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| ===Controversy=== | ===Controversy=== | ||
| Polyandry is a controversial subject among anthropologists. For instance, Pennsylvania anthropologist ] points out that at least 20 tribal societies accept that a child could, and ideally should, have more than one father, referring to it as "]". On the other hand, in Tibet, which is the most well-documented cultural domain within which polyandry is practiced, the testimony of certain polyandrists themselves is that the marriage form is difficult to sustain |
Polyandry is a controversial subject among anthropologists. For instance, Pennsylvania anthropologist ] points out that at least 20 tribal societies accept that a child could, and ideally should, have more than one father, referring to it as "]". On the other hand, in Tibet, which is the most well-documented cultural domain within which polyandry is practiced, the testimony of certain polyandrists themselves is that the marriage form is difficult to sustain. | ||
| With particular regard to the supposed failure rate of polyandry (and polygamy in general), it is important to note that there are high rates of ] and ] in "monogamous" societies, so that it is possible to argue that polyandry is not somehow uniquely unworkable. In Tibet polyandry has been outlawed, which means that it is difficult to measure the incidence of polyandry in what may have been the world's most "polyandrous" society. In Mahabharta, the custom of polyandry was practiced by the Pandavs when they married Draupadi. | With particular regard to the supposed failure rate of polyandry (and polygamy in general), it is important to note that there are high rates of ] and ] in "monogamous" societies, so that it is possible to argue that polyandry is not somehow uniquely unworkable. In Tibet polyandry has been outlawed, which means that it is difficult to measure the incidence of polyandry in what may have been the world's most "polyandrous" society. In Mahabharta, the custom of polyandry was practiced by the Pandavs when they married Draupadi. | ||
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In social anthropology and sociobiology, polyandry (Greek: poly- many, andros- man) means forming a sexual union with more than one male.
The form of polyandry in which two (or more) brothers marry the same woman is known as fraternal polyandry, and it is believed by many anthropologists to be the most frequently encountered form.
Definition
In social anthropology, polyandry refers to a form of polygamous marriage. Polyandry is a specific form of polygamy in which one is married to two or more husbands simultaneously. Polygyny refers to polygamy in which one has multiple wives.
Human polyandry
According to inscriptions describing the reforms of the Sumerian king Urukagina of Lagash (ca. 2300 BC), he is said to have abolished the former custom of polyandry in his country, on pain of the woman taking multiple husbands having her teeth bashed out with a clay tablet.
Polyandry in human relationships occurs or has occurred in Tibet, the Canadian Arctic, Zanskar, Nepal, Bhutan, Ladakh, the Nymba, and Sri Lanka. It is also encountered in some regions of Mongolia, among the Mosuo people in China, and in some Sub-Saharan African and American indigenous communities. Polyandry has been practiced in several cultures in India — in the Jaunsar region in Uttarakhand, among the Toda of South India, and the Nishi of Arunachal Pradesh. The Guanches, the first known inhabitants of the Canary Islands, practiced polyandry until their disappearance. In other societies, there are people who live in de facto polyandrous arrangements that are not recognized by the law .
With traditional polyandry, the most common source of friction is rivalry between the fathers and their children for the attention of their wife or mother. This causes tension for the already heavily burdened wife.
Polyandry in religion
Islam and Judaism ban polyandry completely. In Islam the verse from the Quran that is typically used for a proof in this matter is Surah Nisa’ Chapter 4 verses 22 to 24, which gives the list of women with whom one cannot marry and it is further mentioned in Surah Nisa’ Chapter 4 verse 24. Although a woman may not have more than one husband, polygyny is allowed but in very specific conditions and is discouraged, as in Surah Nisa’ Chapter 4 verses 3, where men can marry up to four wives if they can be truly fair with all of them. And in Surah Nisa’ Chapter 4 verses 129 it is mentioned that "You can never be equitable in dealing with more than one wife, no matter how hard you try." Chapter 4 verse 3 also mentions that men who avoid polygyny are more likely to avoid financial hardship. Nikah Ijtimah, a pre-Islamic tradition of polyandry, was forbidden by Islam.
There is at least one reference to polyandry in the ancient Hindu epic, Mahabharata. Draupadi marries the five Pandava brothers. This ancient text remains largely neutral to the concept of polyandry, accepting this as her way of life.
Controversy
Polyandry is a controversial subject among anthropologists. For instance, Pennsylvania anthropologist Stephen Beckerman points out that at least 20 tribal societies accept that a child could, and ideally should, have more than one father, referring to it as "partible paternity". On the other hand, in Tibet, which is the most well-documented cultural domain within which polyandry is practiced, the testimony of certain polyandrists themselves is that the marriage form is difficult to sustain.
With particular regard to the supposed failure rate of polyandry (and polygamy in general), it is important to note that there are high rates of infidelity and divorce in "monogamous" societies, so that it is possible to argue that polyandry is not somehow uniquely unworkable. In Tibet polyandry has been outlawed, which means that it is difficult to measure the incidence of polyandry in what may have been the world's most "polyandrous" society. In Mahabharta, the custom of polyandry was practiced by the Pandavs when they married Draupadi.
In other parts of the world, most traditional societies have been drastically altered or destroyed, so the incidence of polyandry in the past may not be accurately known. In India, among Tibetan refugee groups who fled the Chinese invasion of their country, polyandry is seldom encountered.
Causes
Some forms of polyandry appear to be associated with a) the perceived need to retain aristocratic titles or agricultural lands within kin groups, and/or b) frequent male absence, for long periods, from the household. As to the former variety, consider that in Tibet where the practice is particularly popular among the priestly Skye class as well as poor small farmers who could ill afford to divide their small holdings. As to the latter variety, as some males return to the household, others leave for a long time, so that there is usually one husband present. Also, polyandry serves as a form of birth control- no matter how many partners a woman has, she can only have one pregnancy at a time (as opposed to polygamy- a husband with multiple wives might impregnate all of them, thus having more children.)
Fraternal polyandry
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Fraternal polyandry (from the Latin frater - brother) is a form of polyandrous marriage in which two or more brothers share one wife or more. It is also termed adelphogamy, but this term also has other meanings.
Fraternal polyandry is found especially in certain areas of Tibet and Nepal, where polyandry is accepted as a social practice.
An example of fraternal polyandry can be found in the Mahabharata, where Draupadi is married to the five Pandavas
Fraternal polyandry functions similarly to the way primogeniture functioned in nineteenth-century England. Primogeniture dictated that the eldest son inherited the family estate, while younger sons had to leave home and seek their own employment. Primogeniture maintained family estates intact over generations by permitting only one heir per generation. Fraternal polyandry also accomplishes this, but does so by keeping all the brothers together with just one wife so that there is only one set of heirs per generation.
Animal polyandry
In the field of behavioural ecology polyandry is a type of breeding adaptation in which one female mates with many males. Another similar breeding system to this is polygyny in which one male mates with many females (e.g., lions, deer, some primates and many systems where there is an alpha male).
A common example of this can be found in the Field Cricket Gryllus bimaculatus of the invertebrate order Orthoptera (containing crickets, grasshoppers and groundhoppers). The unusual thing about polyandry in nature in general is that mating is costly: in other words, why mate with more than one male when you could be better spending your time foraging? Females in this species will mate with any male close to them, including siblings. Related to sexual conflict, possible explanations for polyandry evolving in this species include:
- It is easier to ensure reproductive success (i.e. it is more likely that the female will have offspring)
- Females may be encouraging sperm competition between males post-copulation
- multiple sperm lines may confer more variation in traits to female's offspring, this seems to be the case in the honey bee where bees from different sperm lines excel at different roles within a single hive, benefiting the health of the hive as a whole.
- Females may receive food offerings from prospective mates inciting copulation
- Because males can't be sure if they are or aren't their offspring and won't risk destroying their own DNA, mating with multiple males increases the survival of the female's offspring.
Polyandry also occurs in some primates such as marmosets ), mammal groups the marsupial genus Antechinus, around 1% of all bird species, such as jacanas, insects such as honeybees, and fish such as pipefish. In effect polyandry will reduce the effective population size of a given closed population.
Polyandry in New World monkeys
Some New World monkeys, for example Goeldi's Marmoset, have been observed living in polyandrous groups. Although groups may contain more than one female, the dominant female suppresses ovulation in subordinates, causing her to be the only one capable of reproduction. A Goeldi's Marmoset female regularly births more than one offspring, and her eggs are separately fertilized by more than one male. Paternal investment is high among Goeldi's Marmosets, and males often carry infants on their backs even if they are not the father of the infant. It has been suggested that multiple male mates were related, and therefore cooperation in caring for each other's young is adaptive; however, researchers tagged and tracked Goeldi's Marmosets over time, and noticed that unrelated males migrated to new groups to cooperate with non relatives as well as with relatives to care for young. It has also been suggested that females select cooperative males, and that the multiple offspring of Goeldi's Marmosets require paternal care for survival.
Current research suggests that polyandry is the dominant social structure in the Callitrichinae subfamily of New World monkeys.
The sociobiology of polyandry
The term has gained some currency in sociobiology, where it refers, analogously, to a mating system in which one female forms more or less permanent bonds to more than one male. It can take two different forms. In one, typified by the Northern Jacana and some other ground-living birds, the female takes on much the same role as the male in a polygynous species, holding a large territory within which several males build nests. Subsequently, the female lays eggs in all the nests, and plays little part in parental care. In the other form, typified by the Galápagos Hawk, a group of two or more males (which may or may not be related) and one female collectively care for a single nest. The latter situation more closely resembles typical human fraternal polyandry.
These two forms reflect different resource situations: polyandry with shared parental care is more likely in very difficult environments, where the efforts of more than two parents are needed to give a reasonable chance of rearing young successfully.
Honeybees are said to be polyandrous because a queen typically mates with multiple males, even though mating is the only interaction that they have (the males die off, while the queen uses stored sperm for eggs she fertilizes).
Polyandry in primates and other mammals is usually correlated with reduced or reverse sexual dimorphism — females larger than males. When males of a species are much larger than females, polygyny is usually practiced. As size difference decreases, or the females are larger than males, a species is more likely to practice monogamy or polyandry. The great apes (gorillas, orangutans, and chimpanzees) are dismorphic and practice polygyny. Male and female gibbons (lesser apes) are similar in size and form monogamous pairs. Human males and females are less dismorphic in body size than other polygynous great apes, and are often monogamous.
Paternal investment is often high in polyandrous species.
See also
References
- Peter, Prince of Greece, A Study of Polyandry, The Hague, Mouton, 1963
Further reading
- Smith, E.A. (1998). Is Tibetan polyandry adaptive? Methodological and metatheoretical critiques. Human Nature 9(3):225-261. Full text
- Lodé Thierry (2006) La Guerre des sexes chez les animaux. Eds O Jacob, Paris.