, since some words differ only in their vowels—their meaning can vary in accordance with the vowels chosen. In antiquity, variant Hebrew readings existed, some of which have survived in the ], the ], and other ancient fragments, as well as being attested in ancient versions in other languages.

	Versions of the Septuagint contain several passages and whole books beyond what was included in the Masoretic texts of the ]. In some cases these additions were originally composed in Greek, while in other cases they are translations of Hebrew books or variants not present in the Masoretic texts. Recent discoveries have shown that more of the Septuagint additions have a Hebrew origin than was once thought. While there are no complete surviving manuscripts of the Hebrew texts on which the Septuagint was based, many scholars believe that they represent a different textual tradition ("Vorlage") from the one that became the basis for the Masoretic texts.{{Fact\|date=February 2007}}

	Jews also produced non-literal translations or paraphrases known as ]s, primarily in Aramaic. They frequently expanded on the text with additional details taken from Rabbinic oral tradition.

	==The two Torahs of Rabbinic Judaism==
	By the ] of Jewish history, Jews were divided over the nature of the Torah. Some (for example, the ]) believed that the Chumash contained the entire Torah, that is, the entire contents of what God revealed to Moses at Sinai and in the desert. Others, principally the ], believed that the Chumash represented only that portion of the revelation that had been written down (i.e., the Written Torah or the Written Law), but that the rest of God's revelation had been passed down orally (thus composing the Oral Law or ]). ] and ] and ] state that the ] contains some of the Oral Torah. ] also gives credence to the Talmud containing the Oral Torah, but, as with the written Torah, asserts that both were inspired by, but not dictated by, God.

	== The Old Testament ==
	{{main\|Old Testament}}
	The Christian ], while having most or all books in common with the Jewish ], varies from Judaism in the emphasis it places and the interpretations it gives them. The books come in a slightly different order. In addition, some Christian groups recognize additional books as canonical members of the Old Testament, and they may use a different text as the canonical basis for translations.

	===Differing Christian usages of the Old Testament===
	{{main\|Biblical Canon}}
	The ] (Greek translation, from Alexandria in Egypt under the ]) was generally abandoned in favour of the ] text as the basis for translations of the Old Testament into ] languages from ]'s ] to the present day; already Jerome's ] was based on the Hebrew. In ], translations based on the Septuagint still prevail. Some modern Western translations make use of the Septuagint to clarify passages in the Masoretic text, where the Septuagint may preserve a variant reading of the Hebrew text. They also sometimes adopt variants that appear in texts discovered among the ].

	A number of books which are part of the Greek Septuagint but are not found in the Hebrew (Rabbinic) Bible are often referred to as ] by Catholics referring to a later secondary (i.e., deutero) canon. Most Protestants term these books as ]. ] and those of the Modern ] traditions do not accept the deuterocanonical books as canonical, although Protestant Bibles ] until around the 1820s. However, the ], ], and ] Churches include these books as part of their Old Testament. The Catholic Church recognizes seven such books (], ], ], ], ], ], and ]), as well as some passages in ] and ]. Various Orthodox Churches include a few others, typically ], ], ], ], ], and the ]. The ] uses the ] liturgically, but not to establish doctrine. Therefore, editions of the Bible intended for use in the Anglican Church include these books, plus ], ] and the ].

	==The New Testament==
	{{main\|New Testament}}
	The Bible as used by the majority of ] includes the Rabbinic Hebrew Scripture and the ], which relates the life and teachings of ], the ] of the ] and other disciples to the early church and the ].

	{{Christianity}}

	The ] is a collection of 27 books, of 4 different ] of Christian literature (], one account of the ], ] and an ]). ] is its central figure. The New Testament was written primarily in ] in the early Christian period. Nearly all Christians recognize the New Testament (as stated below) as canonical ]. These books can be grouped into:
	{\|
	\|
	]
	*]
	**], Mt
	**], Mk
	**], Lk
	*], Jn
	*], Ac (continues Luke)

	]
	*], Ro
	*], 1Co
	*], 2Co
	*], Ga
	*], Ep
	*], Pp
	*], Cl
	*], 1Th
	*], 2Th
	*]
	**], 1Ti
	**], 2Ti
	**], Tt
	*], Pm
	*], He

	], also called Jewish Epistles
	*], Jm
	*], 1Pe
	*], 2Pe
	*], 1Jn
	*], 2Jn
	*], 3Jn
	*], Jd
	*], Re
	\|}

	==== Original language ====
	Probably, the books of the ] were written in ], the language of the earliest extant manuscripts, even though some authors often included translations from Hebrew and Aramaic texts. Certainly the Pauline Epistles were written in Greek for Greek-speaking audiences. See ]. Some scholars believe that some books of the Greek New Testament (in particular, the Gospel of Matthew) are actually translations of a Hebrew or Aramaic original. Of these, a small number accept the Syriac Peshitta as representative of the original. See ].

	==== Historic editions ====
	{{seealso\|Biblical manuscript\|Bible translations}}

	]''' from the 13th century, held at the ] in ].]]

	When ancient scribes copied earlier books, they wrote notes on the margins of the page (''marginal glosses'') to correct their text—especially if a scribe accidentally omitted a word or line—and to comment about the text. When later scribes were copying the copy, they were sometimes uncertain if a note was intended to be included as part of the text. See ]. Over time, different regions evolved different versions, each with its own assemblage of omissions and additions.

	The ''autographs'', the Greek ] written by the original authors, have not survived. Scholars surmise the original Greek text from the versions that do survive. The three main textual traditions of the Greek New Testament are sometimes called the ] (generally minimalist), the ] (generally maximalist), and the ] (occasionally wild). Together they comprise most of the ancient manuscripts.

	There are also several ancient translations, most important of which are in the ] dialect of Aramaic (including the ] and the ] gospel harmony), in the Ethiopian language of ], and in ] (both the ] and the ]).

	The earliest surviving complete manuscript of the entire Bible is the ], a Latin Vulgate edition produced in eighth century England at the double monastery of Wearmouth-Jarrow.

	The earliest printed edition of the Greek New Testament appeared in 1516 from the ] press, by ], who reconstructed its Greek text from several recent manuscripts of the Byzantine text-type. He occasionally added a Greek translation of the Latin Vulgate for parts that did not exist in the Greek manuscripts. He produced four later editions of this text. Erasmus was Roman Catholic, but his preference for the ] manuscripts rather than the Latin Vulgate led some church authorities to view him with suspicion.

	The first printed edition with '']'' (noting variant readings among the manuscripts) was produced by the printer ] of Paris in 1550. The Greek text of this edition and of those of Erasmus became known as the '']'' (Latin for "received text"), a name given to it in the ] edition of ], which termed it as the text ''nunc ab omnibus receptum'' ("now received by all").

	The churches of the ] translated the Greek of the Textus Receptus to produce ] Bibles, such as the German ] and the English ].

	The discovery of older manuscripts, which belong to the Alexandrian text-type, including the 4th-century ] and ], led scholars to revise their view about the original Greek text. Attempts to reconstruct the original text are called ''critical editions''. ] based his critical edition of ] on manuscripts dating from the 4th century and earlier, to demonstrate that the Textus Receptus must be corrected according to these earlier texts.

	Later critical editions incorporate ongoing scholarly research, including discoveries of Greek papyrus fragments from near Alexandria, Egypt, that date in some cases within a few decades of the original New Testament writings.<ref>Metzger, Bruce R. ''Manuscripts of the Greek Bible: An Introduction to Palaeography'' (Oxford University Press, 1981) cf. ]</ref> Today, most critical editions of the Greek New Testament, such as ] and ], consider the Alexandrian text-type corrected by papyrii, to be the Greek text that is closest to the original ''autographs''. Their ''apparatus'' includes the result of votes among scholars, ranging from certain {A} to doubtful {E}, on which variants best preserve the original Greek text of the New Testament.

	Most variants among the manuscripts are minor, such as alternate spelling, alternate word order, the presence or absence of an optional definite article ("the"), and so on. Occasionally, a major variant happens when a portion of a text was accidentally omitted (or perhaps even censored), or was added from a marginal gloss. Fortunately, major variants tend to be easier to correct.

	Critical editions that rely primarily on the Alexandrian text-type inform nearly all modern translations (and revisions of older translations).

	However for reasons of tradition, especially the doctrine of the inerrancy of the King James Bible, some modern scholars prefer to use the Textus Receptus for the Greek text, or use the '']'' which is similar to it but is a critical edition that relies on earlier manuscripts of the Byzantine text-type. Among these scholars, some argue that the Byzantine tradition contains scribal additions, but these later interpolations preserve the orthodox interpretations of the biblical text—as part of the ongoing Christian experience—and in this sense are authoritative.

	==Christian theology==
	While individual books within the Christian Bible present narratives set in certain historical periods, most ]s teach that the Bible itself has an overarching message.

	There are among Christians wide differences of opinion as to how particular incidents as described in the Bible are to be interpreted and as to what meaning should be attached to various prophecies. However, Christians in general are in agreement as to the Bible's basic message. A general outline, as described by ], is as follows:<ref name= "cslewis"> by Lewis, CS: Believer's Web.</ref><br clear = "left"/>

	#At some point in the past, humanity learned to depart from God's will and began to ].
	#Because no one is free from sin, people cannot deal with God directly, so God revealed Himself in ways people could understand.
	#God called ] and his progeny to be the means for saving all of humanity.
	#To this end, He gave the ] to ].
	#The resulting nation of Israel went through cycles of sin and ], yet the prophets show an increasing understanding of the Law as a moral, not just a ceremonial, force.
	#Jesus brought a perfect understanding of the Mosaic Law, that of love and salvation.
	#By His death and resurrection, all who believe are saved and reconciled to God.

	Many people who identify themselves as ], ], or ] regard the Bible as inspired by ] yet written by a variety of imperfect men over thousands of years. Bible-believing Christians regard both the New and Old Testament as the undiluted Word of God, spoken by God and written down in its perfect form by humans. Belief in sacred texts is attested to in Jewish antiquity,<ref>Philo of Alexandria, ''De vita Moysis'' 3.23.</ref><ref name = "Josephus">Josephus, ''Contra Apion'' 1.8.</ref> and this belief can also be seen in the earliest of Christian writings. Various texts of the Bible mention Divine agency in relation to prophetic writings,<ref name="Original Source">{{
	cite book
	\|url=http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2%20Sam%2023:2,2%20Tim%203:16,Luke%201:70,Heb%203:7,10:15-16,1%20Peter%201:11,Mark%2012:36,2%20Peter%201:20-21,Acts%201:16,Acts%203:18,Acts%2028:25;&version=50;
	\|publisher=Biblegateway
	\|title="Basis for belief of Inspiration"
	}}</ref> the most explicit being {{bibleverse\|2\|Tm\|3:16\|ESV}}: "All scripture is breathed out by God and profitable for teaching, for reproof, for correction, and for training in righteousness." In their book ''A General Introduction to the Bible'', ] and William Nix wrote: "The process of inspiration is a mystery of the providence of God, but the result of this process is a verbal, plenary, inerrant, and authoritative record."<ref>
	{{cite book
	\| author = Norman L. Geisler, William E. Nix
	\| title = A General Introduction to the Bible
	\| page = 86
	\| year = 1986
	\| publisher = Moody Publishers
	\| id = ISBN 0-8024-2916-5
	}}
	</ref>
	Some biblical scholars,<ref> for example, see{{cite book
	\| author = Leroy Zuck, Roy B. Zuck
	\| title = Basic Bible Interpretation
	\| page = 68
	\| year = 1991
	\| publisher = Chariot Victor Pub
	\| id = ISBN 0-89693-819-0
	}}</ref><ref>
	{{cite book
	\| author = Roy B. Zuck, Donald Campbell
	\| title = Basic Bible Interpretation
	\| year = 2002
	\| publisher = Victor
	\| id = ISBN 0-7814-3877-2
	}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
	\| author = Norman L. Geisler
	\| title = Inerrancy
	\| page = 294
	\| year = 1979, 1980
	\| publisher = The Zondervan Corporation
	\| id = ISBN 0-310-39281-0
	}}</ref> particularly Evangelicals, associate inspiration with only the original text; for example some American Protestants adhere to the 1978 ] which asserted that inspiration applied only to the ]ic text of Scripture.<ref>
	{{cite paper
	\| author = International Council on Biblical Inerrancy
	\| title = The Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy
	\| publisher = International Council on Biblical Inerrancy
	\| date = 1978
	\| url = http://www.churchcouncil.org/ccpdfdocs/01_Biblical_Inerrancy_A&D.pdf
	\| format = pdf}}</REF>

	==The canonization of the Bible==

	{{main\|Biblical Canon}}
	The word "canon" etymologically means cane or reed. In early Christianity "canon" referred to a list of books approved for public reading. Books not on the list were referred to as "apocryphal" — meaning they were for private reading only. Under Latin usage from the fourth century on, canon came to stand for a closed and authoritative list in the sense of rule or norm.<ref name="Stagg">Stagg, Frank. ''New Testament Theology.'' Nashville: Broadman, 1962. ISBN 0805416137</ref>

	=== Canonization of the Hebrew Bible ===
	The New Testament refers to the threefold division of the Hebrew Scriptures: the law, the prophets, and the writings. {{bibleverse\|Luke\|\|24:44}} refers to the "law of Moses" (]), the "prophets" which include certain historical books in addition to the books now called "prophets," and the psalms (the "writings" designated by its most prominent collection). The Hebrew Bible probably was canonized in these three stages: the law canonized before the Exile, the prophets by the time of the Syrian persecution of the Jews, and the writings shortly after AD 70 (the fall of Jerusalem). About that time, early Christian writings began being accepted by Christians as "scripture." These events, taken together, may have caused the Jews to close their "canon." They listed their own recognized Scriptures and also excluded both Christian and Jewish writings considered by them to be "apocryphal." In this canon the thirty-nine books found in the Old Testament of today's Christian Bibles were grouped together as twenty-two books, equaling the number of letters in the Hebrew alphabet. This canon of Jewish scripture is attested to by Philo, Josephus, the New Testament ({{bibleverse\|\|Luke\|11:51\|NRSV}}, {{bibleverse\|\|Luke\|24:44\|NRSV}}), and the Talmud.<ref name="Stagg"/>

	The New Testament writers assumed the inspiration of the Old Testament, probably earliest stated in {{bibleverse\|2\|Timothy\|3:16\|TNIV}} which may be rendered "All Scripture is inspired of God" or "Every God-inspired Scripture is profitable for teaching." Both translations consider inspiration as a fact.<ref name="Stagg"/>

	===Canonization of the Old Testament and New Testament===

	The Old Testament canon entered into Christian use in the Greek Septuagint translations and original books, and their differing lists of texts. In addition to the Septuagint, Christianity subsequently added various writings that would become the New Testament. Somewhat different lists of accepted works continued to develop in antiquity. In the fourth century a series of ]s produced a list of texts equal to the 46-book canon of the Old testament and to the 27-book canon of the New Testament that would be subsequently used to today, most notably the ] in AD 393. Also ''c''. 400, ] produced a definitive Latin edition of the Bible (see ]), the canon of which, at the insistence of the Pope, was in accord with the earlier Synods. With the benefit of hindsight it can be said that this process effectively set the New Testament canon, although there are examples of other canonical lists in use after this time. A definitive list did not come from an Ecumenical Council until the ] (1545–63). {{Fact\|date=July 2007}}

	During the ], certain reformers proposed different canonical lists than what was currently in use. Though not without debate, the list of New Testament books would come to remain the same; however, the Old Testament texts present in the Septuagint, but not included in the Jewish canon, fell out of favour. In time they would come to be removed from most Protestant canons. Hence, in a Catholic context these texts are referred to as deuterocanonical books, whereas in a Protestant context they are referred to as Apocrypha, the label applied to all texts excluded from the biblical canon. It should also be noted, that Catholics and Protestants both describe certain other books, such as the ‘’Acts of Peter’’, as apocryphal.{{Fact\|date=July 2007}}

	Thus, the Protestant Old Testament of today has a 39-book canon—the number varies from that of the books in the Tanakh (though not in content) because of a different method of division—while the Roman Catholic Church recognizes 46 books as part of the canonical Old Testament. The term "Hebrew Scriptures" is only synonymous with the Protestant Old Testament, not the Catholic, which contains the Hebrew Scriptures and additional texts. Both Catholics and Protestants have the same 27-book New Testament Canon.{{Fact\|date=July 2007}}

	Canonicity, which involves the discernment of which texts are divinely inspired, is distinct from questions of human authorship and the formation of the books of the Bible.{{Fact\|date=July 2007}}

	===Ethiopian Orthodox canon===
	The Canon of the ] is wider than for most other Christian groups. The Ethiopian "'''narrower'''" Old Testament Canon includes the books found in the ] accepted by other Orthodox Christians, in addition to ], ], ] and ], 3 books of ] (]), and ]. However, the three books of Meqabyan are similar to Maccabees in title only, and quite different in content from those of the other Christian churches which include them. The order of the other books is somewhat different from other groups', as well. The Church also has a "broader canon" that includes more books.{{Fact\|date=July 2007}}

	==Bible versions and translations==
	{{see\|Bible translations}}
	]
	In scholarly writing, ancient translations are frequently referred to as "versions," with the term "translation" being reserved for medieval or modern translations.{{Fact\|date=May 2007}} Bible versions are discussed below, while ] can be found on a separate page.

	The original texts of the Tanakh were in Hebrew, although some portions were in Aramaic. In addition to the authoritative Masoretic Text, Jews still refer to the Septuagint, the translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek, and the ], an Aramaic version of the Bible. There are several different ancient versions of the Tanakh in Hebrew, mostly differing by spelling, and the traditional Jewish version is based on the version known as ]. Even in this version by itself, there are words which are traditionally read differently than written (sometimes one word is written and another is read), because the oral tradition is considered more fundamental than the written one, and presumably mistakes had been made in copying the text over the generations.

	The primary biblical text for early Christians was the ]. In addition they translated the Hebrew Bible into several other languages. Translations were made into Syriac, ], ] and Latin, among other languages. The Latin translations were historically the most important for the Church in the West, while the Greek-speaking East continued to use the Septuagint translation of the Old Testament and had no need to translate the New Testament.

	The earliest Latin translation was the Old Latin text, or Vetus Latina, which, from internal evidence, seems to have been made by several authors over a period of time. It was based on the Septuagint, and thus included books not in the Hebrew Bible.

	] assembled the first list of books of the Bible at the ] in 382 AD. He commissioned Saint ] to produce a reliable and consistent text by translating the original Greek and Hebrew texts into Latin. This translation became known as the ] and was declared by the Church to be the only authentic and official Bible.

	] for many languages have been made through the various influences of Catholicism, Orthodox, Protestant, etc especially since the ]. The Bible has seen a notably large number of ].

	The work of Bible translation continues, including by Christian organisations such as ] (), ]s () and the ] (). Of the world's 6,900 ], 2,400 have some or all of the Bible, 1,600 (spoken by more than a billion people) have translation underway, and some 2,500 (spoken by 270 million people) are judged as needing translation to begin.<ref> </ref>

	===Important characteristics of early Bible texts===
	:''See also: ]
	*The use of chapters and verses was not introduced until the Middle Ages and later. The system used in English was developed by Stephanus (] of Paris) (as noted below)
	*Early manuscripts of the letters of Paul and other New Testament writings show no punctuation whatsoever. The ] was added later by other editors, according to their own understanding of the text.

	=== Differences in Bible translations ===
	] is displayed by the United States ].]]
	:''See also: ]''.
	As ] and ], the original languages of the Bible, have idioms and concepts not easily translated, there is an on going critical tension about whether it is better to give a word for word translation or to give a translation that gives a parallel idiom in the target language. For instance, in the English language ] translation, the ], as well as the ] translations of the Christian Bible, translations like the ], the ] and the ] are seen as literal translations (or "word for word"), whereas translations like the ] and ] attempt to give relevant parallel idioms. ] and ] are two paraphrases of the Bible that try to convey the original meaning in contemporary language. The further away one gets from word to word translation, the text becomes easier to read while relying more on the theological, linguistic or cultural understanding of the translator, which one would not normally expect a lay reader to require.

	=== Inclusive language ===
	Traditionally, English masculine pronouns have been used interchangeably to refer to the male gender and to all people. For instance, "All ''men'' are mortal" is not intended to imply that males are mortal but females are immortal. English language readers and hearers have had to interpret masculine pronouns (and such words as "man" and "mankind") based on context. Further, both ] and ], like some of the Latin-origin languages, use the male gender of nouns and pronouns to refer to groups that contain both sexes. This creates some difficulty in determining whether a noun or pronoun should be translated using terms that refer to men only, or generically to men and women inclusively. Context sometimes, but not always, helps determine whether to decode them in a gender-insensitive or gender-specific way.

	Contemporary language has changed in many cases to reflect criticism of the use of the masculine gender, which has been characterized as discriminatory. Current style guides, such as ], ], ], and others, have published statements encouraging, and in some cases requiring, the use of ], which avoids language this approach regards as sexist or class-distinctive.

	Until recently, virtually all English translations of the Bible have used masculine nouns and pronouns both specifically (to refer to males) and generically (when the reference is not necessarily gender-specific). Recent examples of translations which incorporate gender-inclusive language include the ], the ], and ].

	{\| class="wikitable"
	\|+ '''Comparison of Traditional vs Gender-Inclusive Translations of Rom. 12:6-8'''
	! Original ''New International Version'' !! ''Today's New International Version''
	\|-
	\|We have different gifts, according to the grace given us. If a man's gift is prophesying, let him use it in proportion to his faith. If it is serving, let him serve; if it is teaching, let him teach; if it is encouraging, let him encourage; if it is contributing to the needs of others, let him give generously; if it is leadership, let him govern diligently; if it is showing mercy, let him do it cheerfully. \|\| We have different gifts, according to the grace given to each of us. If your gift is prophesying, then prophesy in accordance with your faith; if it is serving, then serve; if it is teaching, then teach; if it is to encourage, then give encouragement; if it is giving, then give generously; if it is to lead, do it diligently; if it is to show mercy, do it cheerfully.
	\|}

	===The introduction of chapters and verses ===
	{{main\|Chapters and verses of the Bible}}; see ] for the Jewish textual tradition.''

	The ] ] contains verse endings as an important feature. According to the ]ic tradition, the verse endings are of ancient origin. The Masoretic textual tradition also contains section endings called ''parashiyot'', which are indicated by a space within a line (a "closed" section") or a new line beginning (an "open" section). The division of the text reflected in the ''parashiyot'' is usually thematic. The ''parashiyot'' are not numbered.

	In early manuscripts (most importantly in Tiberian Masoretic manuscripts, such as the ]) an "open" section may also be represented by a blank line, and a "closed" section by a new line that is slightly indented (the preceding line may also not be full). These latter conventions are no longer used in Torah scrolls and printed ]s. In this system the one rule differentiating "open" and "closed" sections is that "open" sections must ''always'' begin at the beginning of a new line, while "closed" sections ''never'' start at the beginning of a new line.

	Another related feature of the Masoretic text is the division of the ''sedarim''. This division is not thematic, but is almost entirely based upon the ''quantity'' of text.

	The Byzantines also introduced a chapter division of sorts, called ''Kephalaia''. It is not identical to the present chapters.

	The current division of the Bible into chapters and the verse numbers within the chapters has no basis in any ancient textual tradition. Rather, they are medieval Christian inventions. They were later adopted by many Jews as well, as technical references within the Hebrew text. Such technical references became crucial to medieval rabbis in the historical context of forced debates with Christian clergy (who used the chapter and verse numbers), especially in late medieval Spain.<ref name = "inquisition">see ]</ref> Chapter divisions were first used by Jews in a 1330 manuscript and for a printed edition in 1516. However, for the past generation, most Jewish editions of the complete ] have made a systematic effort to relegate chapter and verse numbers to the margins of the text.

	The division of the Bible into chapters and verses has often elicited severe criticism from traditionalists and modern scholars alike. Critics charge that the text is often divided into chapters in an incoherent way, or at inappropriate rhetorical points, and that it encourages citing passages out of context, in effect turning the Bible into a kind of textual quarry for clerical citations. Nevertheless, the chapter divisions and verse numbers have become indispensable as technical references for Bible study.

	] is reputed to have been the first to put the chapter divisions into a Vulgate edition of the Bible, in 1205. They were then inserted into Greek manuscripts of the New Testament in the ]. ] (Robert Stephanus) was the first to number the verses within each chapter, his verse numbers entering printed editions in ] (New Testament) and ] (Hebrew Bible).<ref name = "Fuller">.</ref><ref name = "Examiner">.</ref>

	==Textual criticism==
	:''Main articles: ] and ].''

	Textual criticism refers to the investigation of the Bible as a text, and addresses questions such as authorship, dates of composition, and authorial intention.

	=== Early criticism ===
	The traditional view of the Mosaic authorship of the Torah came under sporadic criticism from medieval scholars including ], ], Bonfils of Damascus and bishop ] of Avila, who pointed to passages such as the description of the death of Moses in Deuteronomy as evidence that some portions, at least, could not have been written by Moses.
	In the 17th century ] collected the current evidence and became the first scholar to conclude outright that Moses could not have written the bulk of the Torah. Shortly afterwards the philosopher ] published a unified critical analysis, demonstrating that the problematic passages were not isolated cases that could be explained away one by one, but pervasive throughout the five books, concluding that it was "clearer than the sun at noon that the Pentateuch was not written by Moses…." Despite determined opposition from the Church, both Catholic and Protestant, the views of Hobbes and Spinoza gained increasing acceptance amongst scholars.

	=== The documentary hypothesis ===
	Having established the hypothesis that Moses had not written the Pentateuch, attention next turned to the question of who had. Independent but nearly simultaneous proposals by H. B. Witter, ], and J. G. Eichhorn separated the Pentateuch into two original documentary components, both dating from after the time of Moses. Others hypothesized the presence of two additional sources. The four documents were given working titles: J (or ]), E (]), P (]), and D (]), each was discernable by its own characteristic language, and each, when read in isolation, presented a unified, coherent narrative.

	Subsequent ], notably ], ] and ], turned their attention to the order in which the documents had been composed (which they deduced from internal clues) and placed them in the context of a theory of the development of ancient Israelite religion, suggesting that much of the Laws and the narrative of the Pentateuch were unknown to the Israelites in the time of Moses. These were synthesized by ] (1844-1918), who suggested a historical framework for the composition of the documents and their redaction (combination) into the final document known as the Pentateuch. This hypothesis was challenged by ] in his ''The Mosaic Origins of the Pentateuchal Codes'' (). Nonetheless, according to contemporary Torah scholar ], Wellhausen's model of the ] continues to dominate the field of biblical scholarship: "To this day, if you want to disagree, you disagree with Wellhausen. If you want to pose a new model, you compare its merits with those of Wellhausen's model."<ref>Richard Elliott Friedman, "Who Wrote the Bible?," HarperSanFrancisco, 1997 (2nd edition).</ref>

	The documentary hypothesis is important in the field of biblical studies not only because it claims that the Torah was written by different people at different times—generally long after the events it describes—<ref>Joel Rosenberg, 1984 "The Bible: Biblical Narrative" in Barry Holtz, ed ''Back to the Sources'' New York: Summit Books p. 36; Nahum Sarna, 1986 ''Understanding Genesis'' New York:Schocken Books p. xxi-xxiii</ref> but it also proposed what was at the time a radically new way of reading the Bible. Many proponents of the documentary hypothesis view the Bible more as a body of literature than a work of history, believing that the historical value of the text lies not in its account of the events that it describes, but in what critics can infer about the times in which the authors lived (as critics may read '']'' to learn about seventeenth-century England, but will not read it to learn about seventh-century Denmark).

	=== Modern developments ===
	The critical analysis of authorship now encompasses every book of the Bible. Every book in turn has been hypothesized to bear traces of multiple authorship{{Fact\|date=August 2007}}, even the ]{{Fact\|date=August 2007}}, which is only a single page. In some cases the traditional view on authorship has been overturned; in others, additional support, at least in part has been found.

	The development of the hypothesis has not stopped with Wellhausen. Wellhausen's hypothesis, for example, proposed that the four documents were composed in the order J-E-D-P, with P, containing the bulk of the Jewish law, dating from the post-Exilic ] period (i.e., after 515 BC);<ref>Wellhausen adopted the idea of a post-Exilic date for P from ].</ref> but the contemporary view is that P is earlier than D, and that all four books date from the ] period (i.e., prior to 587 BC).<ref>Although the ''bulk'' of all four documents date from before 587 BCE, the strand of D known as Dtr2 dates from the following Exilic period.</ref> The documentary hypothesis has more recently been refined by later scholars such as ] (who in 1943 provided evidence that Deuteronomy plus the following six books make a unified history from the hand of a single editor), ], ] and ].

	The documentary hypothesis, at least in the four-document version advanced by Wellhausen, has been controverisal since its formulation. The direction of this criticism is to question the existence of separate, identifiable documents, positing instead that the biblical text is made up of almost innumerable strands so interwoven as to be hardly untangleable—the J document, in particular, has been subjected to such intense dissection that it seems in danger of disappearing.

	Although biblical archeology has confirmed the existence of many people, places, and events mentioned in the Bible, many critical scholars have argued that the Bible be read not as an accurate historical document, but rather as a work of literature and theology that often draws on historical events—as well as upon non-Hebrew mythology—as primary source material. For these scholars, the Bible reveals much about the lives and times of its authors and compilers. The relevance of these ideas to contemporary religious life is left to clerics and adherents of contemporary religions to decide.

	=== Theological responses ===
	==== Judaism ====
	The claim that the Torah—"the Five Books of Moses"—were not written by Moses, but by many authors long after Moses was said to have lived, directly challenged Jewish orthodoxy. For most, this claim implies that the Torah itself—especially its account of God's revelation at Mt. Sinai—is not historically reliable. Although many ] scholars have rejected this ], most ] and virtually all ] Jewish scholars have accepted it. Consequently, there has been considerable debate among Jewish scholars as to the nature of revelation and the divine nature of the Torah. ] Jewish philosopher Elliot Dorff has categorized five distinct major Jewish positions in these debates within ] in the 20th century<ref>Elliot Dorff 1978 ''Conservative Judaism: Our Ancestors to Our Descendents'' New York: United Synagogue Youth pp. 114-115</ref>:
	* ] (characterized by ] and ]): "''Verbal Revelation'': The Torah, including both the Written and Oral Traditions, consists of the exact words of God. He gave it all as one piece at Sinai."*
	*Conservative I (characterized by ], ], ], and ]): "''Continuous Revelation'':God dictated His will at Sinai and other times. It was written down by human beings, however, and hence the diverse traditions in the Bible."
	*Conservative II (characterized by ], ], ] and ]): "''Continuous Revelation'': Human beings wrote the Torah, but they were divinely inspired."
	*Conservative III (characterized by ], ], ], ] and ]): "''Continuous Revelation'': The Torah is the ''human'' record of the concounter between God and the People Israel at Sinai. Since it was written by human beings, it contains some laws and ideas which we find repugnant today."
	*Conservative IV/Reconstructionist (characterized by ], ] and ]): "''No Revelation'': Human beings wrote the Torah. No claim for divinity of the product."

	In addition to the 5 categories described by Elliott, other positions have been adopted:

	* ] Rabbi ], the founder of the ], adapted a position he describes as ''chatu yisrael'' ("Israel sinned"), that God revealed the Torah to Moses on Mount Sinai but it subsequently became corrupted and lost, and ] restored it by redacting it from multiple manuscripts reflecting disparate traditions. Under this view, the Torah is the best available record of the Divine will, has prophetic commendation, and is binding on the Jewish people, but is not necessarily entirely free of disparaties. <ref>Rabbi David Weiss HaLivni, ''Revelation Restored: Divine Writ and Critical Responses''. Westview Press, 2001. ISBN 978-0813333472</ref>
	*] (characterized by the Movement's 1937 Guiding Principles): "''Progressive revelation'': The Torah is God's will written by human beings. As time goes on, we get to understand his will better and better (="progressive revelation").
	*] Reconstructionist Judaism generally adapts the textual critical approach in toto and regards the Torah as either inspired rather than revealed, or an entirely human product rather than the product of an external God.

	==== Christianity ====
	In 1943 pope ]'s encyclical ] gave the Vatican's ] to textual criticism.

	==See also==
	{{portal}}
	{{commons\|Bible}}
	{{wiktionary\|Bible}}
	{{wikiquote}}
	{{wikisource\|Wikisource:Religious texts#Bible_and_Works_about_the_Bible\|The Bible and Works about the Bible}}
	{{wikisource\|1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Bible\|1911 Britannica entry}}

	===Biblical analysis===
	* ]
	* ]
	* ]
	* ]
	* ]
	* ] is the use of random readings from a book for divination. In Jewish and Christian cultures, the Bible is often used.
	* ]
	* ]
	* ]
	* ]
	* ]
	* ]
	* ]
	* ]

	===Perspectives on the Bible===
	* ]
	* ]
	* ]
	* ]

	===History and the Bible===
	* ]
	* ]
	* ]

	===Biblical scholarship and analysis===
	* ]
	* ]
	* ]
	* ]
	* ]
	* ]
	* ]
	* ]
	* ]
	* ]
	* ]
	* ]
	* ]

	=== Bible societies===
	* See ] for a list.

	==External links==
	{{external links\|date=August 2007}}
	<!--Please read the guidelines at ] BEFORE adding new links here. Keep in mind that Misplaced Pages is not a collection of links, that's what Google is for. New links should provide an essential supplement to the content and links already in the article; if it's not something new and significantly different than what is here already, please don't add it on. Thanks.-->

	===Bible texts===
	====Hebrew====
	* (] 1917 translation; includes Hebrew audio)
	*
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	====Greek====
	* See "External Links" under ] and ].
	*

	====Latin====
	* —Latin Vulgate with parallel Douay-Rheims and King James English translations
	* —Latin Vulgate translation of the Bible
	*

	====English====
	*
	* .
	* —Audio version of the King James Version.
	* —Downloadable KJV and WEB Audio Bibles
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	* with online audio, extensive commentary and easy cross-references. Also available for free in .
	* , with Strongs and Greek Morphological Codes by Robinson.
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	* —A nicely formatted and searchable ]

	====Others====
	*
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	* The Bible by
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	* text search in any one of many translations/languages, or lookup complete passages in up to five different translations/languages at once. Select from among NIV, NASB, MSG, AMP, NLT, KJV, ESV, CEV, NKJV, ASV, NLV, NIrV and many others.
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	* provides resources on a verse by verse basis, such as commentaries, definitions, concordance with Hebrew/Greek, related information and parallel bible on the one selected verse in KJV, NKJV, NLT, NIV, ESV, NASB, RSV, ASV and others.
	* to search NASB, KJV, CEV, ASV and others.
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	===Commentaries===
	See ]

	===Wikis===
	*
	*
	*
	*
	*

	==Notes and references==
	{{reflist}}

	* ] ''Understanding the Old Testament''. ISBN 0-13-948399-3.
	* Berlin, Adele, Marc Zvi Brettler and Michael Fishbane. . Oxford University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-19-529751-2.
	* ]. ''Asimov's Guide to the Bible''. New York, NY: Avenel Books, 1981. ISBN 0-517-34582-X.
	* ] ''Who Were the Early Israelites and Where Did they Come from?'' Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2003. ISBN 0-8028-0975-8.
	* ] ''Misquoting Jesus: The Story Behind Who Changed the Bible and Why'' New York, NY: HarperSanFrancisco, 2005. ISBN 0-06-073817-0.
	* ] and ] ''The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts''. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2001. ISBN 0-684-86913-6.
	* Geisler, Norman (editor). ''Inerrancy''. Sponsored by the International Council on Biblical Inerrancy. Zondervan Publishing House, 1980, ISBN 0-310-39281-0.
	* Head, Tom. ''The Absolute Beginner's Guide to the Bible''. Indianapolis, IN: Que Publishing, 2005. ISBN 0-7897-3419-2.
	* Hoffman, Joel M. . New York University Press, 2004. ISBN 0-8147-3690-4.
	* Lindsell, Harold. ''The Battle for the Bible''. Zondervan Publishing House, 1978. ISBN 0-310-27681-0.
	* Lienhard, Joseph T. ''The Bible, The Church, and Authority''. Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 1995.
	* Miller, John W. ''The Origins of the Bible: Rethinking Canon History'' Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press, 1994. ISBN 0-8091-3522-1.
	* Riches, John. ''The Bible: A Very Short Introduction'', Oxford University Press, 2000. ISBN 0-19-285343-0
	* Taylor, Hawley O. "Mathematics and Prophecy." ''Modern Science and Christian Faith''. Wheaton: Van Kampen, 1948, pp. 175–83.
	*''Wycliffe Bible Encyclopedia'', ] "Book of Ezekiel," p. 580 and "prophecy," p. 1410. Chicago: Moody Bible Press, 1986.

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