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| ] plug-in hybrid ] ] with PHEV-30 (30 mile or 48 km ]) battery packs]] | |||
| lolz | |||
| A '''plug-in hybrid''' electric vehicle (PHEV) is a ] with batteries that can be recharged by connecting a plug to an ] source. They share the characteristics of both conventional ]s and ]s, having an ] and ] for power. Most PHEVs on the road today are passenger cars, but there are also PHEV versions of commercial passenger vans, utility trucks, school buses, ], and military vehicles. PHEVs are sometimes called '''grid-connected hybrids''', '''gas-optional hybrids''', or '''GO-HEVs'''. | |||
| The cost for electricity to power plug-in hybrids for ] in California has been estimated as less than one fourth the cost of ].<ref name="hevctr">Frank, A., ''et al.,'' Team Fate (]) Retrieved ] ]; </ref> Compared to conventional vehicles, PHEVs can reduce ] and dependence on ], and lessen ] emissions that contribute to ]. Plug-in hybrids use no ] during their ] if their batteries are charged from ] sources. Other benefits include improved national ], fewer fill-ups at the filling station, the convenience of home recharging, opportunities to provide emergency backup power in the home, and ] applications.<ref name="cba">Simpson, A. (2006) (PDF) National Renewable Energy Laboratory conference report CP-540-40485</ref> | |||
| As of September 2007, plug-in hybrid passenger vehicles are not yet in production. However, ],<ref name="toyota">{{cite news | last=Thomas | first=Ken | title=Toyota charging ahead with plans for plug-in hybrid | date=] ] | publisher=Chicago Sun-Times/Associated Press| url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4155/is_20060719/ai_n16541548 }}</ref> ],<ref name="gm">General Motors (], ]) accessed ] ]</ref> ],<ref name="ford">Woodall, B. (July 10, 2007) ''Reuters'' accessed 27 July 2007</ref> and Chinese automaker ]<ref name=byd>Edmunds (] ]) ''Edmunds Inside Line'' retrieved ] ]</ref> have announced their intention to introduce production PHEV automobiles. Toyota obtained permission in July 2007 to sell their plug-in ] in Japan, while BYD Auto expects to introduce their PHEV-60 sedan in the second half of 2008, and General Motors expects to introduce plug-ins in 2009 or 2010.<ref name="gmwhen">Terlep, S. (], ]) ''The Detroit News'' accessed ] ]</ref> Conversion kits and services are available to convert production model ]s to PHEVs. Most PHEVs on the road in the U.S. are conversions of models from 2004 or later of the Toyota Prius hybrid car, which have had plug-in charging added and their electric-only range extended. | |||
| == Terminology == | |||
| A plug-in hybrid's ] is designated by PHEV-'''' or PHEV''''km in which the number represents the distance the vehicle can travel on battery power alone. For example, a PHEV-20 can travel 20 miles without using its internal combustion engine, or about 32 kilometers, so it may also be designated as a PHEV32km.<ref name="reduct" /> | |||
| The ] (IEEE) defines a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle as any ] which contains at least: | |||
| * a battery storage system of 4 ] or more, used to power the motion of the vehicle; | |||
| * a means of recharging that battery system from an external source of electricity; and | |||
| * an ability to drive at least ten miles in all-electric mode, while consuming no gasoline. | |||
| This distinguishs PHEVs from hybrid cars mass-marketed today, which do not use any electricity from the grid.<ref>]-USA Board of Directors (] ]) ''Position Statement'' retrieved ] ]</ref> | |||
| == History == | |||
| {{details more|History of plug-in hybrids}} | |||
| ] were produced beginning as early as 1899 by Lohner-]. Early hybrids could be charged from an external source before operation. However, the term "plug-in hybrid" has come to mean a hybrid vehicle that can be charged from a standard electrical wall socket. | |||
| The July 1969 issue of '']'' featured an article on the ] plug-in hybrid. The concept commuter vehicle housed six {{nowrap|12 volt}} lead-acid batteries in the trunk area and a transverse-mounted DC electric motor turning a front-wheel drive.<ref> (Blog entry). ''Finkbuilt''. ], ]. Retrieved on ], ].</ref> The car could be plugged into a standard North American 110 volt AC outlet for recharging. | |||
| In 2003, ] began selling the Elect'road, a plug-in series hybrid version of their popular ], in Europe. It was sold alongside Renault's "Electri'cite" electric-drive Kangoo battery electric van. The Elect'road had a {{convert|150|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} range using a ] pack and a {{ConvertVolume|500|cc|cuin|0|lk=on|abbr=on}}, {{nowrap|16 kilowatt}} liquid-cooled gasoline "range-extender" engine. It powered two high voltage/high output/low volume alternators, each of which supplied up to {{nowrap|5.5 kW}} at {{nowrap|132 volts}} at {{nowrap|5000 rpm}}.<ref name="kangoo" /> The operating speed of the internal combustion engine—and therefore the output delivered by the generators—varied according to demand. The fuel tank had a capacity of {{ConvertVolume|10|L|usgal|3unit=impgal|1|lk=on}} and was housed within the right rear wheel arch. The range extender function was activated by a switch on the dashboard. The on-board {{nowrap|3.5 kilowatt}} charger could charge a depleted battery pack to 95% charge in about four hours from a {{nowrap|220 volts}} supply.<ref>Holinger, H. (2003) ''EVWorld.com'' accessed ], ].</ref> Passenger compartment heating was powered by the battery pack as well as an auxiliary coolant circuit that was supplied by the range extender engine. After selling about 500 vehicles, primarily in France, Norway and the UK, at a price of about €25,000,<ref name="kangoo">Renault (], ]) (PDF) press release</ref> the Elect'road was redesigned in 2007. | |||
| ] pack, with cover removed, in the ] "PRIUS+" plug-in hybrid converted ]]] | |||
| In September 2004, the ] (CalCars) converted a 2004 Toyota Prius into a prototype of what it called the PRIUS+. With the addition of {{nowrap|130 kg}} ({{nowrap|300 lb}}) of ], the PRIUS+ achieved roughly double the fuel economy of a standard Prius and could make trips of up to {{convert|15|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} using only electric power. The vehicle, which is owned by CalCars technical lead Ron Gremban, is used in daily driving, as well as a test bed for various improvements to the system.<ref name="priusplus">{{cite web | title=How We Green-Tuned an '04 Prius into a PRIUS+ Plug-In Hybrid!| work=CalCars.com - The California Cars Initiative | url=http://www.priusplus.org | accessmonthday=January 11 | accessyear=2006}}</ref> | |||
| On ], ], ] announced that it "plans to develop a hybrid vehicle that will run locally on batteries charged by a household electrical outlet before switching over to a gasoline engine for longer hauls."<ref name="toyota">{{cite news | last=Thomas | first=Ken | title=Toyota charging ahead with plans for plug-in hybrid | date=] ] | publisher=Chicago Sun-Times/Associated Press| url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4155/is_20060719/ai_n16541548 }}</ref> Toyota has said it plans to migrate to ] in future hybrid models,<ref> ''Hybrid Synergy View Newsletter'', Toyota, ] ]. Retrieved on ]-].</ref> but not in the next-generation Prius, expected in fall 2008.<ref name="halvorson">Halvorson, Bengt. . ''BusinessWeek'', ], ]. Retrieved on ]-].</ref> Lithium-ion batteries are expected to significantly improve fuel economy, and have a lower weight-to-energy ratio, but cost more to produce, and raise safety concerns due to high operating temperatures.<ref name="halvorson" /> | |||
| On ], ], GM announced plans to introduce a production plug-in hybrid version of | |||
| ] with an all-electric range of {{convert|10|mi|km|0|abbr=on}}.<ref name="gm" /> The model's sale is anticipated by fall 2009,<ref name="halvorson" /> and GM announced in ] ] that contracts had been awarded to two companies to design and test lithium-ion batteries for the vehicle.<ref>. GM, ], ]. Retrieved on ]-].</ref> GM has said that they plan on introducing plug-in and other hybrids "for the next several years".<ref name="gm" /> | |||
| In January 2007, GM unveiled the ], which is expected to initially feature a plug-in capable, battery-dominant series hybrid architecture which they are calling E-Flex.<ref>General Motors (], ]) press release; </ref> Future E-Flex plug-in hybrid vehicles may use gasoline, diesel, or hydrogen fuel cell power to supplement the vehicle's battery. General Motors envisions an eventual progression of E-Flex vehicles from plug-in hybrids to pure electric vehicles, as battery technology improves.<ref>Green Car Congress (], ]) accessed ] ]</ref> General Motors presented the Volt as a PHEV-40 that starts its engine when 40% of the battery charge remains, and which can achieve a fuel economy of {{mpg|50}}, even if the vehicle's batteries are not charged.<ref>Abuelsamid, S. (], ]) ''AutoBlogGreen''</ref> | |||
| On ], ], ] CEO ] said he expects Ford to sell plug-in hybrids in five to ten years, the launch date depending on advances in ] technology. Ford will provide ] with 20 ] sport utility vehicles reconfigured to work as plug-ins by 2009, with the first by the end of 2007.<ref name="ford" /> | |||
| On ], ], Japan's ] certified Toyota's plug-in hybrid for use on public roads, making it the first automobile to attain such approval. Toyota plans to conduct road tests to verify its all-electric range. The plug-in Prius has an all-electric range of {{convert|13|km|mi|0|abbr=on}}.<ref>Toyota Motor Corporation (], ]) ''JCN Newswire'' accessed ], ]</ref> | |||
| On ], ], General Motors vice-president ] announced that GM is on track for ] road testing in 2008 and production to begin by 2010. Announcing an agreement with ], Lutz said GM would like to have their planned ] plug-in on the roads by 2009.<ref name="gmwhen" /> The Volt has an all-electric range of {{convert|40|mi|km|0|abbr=on}}. | |||
| On ], ], Chinese manufacturer ] (which is owned by China's largest mobile phone battery maker) announced that it would be introducing a production PHEV-60 sedan in China in the second half of 2008. BYD plans to exhibit it in January 2008 at the ] in Detroit. Based on BYD's midsize F6 sedan, it uses iron-based batteries instead of lithium-ion, and can be recharged to 70% of capacity in just 10 minutes.<ref name=byd /> | |||
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| == Technology == | |||
| === Powertrains === | |||
| {{details more|Hybrid vehicle drivetrains}} | |||
| ] concept car is a ''series'' plug-in hybrid, meaning that its mechanical engine power is exclusively converted to electricity, not used directly.]] | |||
| PHEVs are based on the same three basic ] architectures as conventional hybrids:<ref name="ucs">Union of Concerned Scientists (2006) ''Hybridcenter.org'' accessed ] ]</ref> | |||
| '''Series hybrids''' use an ] (ICE) to turn a generator, which in turn supplies current to an electric motor, which then rotates the vehicle’s drive wheels. A battery or capacitor pack, or a combination of the two, can be used to store excess charge. Examples of series hybrids include the ] Elect'Road, Toyota's Japan-only ] light-duty passenger bus, DaimlerChrysler's hybrid ] bus, the ] concept car, and many ]-electric ]s. With an appropriate balance of components this type can operate over a substantial distance with its full range of power without engaging the ICE. As is the case for other architectures, series hybrids can operate without recharging as long as there is liquid fuel in the tank.<ref>Layton, J. and Nice, K. (2007) ''HowStuffWorks.com'' accessed ] ]</ref> | |||
| '''Parallel hybrids''', such as Honda's ], ], and ] hybrids, can simultaneously transmit power to their drive wheels from two distinct sources—for example, an internal combustion engine and a battery-powered electric drive. Although most parallel hybrids incorporate an electric motor between the vehicle's engine and transmission, a parallel hybrid can also use its engine to drive one of the vehicle's axles, while its electric motor drives the other. The ] Duo plug-in hybrid concept car is an example of this type of parallel hybrid architecture. Parallel hybrids can be programmed to use the electric motor to substitute for the ICE at lower power demands as well as to substantially increase the power available to a smaller ICE, both of which substantially increase fuel economy compared to a simple ICE vehicle.<ref>BC Climate Exchange (2005) ''Hybrid Experience Report'' accessed ] ]</ref> | |||
| '''Series-parallel hybrids''' have the flexibility to operate in either series or parallel mode. Hybrid powertrains currently used by ], ], ], and ], which some refer to as “series-parallel with power-split,” can operate in both series and parallel mode at the same time. As of 2007, most plug-in hybrid conversions of conventional hybrids utilize this architecture.<ref>Toyota Motor Corporation (2006) ''Hybrid Synergy Drive'' accessed ] ]</ref> | |||
| === Modes of operation === | |||
| Regardless of its architecture, a plug-in hybrid may be capable of ] and ] modes. Combinations of these two modes are termed ] or mixed-mode. These vehicles can be designed to drive for an extended range in ], either at low speeds only or at all speeds. These modes manage the vehicle's battery discharge strategy, and their use has a direct effect on the size and type of battery required:<ref>Green Car Congress (], ]) accessed ] ]</ref> | |||
| '''Charge-depleting mode''' allows a fully charged PHEV to operate exclusively (or depending on the vehicle, almost exclusively, except during hard acceleration) on electric power until its battery state of charge is depleted to a predetermined level, at which time the vehicle's internal combustion engine or fuel cell will be engaged. This period is the vehicle's ]. This is the only mode that a ] can operate in, hence their limited range.<ref name="energy">Gonder, J. and Markel, T. (2007) technical report NREL/CP-540-40970 presented at ''SAE World Congress,'' April 16-19, 2007, Detroit, Michigan</ref> | |||
| '''Charge-sustaining mode''' is used by production ] (HEVs) today, and combines the operation of the vehicle's two power sources in such a manner that the vehicle is operating as efficiently as possible without allowing the battery state of charge to move outside a predetermined narrow band. Over the course of a trip in a HEV the state of charge may fluctuate but will have no net change.<ref>Tony Markel/]: accessed ] ]</ref> The battery in a HEV can thus be thought of as an energy accumulator rather than a fuel storage device. Once a plug-in hybrid has exhausted its all-electric range in charge-depleting mode, it can switch into charge-sustaining mode automatically. | |||
| ] Elect'road operates in blended mode, using engine and battery power simultaneously.]] | |||
| '''Blended mode''' is a type of charge-depleting mode normally employed by vehicles which do not have enough electric power to sustain high speeds without the help of the internal combustion portion of the powertrain. A blended control strategy typically takes more miles to use stored grid electricity than a charge-depleting strategy.<ref>Santini, ''et al'' (], ]) (PDF), accessed ] ]</ref> The ] and some Toyota Prius conversions are examples of vehicles that use this mode of operation. The Electri'cité and Elect'road versions of the Kangoo were charge-depleting battery electric vehicles: the Elect'road had a modest internal combustion engine which extended its range somewhat. Conversions of 2004 and later model Toyota Prius can only run without using the ICE at speeds of less than about {{convert|42|mi:h|km:h|0|abbr=on}} due to the limits dictated by the vehicle's powertrain control software. However, at faster speeds electric power can still be used to displace gasoline, thus improving the fuel economy in blended mode and generally doubling the fuel efficiency. | |||
| '''Mixed mode''' describes a trip in which a combination of the above modes are utilized.<ref>EAA-PHEV wiki: accessed ] ]</ref> For example, a PHEV-20 Prius conversion may begin a trip with {{convert|5|mi|km|0}} of low speed charge-depleting, then get onto a freeway and operate in blended mode for {{convert|20|mi|km|0}}, using {{convert|10|mi|km|0}} worth of all-electric range at twice the fuel economy. Finally the driver might exit the freeway and drive for another {{convert|5|mi|km|0}} without the internal combustion engine until the full {{convert|20|mi|km|0}} of all-electric range are exhausted. At this point the vehicle can revert back to a charge sustaining-mode for another {{convert|10|mi|km|0}} until the final destination is reached. Such a trip would be considered a mixed mode, as multiple modes are employed in one trip. This contrasts with a charge-depleting trip which would be driven within the limits of a PHEV's all-electric range. Conversely, the portion of a trip which extends beyond the all-electric range of a PHEV would be driven primarily in charge-sustaining mode, as used by a conventional hybrid. | |||
| === Batteries === | |||
| {{Further|]}} | |||
| PHEVs typically require deeper ] charging and discharging cycles than conventional hybrids. Because the number of full cycles influences battery life, this may be less than in traditional HEVs which do not deplete their batteries as fully. However, some authors argue that PHEVs will soon become standard in the automobile industry.<ref>Roim, J. and Frank, A. (April 2006) ''Scientific American'' pp. 72–9</ref> Design issues and trade-offs against battery life, capacity, heat dissipation, weight, costs, and safety need to be solved.<ref>Bullis, K. (], ]) ''Technology Review'' (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT)</ref> Advanced battery technology is under development, promising greater energy densities by both mass and volume,<ref>Fleissner, C. (8/14/06) ''Wisconsin Technology Network''</ref> and battery life expectancy is expected to increase.<ref>Altair Nanotechnologies Inc. (], ]) ''Business Wire'' press release</ref> | |||
| The cathodes of some early 2007 lithium-ion batteries are made from lithium-cobalt metal oxide. This material is expensive, and cells made with it can release oxygen if overcharged. If the cobalt is replaced with ], the cells will not burn or release oxygen under any charge. The price premium for early 2007 conventional hybrids is about US$5000, some US$3000 of which is for their NiMH battery packs. At early 2007 gasoline and electricity prices, that would mean a break-even point after six to ten years of operation. The conventional hybrid premium could fall to US$2000 in five years, with US$1200 or more of that being cost of lithium-ion batteries, providing for a three-year payback. The payback period may be longer for plug-in hybrids, because of their larger, more expensive batteries.<ref name="ieee">Voelcker, J. (January 2007) ''IEEE Spectrum''</ref> | |||
| Nickel-metal hydride and lithium-ion batteries can be recycled; Toyota, for example, has a recycling program in place under which dealers are paid a US$200 credit for each battery returned.<ref>Toyota Motor Co (2004) ''Toyota.com'' accessed ] ]</ref> However, plug-in hybrids typically use larger battery packs than comparable conventional hybrids, and thus require more resources. Recently ] (PG&E) has suggested that utilities could purchase used batteries for backup and load levelling purposes. They state that while these used batteries may be no longer usable in vehicles, their residual capacity still has significant value.<ref name="woody" /> | |||
| In France, ] (EDF) and Toyota are installing recharging points for PHEVs on roads, streets and ]s.<ref>Électricité de France (] ]) press release retrieved ] ]</ref>. EDF is also partnering with Elektromotive, Ltd.<ref>Elektromotive, Ltd. (2007) company web site retrieved ] ]</ref> to install 250 new charging points over six months from October 2007 in London and elsewhere in the UK.<ref>Reynolds, L. (], ]) ''The Battery Vehicle Society'' retrieved ] ]</ref> Recharging points also can be installed for specific uses, as in ]s. | |||
| === Conversions of production hybrids === | |||
| {{details more|Electric vehicle conversion}} | |||
| ], PFC charger, and ] installed into , a PHEV-10 conversion of a Toyota Prius]] | |||
| Conversion of an existing production hybrid to a plug-in hybrid typically involves increasing the capacity of the vehicle's ] and adding an on-board AC-to-DC charger. Ideally, the vehicle's powertrain software would be reprogrammed to make full use of the battery pack's additional energy storage capacity and power output. | |||
| Many early plug-in hybrid ]s have been based on the 2004 or later model ].<ref>California Cars Initiative (2007) accessed ], ].</ref> Some of the systems have involved replacement of the vehicle's original NiMH battery pack and its electronic control unit. Others, such as ], the CalCars Prius+, and the PiPrius, piggyback an additional battery back onto the original battery pack, this is also referred to as Battery Range Extender Modules (BREMs).<ref>A123 Systems, Inc. (], ]) ''Business Wire'' press release</ref> Within the ] community this has been referred to as a "hybrid battery pack configuration".<ref>Electric Auto Association (2007) ''Plug in Hybrid Electric Vehicle'' website, accessed ] ]</ref> Early ] conversions by CalCars demonstrated {{nowrap|10 miles}} ({{nowrap|15 km}}) of EV-only and {{nowrap|20 miles}} ({{nowrap|30 km}}) of double mileage ] range.<ref name="priusplus" /> | |||
| EDrive Systems use Valence Technology ] batteries and have a claimed {{nowrap|40 to 50 miles}} {{nowrap|(64 to 80 km)}} of electric range.<ref>EDrive Systems, LLC (2006) accessed ], ].</ref> Other companies offering plug-in conversions or kits for the Toyota Prius include Hymotion, ], and ]. | |||
| The EAA-PHEV project was conceived in October of 2005 to accelerate efforts to document existing HEVs and their potential for conversion into PHEVs.<ref>Electric Auto Association (2005-present)</ref> It includes a Conversion Interest page.<ref>http://www.eaa-phev.org:80/Conversion_Interest </ref> The ]-PHEV "Do-It-Yourself" ] community's primary focus is to provide conversion instructions to help guide experienced EV Converters through the process. Many members of organizations such as ] and the EAA as well as companies like ], Hybrid Interfaces of Canada, and Manzanita Micro participate in the development of the project. | |||
| == Advantages == | |||
| === Fuel efficiency === | |||
| {{Main|Energy efficiency}} | |||
| Claimed fuel economy for PHEVs depends on the amount of driving between recharges. If no gasoline is used the MPG equivalent depends only on the efficiency of the electric system. A {{nowrap|120 km}} ({{nowrap|70 mile}}) range PHEV-70 may annually require only about 25% as much gasoline as a similarly designed PHEV-0, depending on how it will be driven and the trips for which will be used.<ref name="cba" /> | |||
| A further advantage of PHEVs is that they have potential to be even more efficient than conventional hybrids because a more limited use of the PHEV's internal combustion engine may allow the engine to be used at closer to its maximum efficiency. While a Prius is likely to convert fuel to motive energy on average at about 30% efficiency (well below the engine's 38% peak efficiency) the engine of a PHEV-70 would be likely to operate far more often near its peak efficiency because the batteries can serve the modest power needs at times when the combustion engine would be forced to run well below its peak efficiency.<ref name="energy" /> The actual efficiency achieved depends on losses from electricity generation, inversion, battery charging/discharging, the motor controller and motor itself, the way a vehicle is used (its ]), and the opportunities to recharge by connecting to the electrical grid. | |||
| === Greenhouse gas emissions === | |||
| {{Main|Greenhouse gas}} | |||
| Another advantage of PHEV adoption is a predicted reduction in ]. Increased drivetrain efficiency results in significant reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, even taking into account energy lost to inefficiency in the production and distribution of grid power and charging of batteries. A study by the American Council for an Energy Efficient Economy (ACEEE) predicts that, on average, a typical American driver is expected to achieve about a 15% reduction in net ] emissions compared to the driver of a regular hybrid, based on the 2005 distribution of power sources feeding the U.S. electrical grid.<ref name="aceee" /> Additionally, for PHEV’s recharged in areas where the grid is fed by power sources with lower CO<sub>2</sub> emissions than the current average, net CO<sub>2</sub> emissions associated with PHEVs will decrease correspondingly. PHEVs can be viewed as an element in the "] wedges" approach which shows a way to stabilize CO<sub>2</sub> emissions using a portfolio of existing techniques, including efficient vehicles. | |||
| The same study predicts that in areas where more than 80% of grid-power comes from coal-burning power plants, local net CO<sub>2</sub> emissions will increase.<ref name="aceee">Kliesch, J. and Langer, T. (September 2006) American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy</ref> However, given the global nature of problems associated with CO<sub>2</sub> emissions, specifically global warming, localized increases in CO<sub>2</sub> emissions are not considered a significant problem if global CO<sub>2</sub> emissions are decreased.<ref name="reduct" /><!--rather a nonsensical argument, which doesn't really belong in this article--> | |||
| GM Vice Chairman Bob Lutz has said the Chevy Volt will emit 40 grams of carbon dioxide per kilometer. That is well below the proposed European Union ]s of 120-130 g/km.<ref>Green Car Congress (10 September 2007) retrieved ] ]</ref> | |||
| === Operating costs === | |||
| ] is shown the PHEV ] van in the ]]] | |||
| In a 2006 research estimate in California, the cost to plug in at night was equivalent to US$0.75 per U.S. gallon (3.8 L) of gasoline,<ref name="hevctr" /> whereas gasoline sells for over US$3 per gallon. The cost of electricity for a Prius PHEV is about US$0.03 per mile (US$0.019 per km), based on {{kWh/mile|0.26}} and a cost of electricity of US$0.10 per kilowatt hour.<ref>California Cars Initiative (], ]) (PDF) page 2, accessed ] ]</ref><ref>Bluejay, M. (2006?) accessed ] ]</ref> During 2007, many government and industry researchers will focus on determining what level of all-electric range is economically optimum for the design.<ref name="newdoe">U.S. Dept of Energy (June 2007) section 1.5: Collaboration, accessed ] ].</ref> | |||
| === Vehicle-to-grid electricity === | |||
| {{Main|Vehicle-to-grid}} | |||
| PHEVs and fully electric cars may allow for more efficient use of existing electric production capacity, much of which sits idle as operating reserve most of the time. This assumes that vehicles are charged primarily during ] periods (i.e., at night), or equipped with technology to shut off charging during periods of peak demand. Another advantage of a plug-in vehicle is their potential ability to load balance or help the grid during peak loads. This is accomplished with ] technology. By using excess battery capacity to send power back into the grid and then recharge during off peak times using cheaper power, such vehicles are actually advantageous to utilities as well as their owners. Even if such vehicles just led to an increase in the use of night time electricity they would even out electricity demand which is typically higher in the day time, and provide a greater return on capital for electricity infrastructure.<ref name="reduct">James, W. (September 2006) ''Alternative Transport Energies Conference'' (Perth, Australia)</ref> | |||
| In October 2005, five Toyota engineers and one Asian AW engineer published an ] technical paper detailing a Toyota-approved project to add vehicle-to-grid capability to a Toyota Prius.<ref>Oyobe, H. ''et al.'' (2005) ''Fortieth Industry Applications Conference Annual Meeting.'' accessed ], ]</ref> Although the technical paper described "a method for generating voltage between respective lines of neutral points in the generator and motor of the THS-II (Toyota Hybrid System) to add a function for generating electricity", it did not state whether or not the experimental vehicle could be charged through the circuit, as well. However, the vehicle was featured in a Toyota Dream House, and a brochure for the exhibit stated that "the house can supply electricity to the battery packs of the vehicles via the stand in the middle of the garage", indicating that the vehicle may have been a plug-in hybrid.<ref>Green Car Congress (] ]) accessed ] ]</ref> | |||
| In November 2005, more than 50 leaders from public power utility companies across the United States met at the ] headquarters to discuss plug-in hybrid and vehicle-to-grid technology. The event, which was sponsored by the American Public Power Association, also provided an opportunity for association members to plan strategies that public power utility companies could use to promote plug-in hybrid technology. Greg Hanssen and Peter Nortman of EnergyCS <ref> and </ref> and EDrive <ref>http://www.edrivesystems.com/ </ref> attended the two-day session, and during a break in the proceedings, made an impromptu display in the LADWP parking lot of their converted Prius plug-in hybrid.<ref>Green Car Congress (] ]) accessed ] ]</ref> | |||
| In September 2006, the ] held a Zero Emission Vehicle symposium that included several presentations on ] technology.<ref>Green Car Congress (], ]) accessed ], ]</ref> In April 2007, ] showcased a PHEV at the Silicon Valley Leadership Alternative Energy Solutions Summit with vehicle-to-grid capability, and demonstrated that it could be used as a source of emergency home power in the event of an electrical power failure.<ref>Green Car Congress (], ]) accessed ], ]</ref> Regulations intended to protect electricians against power other than from grid sources would need to be changed, or regulations requiring consumers to disconnect from the grid when connected to non-grid sources will be required before such backup power solutions would be feasible.<ref name="pge">News.com (], ]) </ref> | |||
| ]er ] coined the term "Cash-Back Hybrids" to describe payments to car owners for putting their batteries on the ]. Batteries could also be offered in low-cost ] or ] or by ] (including maintenance) to the car owners by the public utilities, in a vehicle-to-grid agreement.<ref>Liotsakis, P. (2007) ''LiveNeutral'' (Presidio School of Management and Chicago Climate Exchange) accessed ] ].</ref> | |||
| == Disadvantages == | |||
| Disadvantages of plug-in hybrids include the additional cost and weight of a larger ]. General Motors may allow buyers of its ] electric car to rent the vehicle's battery, offsetting some cost.<ref>Simon, B. (], ]) ''Financial Times'' accessed ] ]</ref> Also ] PHEV batteries can be sold to electric utilities to be employed at ]s.<ref name="woody">Woody, Todd. (Blog). ''Green Wombat'', ]-]. Retrieved on ]-].</ref> | |||
| Increased ] is expected to occur in some areas with the adoption of PHEVs, but most areas will experience a decrease.<ref>Knipping, E. and Duvall, M. (June 2007) ''] and ]'' accessed ], ]</ref> A study by the ACEEE predicts that widespread PHEV use in heavily coal-dependent areas would result in an increase in local net ] and ] emissions, given emissions levels from most coal plants currently supplying power to the grid.<!--repeat of section above--><ref>Clayton, M. (], ]) ''The Christian Science Monitor''</ref> Although ] technologies could create power plants which supply grid power from coal without emitting significant amounts of such pollutants, the higher cost of the application of these technologies may increase the price of coal-generated electricity. The net effect on pollution is dependent on the fuel source of the electrical grid (fossil or renewable, for example) and the pollution profile of the power plants themselves. Identifying, regulating and upgrading single point pollution source such as a power plant—or replacing a plant altogether—may also be more practical. From a human health perspective, shifting pollution away from large urban areas may be considered a significant advantage.<ref>Kanellos, M. (], ]) ''cNet News.com''</ref> ], who co-founded ], says "if you do the math, you´ll find that an electric car, even if you use coal to make electricity, produces less pollution per mile than burning gasoline in the best gasoline-powered car."<ref>CBS News (], ]) ''CBS News Sunday Morning'' retrieved ] ]</ref> | |||
| ==Commercialization== | |||
| ] | |||
| PHEVs have been sold as commercial passenger ]s,<ref name="uvett">{{cite web | title=Hybrid Daily | work=Micro-Vett | url=http://www.micro-vett.it/english/bimodaleing.html | accessmonthday=April 21 | accessyear=2007}}</ref> utility ]s,<ref>Green Car Congress: accessed ], ]</ref><ref>Odyne Corporation press release: </ref> general and school ]es,<ref> accessed ] ]</ref><ref></ref> ]s,<ref>Green Car Congress: accessed ] ]</ref> ],<ref>http://www.enertiabike.com</ref> and military vehicles.<ref>Signal - AFCEA's International Journal accessed ], ]</ref> ] converts diesel buses to plug-in hybrids, under contract for the ]. | |||
| Interest in plug-in hybrids increased in 2006 to such a level that the architecture was included as an area of research in President ]'s advanced energy initiative and mentioned in his ]. After hearing an explanation of PHEVs, 49% of U.S. consumers surveyed in 2006 said they would consider purchasing one. That is about the same level of interest as standard hybrid technology.<ref>Synovate (], ]) accessed ], ].</ref> | |||
| ===Patent encumbrance of NiMH batteries=== | |||
| In 1994, General Motors acquired a controlling interest in ]'s battery development and manufacturing, including patents controlling the manufacturing of large ]. In 2001, ] purchased GM's share in GM Ovonics. A few months later, Chevron acquired Texaco. In 2003, Texaco Ovonics Battery Systems was restructutred into ], a 50/50 joint venture between Chevron and ].<ref>Roberson, J. (], ]) ''Detroit Free Press''</ref> | |||
| In her book, , published in February 2007, ] argues that large-format NiMH batteries are commercially viable but that Cobasys refuses to sell or license them to small companies or individuals. Boschert reveals that Cobasys accepts only very large orders for these batteries. When Boschert conducted her research, major auto makers showed little interest in NiMH batteries. Since no other companies were capable of producing large orders, Cobasys was not manufacturing any NiMH batteries for automotive purposes.<ref>Boschert, S. (2007) (Gabriola Island, BC: New Society Publishers) ISBN 9780865715714</ref> | |||
| However, in December 2006, Cobasys and ] announced that they had signed a contract under which Cobasys provides NiMH batteries for the ].<ref>Abuelsamid, S. (],]) ''Autobloggreen.com''</ref> In March 2007, GM announced that it would use Cobasys NiMH batteries in the 2008 ] as well. Cobasys remains unwilling to sell NiMH batteries in smaller quantities to individuals interested in building or retrofitting their own PHEVs. | |||
| == See also == | |||
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| == References == | |||
| {{reflist|2}} | |||
| == External links == | |||
| <!-- Please review WP:EL before adding links to this section: don't add links to things that are already cited in the article or that don't add substantial information to the article. For news articles, please consider adding them to the History section if very significant or ] if minor. --> | |||
| *{{HSW|plug-in-hybrid-car|How Plug-In Hybrid Cars Work}} | |||
| * - conversion and technical documentation | |||
| * - U.S. ] | |||
| * - Saturn plugs in 2008 | |||
| * - video clip of U.S. senators talking about plug in hybrids | |||
| * - video clip about plug in hybrid vehicles | |||
| * and . | |||
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| ; Groups promoting plug-ins | |||
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| {{featured article}} | |||
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Revision as of 12:44, 30 October 2007
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