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| {{Thoreauviana}} | |||
| '''Henry David Thoreau''' (], ] – ], ]; born '''David Henry Thoreau'''<ref>, American Poems (2000-2007 Gunnar Bengtsson).</ref>) was an ] author, ], ], ], ], and ] who is best known for '']'', a reflection upon ] in natural surroundings, and his essay, '']'', an argument for individual ] in moral opposition to an unjust state. | |||
| Thoreau's books, articles, essays, journals, and poetry total over 20 volumes. Among his lasting contributions were his ] and philosophy, where he anticipated the methods and findings of ] and ], two sources of modern day ]. | |||
| He was a lifelong ], delivering lectures that attacked the ] while praising the writings of ] and defending the abolitionist ]. Thoreau’s philosophy of nonviolent resistance influenced the political thoughts and actions of such later figures as ], ], and ] | |||
| Thoreau is often claimed as an inspiration by ], as well. Though ''Civil Disobedience'' calls for improving rather than abolishing government — “I ask for, not at once no government, but ''at once'' a better government”<ref name="resistance">Thoreau, H.D. ''''</ref> — the direction of this improvement aims at anarchism: “‘That government is best which governs not at all;’ and when men are prepared for it, that will be the kind of government which they will have.”<ref name="resistance" /> | |||
| == Biography == | |||
| ===Early life=== | |||
| Thoreau was born in ], ] to John Thoreau and Cynthia Dunbar. His paternal grandfather was of French origin and born in ].<ref></ref> His maternal grandfather, Asa Dunbar, was known for leading Harvard's 1766 student "]"<ref></ref> the first recorded student protest in the United States.<ref></ref> David Henry was named after a recently deceased paternal uncle, David Thoreau. He did not become “Henry David” until after college, although he never petitioned to make a legal name change.<ref>, Meet the Writers, Barnes & Noble.com</ref> He had two older siblings, Helen and John Jr., and a younger sister, Sophia.<ref>, American Poems (2000-2007 Gunnar Bengtsson)</ref> Thoreau’s birthplace still exists on Virginia Road in Concord and is currently the focus of preservation efforts. The house is original, but it now stands about 100 yards away from its first site. | |||
| ] and Thoreau's aunt both wrote that “Thoreau” is pronounced like the word “thorough”, whose standard American pronunciation rhymes with “furrow”.<ref> Thoreau Reader</ref> In appearance he was homely, with a nose that he called “my most prominent feature.”<ref>Thoreau, H.D. ''''</ref> Of his face, ] wrote: " is as ugly as sin, long-nosed, queer-mouthed, and with uncouth and rustic, though courteous manners, corresponding very well with such an exterior. But his ugliness is of an honest and agreeable fashion, and becomes him much better than beauty."<ref> Nathaniel Hawthorne</ref> Thoreau also wore a neck-beard for many years, which he insisted many women found attractive. However, Louisa May Alcott reportedly mentioned to Emerson that Thoreau's facial hair "will most assuredly deflect amorous advances and preserve the man's virtue in perpetuity."<ref>Colman, William, et al, ''The Journals and Miscellaneous Notebooks of Ralph Waldo Emerson'' 16 vols. (Cambridge, Mass 1960-)</ref> | |||
| Thoreau studied at ] between 1833 and 1837. He lived in ] and took courses in ], classics, philosophy, mathematics, and science. Legend states that Thoreau refused to pay the five-dollar fee for a Harvard diploma. In fact, the master's degree he declined to purchase had no academic merit: Harvard College offered it to graduates "who proved their physical worth by being alive three years after graduating, and their saving, earning, or inheriting quality or condition by having Five Dollars to give the college."<ref>"Thoreau's Diploma". ''American Literature'' Vol. 17, May 1945. 174-175.</ref> His comment was: “Let every sheep keep its own skin.” | |||
| === Returning to Concord: 1837-1841 === | |||
| During a leave of absence from Harvard in 1835, Thoreau taught school in ]. After graduating in 1837, he joined the faculty of <!-- Note: Concord Academy (1822-1863) is a different institution than Concord Academy (est. 1922). --> Concord Academy, but he refused to administer ] and the school board soon dismissed him. He and his brother John then opened a ] in Concord in 1838. They introduced several progressive concepts, including nature walks and visits to local shops and businesses. The school ended when John became fatally ill from ] in 1841.<ref>Dean, Bradley P. "".</ref> | |||
| Upon graduation Thoreau returned home to Concord, where he befriended ]. Emerson took a paternal and at times patronizing interest in Thoreau, advising the young man and introducing him to a circle of local writers and thinkers, including ], ], ], ] and his son ], who was a boy at the time. Of the many prominent authors who lived in Concord, Thoreau was the only town native. Emerson referred to him as ''the'' man of Concord.{{Fact|date=September 2007}} | |||
| Emerson constantly urged Thoreau to contribute essays and poems to a quarterly periodical, '']'', and Emerson lobbied with editor ] to publish those writings. Thoreau’s first essay published there was ''];'' half book review, half natural history essay, it appeared in 1842. It consisted of revised passages from his journal, which he had begun keeping at Emerson’s suggestion. The first entry on ], ] reads, “‘What are you doing now?’ he asked. ‘Do you keep a journal?’ So I make my first entry today.” | |||
| Thoreau was a philosopher of nature and its relation to the human condition. In his early years he followed ], a loose and eclectic ] philosophy advocated by Emerson, Fuller, and Alcott. They held that an ideal spiritual state transcends, or goes beyond, the physical and empirical, and that one achieves that insight via personal intuition rather than religious doctrine. In their view, Nature is the outward sign of inward spirit, expressing the “radical ] of visible things and human thoughts,” as Emerson wrote in ''Nature'' (1836). | |||
| On ], ], Thoreau moved into the Emerson House.<ref>Cheevers, Susan (2006). ''American Bloomsbury: Louisa May Alcott, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Margaret Fuller, Nathaniel Hawthorne, and Henry David Thoreau; Their Lives, Their Loves, Their Work''. Detroit: Thorndike Press. Large print edition. p. 90. ISBN 078629521X.</ref> There, from 1841-1844, he served as the children’s tutor, editorial assistant, and repair man/gardener. For a few months in 1843, he moved to the home of William Emerson on ], tutoring the family sons while writing for New York periodicals, aided in part by his future literary representative ].{{Fact|date=March 2007}} | |||
| Thoreau returned to Concord and worked in his family's ] factory, which he would continue to do for most of his adult life. He rediscovered the process to make a good pencil out of inferior ] by using clay as the binder; this invention improved upon graphite found in ] in 1821 by Charles Dunbar. (The process of mixing graphite and clay, known as the Conté process, was patented by ] in 1795.) Later, Thoreau converted the factory to produce plumbago (graphite), used to ink ] machines.<ref>Conrad, Randall. (Fall 2005). . '''' (253).</ref> Frequent contact with minute particles of graphite may have weakened his lungs already damaged by tuberculosis.{{Fact|date=March 2007}} | |||
| Once back in Concord, Thoreau went through a restless period. In April 1844 he and his friend Edward Hoar accidentally set a fire that consumed 300 acres of Walden Woods.<ref></ref> He spoke often of finding a farm to buy or lease, which he felt would give him a means to support himself while also providing enough solitude to write his first book.{{Fact|date=March 2007}} | |||
| ===Civil disobedience and the Walden years: 1845–1849=== | |||
| ] | |||
| Thoreau embarked on a two-year experiment in ] on ], ], when he moved to a small self-built house on land owned by ] in a ] around the shores of ]. The house was not in wilderness but at the edge of town, 1.5 miles (2.4 km) from his family home. | |||
| On July 24 or 25th, 1846, Thoreau ran into the local ], ], who asked him to pay six years of delinquent ]. Thoreau refused because of his opposition to the ] and ], and he spent a night in jail because of this refusal. (The next day Thoreau was freed, over his protests, when his aunt paid his taxes.<ref>Rosenwald, Lawrence. "". William Cain, ed. <i>A Historical Guide to Henry David Thoreau.</i>.Cambridge: Oxford University Press, 2006.</ref>) The experience had a strong impact on Thoreau. In January and February of 1848, he delivered lectures on "The Rights and Duties of the Individual in relation to Government”<ref>Thoreau, H.D. letter to ] 23 February 1848</ref> explaining his tax resistance at the ]. ] attended the lecture, and wrote in his journal on January 26th | |||
| <blockquote>Heard Thoreau’s lecture before the Lyceum on the relation of the individual to the State — an admirable statement of the rights of the individual to self-government, and an attentive audience. His allusions to the Mexican War, to Mr. Hoar’s expulsion from Carolina, his own imprisonment in Concord Jail for refusal to pay his tax, Mr. Hoar’s payment of mine when taken to prison for a similar refusal, were all pertinent, well considered, and reasoned. I took great pleasure in this deed of Thoreau’s.<ref>Alcott, Bronson. <u>Journals</u>. Boston: Little, Brown, 1938.</ref></blockquote> | |||
| Thoreau revised the lecture into an essay entitled '']'' (also known as ''Civil Disobedience''). In May 1849 it was published by ] in the '']''. | |||
| Thoreau is frequently quoted as espousing that the true place for a just man is in prison. He in fact actually writes in Civil Disobedience <blockquote> Under a government which imprisons any unjustly, the true place for a just man is also a prison. <ref> http://www.thoreau.eserver.org/civil2.html </ref> </blockquote> | |||
| 'In “The Night Thoreau Spent in Jail,” Emerson asks Thoreau, “Why are you in jail?” and Thoreau responds, “Why are you not in jail?” The play, which was written by Jerome Lawrence and Robert E. Lee, alludes to the famous quote from Thoreau.' <ref> http://media.www.michigandaily.com/media/storage/paper851/news/2005/04/08/Opinion/Jeff-Cravens.Time.To.Act-1430160.shtml </ref> | |||
| At Walden Pond, he completed a first draft of '']'', an ] to his brother, John, that described their 1839 trip to the White Mountains. Thoreau did not find a publisher for this book and instead printed 1,000 copies at his own expense, though less than 300 sold.<ref>Cheevers, Susan (2006). ''American Bloomsbury: Louisa May Alcott, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Margaret Fuller, Nathaniel Hawthorne, and Henry David Thoreau; Their Lives, Their Loves, Their Work''. Detroit: Thorndike Press. Large print edition. p. 234. ISBN 078629521X.</ref> Thoreau self-published on the advice of Emerson, using Emerson’s own publisher Munroe, who did little to publicize the book. Its failure put Thoreau into debt that took years to pay off, and Emerson’s flawed advice caused a schism between the friends that never entirely healed. | |||
| In August of 1846, Thoreau briefly left Walden to make a trip to ] in Maine, a journey later recorded in “Ktaadn,” the first part of '']''. | |||
| Thoreau left Walden Pond on ], ].<ref>Cheevers, Susan (2006). ''American Bloomsbury: Louisa May Alcott, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Margaret Fuller, Nathaniel Hawthorne, and Henry David Thoreau; Their Lives, Their Loves, Their Work''. Detroit: Thorndike Press. Large print edition. p. 244. ISBN 078629521X.</ref> Over several years, he worked to pay off his debts and also continuously revised his manuscript. In 1854, he published '']'', or ''Life in the Woods'', recounting the two years, two months, and two days he had spent at Walden Pond. The book compresses that time into a single calendar year, using the passage of four seasons to symbolize human development. Part ] and part spiritual quest, ''Walden'' at first won few admirers, but today critics regard it as a classic American book that explores natural simplicity, harmony, and beauty as models for just social and cultural conditions. | |||
| ===Late years: 1851-1858=== | |||
| ] | |||
| In 1851, Thoreau became increasingly fascinated with ] and travel/expedition narratives. He read avidly on botany and often wrote observations on this topic into his Journal. He greatly admired ] and ]’s '']''. He kept detailed observations on Concord's nature lore, recording everything from how the fruit ripened over time to the fluctuating depths of ] and the days certain birds migrated. The point of this task was to “anticipate” the seasons of nature, in his words. | |||
| He became a land surveyor, and continued to write increasingly detailed natural history observations about the 26 mile² (67 km²) township in his Journal, a two-million word document he kept for 24 years. He also kept a series of separate notebooks, and these observations became the source for Thoreau's late natural history writings, such as '']'', '']'', and '']'', an essay bemoaning the destruction of indigenous and wild apple species. | |||
| Until the 1970s, Thoreau’s late pursuits were dismissed by literary critics as amateur science and declined philosophy. With the rise of ] and ], several new readings of this matter began to emerge, showing Thoreau to be both a philosopher and an analyst of ecological patterns in fields and woodlots. For instance, his late essay, "The Succession of Forest Trees," shows that he used experimentation and analysis to explain how forests regenerate after fire or human destruction, through dispersal by seed-bearing winds or animals. | |||
| He traveled to ] once, ] four times, and ] three times; these landscapes inspired his "excursion" books, '']'', '']'', and ''The Maine Woods'', in which travel itineraries frame his thoughts about geography, history and philosophy. Other travels took him southwest to ] and ] in 1854, and west across the ] region in 1861, visiting ], ], ], ], ] and ].<ref>Henry David Thoreau, ''The Annotated Walden'' (1970), Philip Van Doren Stern, ed., pp. 96, 132</ref> | |||
| ===Final years: 1859-1862=== | |||
| After ]’s raid at Harpers Ferry, many prominent voices in the ] movement distanced themselves from Brown, or damned him with faint praise. Thoreau was disgusted by this, and composed a speech — '']'' — which was uncompromising in its defense of Brown and his actions. Thoreau’s speech proved persuasive: first the abolitionist movement began to accept Brown as a martyr, and by the time of the ] entire armies of the North would ]. As a contemporary biographer of John Brown put it: “If, as ] suggests, without John Brown there would have been no Civil War, we would add that without the Concord Transcendentalists, John Brown would have had little cultural impact.”<ref>Reynolds, David S. ''John Brown, Abolitionist'' Knopf (2005), p. 4</ref> | |||
| ] | |||
| Thoreau first contracted ] in 1835 and suffered from it sporadically over his life. In 1859, following a late night excursion to count the rings of tree stumps during a rain storm, he became ill with bronchitis. His health declined over three years with brief periods of remission, until he eventually became bedridden. Recognizing the terminal nature of his disease, Thoreau spent his last years revising and editing his unpublished works, particularly ''Excursions'' and ''The Maine Woods'' and petitioning publishers to print revised editions of ''A Week'' and ''Walden''. He also wrote letters and journal entries until he became too weak to continue. His friends were alarmed at his diminished appearance and fascinated by his tranquil acceptance of death. When his aunt Louisa asked him in his last weeks if he had made his peace with God, Thoreau responded quite simply: “I did not know we had ever quarreled.” He died on May 6, 1862 at the age of 44. | |||
| Originally buried in the Dunbar family plot, he and members of his immediate family were eventually moved to ] in Concord, Massachusetts. Emerson wrote the ] spoken at his funeral. Thoreau’s best friend ] published his first biography, ''Thoreau the Poet-Naturalist'', in 1873, and Channing and another friend Harrison Blake edited some poems, essays, and journal entries for posthumous publication in the 1890s. Thoreau’s Journal, often mined but largely unpublished at his death, first appeared in 1906 and helped to build his modern reputation. A new and greatly expanded edition of the Journal is underway, published by Princeton University Press. Today, Thoreau is regarded as one of the foremost American writers, both for the modern clarity of his prose style and the prescience of his views on nature and politics. His memory is honored by the international ], the oldest and largest society devoted to an American author.{{Fact|date=March 2007}} | |||
| ==Beliefs== | |||
| Thoreau was an early advocate of recreational hiking and ], of conserving natural resources on private land, and of preserving wilderness as public land. Thoreau was also one of the first American supporters of ]'s ]. Although not a strict vegetarian, Thoreau ate relatively little meat and advocated ] as a means of self-improvement. He wrote in ''Walden'': "The practical objection to animal food in my case was its uncleanness; and besides, when I had caught and cleaned and cooked and eaten my fish, they seemed not to have fed me essentially. It was insignificant and unnecessary, and cost more than it came to. A little bread or a few potatoes would have done as well, with less trouble and filth."<ref name=Cheevers241>Cheevers, Susan (2006). ''American Bloomsbury: Louisa May Alcott, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Margaret Fuller, Nathaniel Hawthorne, and Henry David Thoreau; Their Lives, Their Loves, Their Work''. Detroit: Thorndike Press. Large print edition. p. 241. ISBN 078629521X.</ref></blockquote> | |||
| Thoreau neither rejected civilization nor fully embraced wilderness. Instead he sought a middle ground, the pastoral realm that integrates both nature and culture. The wildness he enjoyed was the nearby swamp or forest, and he preferred “partially cultivated country.” His idea of being “far in the recesses of the wilderness” of Maine was to “travel the logger’s path and the Indian trail,” but he also hiked on pristine untouched land. In the essay "Henry David Thoreau, Philosopher" ] writes: "Thoreau left Concord in 1846 for the first of three trips to northern Maine. His expectations were high because he hoped to find genuine, primeval America. But contact with real wilderness in Maine affected him far differently than had the idea of wilderness in Concord. Instead of coming out of the woods with a deepened appreciation of the wilds, Thoreau felt a greater respect for civilization and realized the necessity of balance."<ref>http://www.wsu.edu/~hughesc/thoreau.htm"Henry David Thoreau, Philosopher" by Roderick Nash</ref> | |||
| On alcohol, Thoreau wrote: "I would fain keep sober always... I believe that water is the only drink for a wise man; wine is not so noble a liquor... Of all ebriosity, who does not prefer to be intoxicated by the air he breathes?"<ref name=Cheevers241/> | |||
| ==Influence== | |||
| ] of Thoreau from the ] at the ].]] | |||
| Thoreau’s writings had far reaching influences on many public figures. Political leaders and reformers like ], President ], Civil rights activist ], Supreme Court Justice ], and ] author ] all spoke of being strongly affected by Thoreau’s work, particularly ''Civil Disobedience.'' So did many artists and authors including ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ] and naturalists like ], ], ], ], ] , ], and ].<ref>Kifer, Ken ''''</ref> ] and ] ] also appreciated Thoreau, and referred to him as “the greatest American anarchist”. | |||
| ] first read ''Walden'' in 1906 while working as a civil rights activist in ]. He told American reporter ], " ideas influenced me greatly. I adopted some of them and recommended the study of Thoreau to all of my friends who were helping me in the cause of Indian Independence. Why I actually took the name of my movement from Thoreau's essay 'On the Duty of Civil Disobedience,' written about 80 years ago."<ref>Miller, Webb. I Found No Peace. Garden City, 1938. 238-239</ref> | |||
| ] noted in his Autobiography that his first encounter with the idea of non-violent resistance was reading "On Civil Disobedience" in 1944 while attending ]. He wrote in his autobiography that it was <blockquote>Here, in this courageous New Englander's refusal to pay his taxes and his choice of jail rather than support a war that would spread slavery's territory into Mexico, I made my first contact with the theory of nonviolent resistance. Fascinated by the idea of refusing to cooperate with an evil system, I was so deeply moved that I reread the work several times.</blockquote> | |||
| <blockquote>I became convinced that noncooperation with evil is as much a moral obligation as is cooperation with good. No other person has been more eloquent and passionate in getting this idea across than Henry David Thoreau. As a result of his writings and personal witness, we are the heirs of a legacy of creative protest. The teachings of Thoreau came alive in our civil rights movement; indeed, they are more alive than ever before. Whether expressed in a sit-in at lunch counters, a freedom ride into Mississippi, a peaceful protest in Albany, Georgia, a bus boycott in Montgomery, Alabama, these are outgrowths of Thoreau's insistence that evil must be resisted and that no moral man can patiently adjust to injustice.<ref>King, M.L. '''' chapter two</ref></blockquote> | |||
| The University of Michigan's ] is an experiential literature and writing program run through the university's Department of English Language and Literature which was started in the 1970's by professors Alan Howes and Walter Clark. Howes and Clark called upon Thoreauvian ideals of nature, independence and community to create an academic program modeled after Thoreau's experiment at Walden Pond. Today, students at NELP study Thoreau's work — as well as that of several other New England writers from the 19th and 20th centuries — in relative isolation on ] in ]. | |||
| American Psychologist ] wrote that he carried a copy of Thoreau's ''Walden'' with him in his youth<ref>Skinner, B. F. A Matter of Consequences</ref> and, in 1945, wrote '']'', a fictional utopia about 1,000 members of a community living together inspired by the life of Thoreau.<ref>Skinner, B. F. Walden Two (1948)</ref> | |||
| ==Criticisms== | |||
| Thoreau was not without his critics. Scottish author ] judged Thoreau’s endorsement of living alone in natural simplicity, apart from modern society, to be a mark of effeminacy: | |||
| <blockquote>…Thoreau’s content and ecstasy in living was, we may say, like a plant that he had watered and tended with womanish solicitude; for there is apt to be something unmanly, something almost dastardly, in a life that does not move with dash and freedom, and that fears the bracing contact of the world. In one word, Thoreau was a skulker. He did not wish virtue to go out of him among his fellow-men, but slunk into a corner to hoard it for himself. He left all for the sake of certain virtuous self-indulgences.<ref>Stevenson, Robert Louis. . Cornhill Magazine. June 1880.</ref></blockquote> | |||
| However, English novelist ], writing in the '']'', characterized such critics as uninspired and narrow-minded: | |||
| <blockquote>People — very wise in their own eyes — who would have every man’s life ordered according to a particular pattern, and who are intolerant of every existence the utility of which is not palpable to them, may pooh-pooh Mr. Thoreau and this episode in his history, as unpractical and dreamy.{{Fact|date=March 2007}}</blockquote> | |||
| ==Thoreau’s works== | |||
| ] | |||
| {{Expand list}} | |||
| <div style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;"> | |||
| *'']'' (1840) | |||
| *'']'' (1842) | |||
| *'']'' (1843) | |||
| *''The Landlord'' (1843) | |||
| *'']'' (1844) | |||
| *'']'' (1844) | |||
| *'']'' (1845) | |||
| *'']'' (1846-8) | |||
| *'']'' (1847) | |||
| *'']'' (1849) | |||
| *'']'', or ''Civil Disobedience'' (1849) | |||
| *''An Excursion to Canada'' (1853) | |||
| *'']'' (1854) | |||
| *'']'' (1854) | |||
| *'']'' (1859) | |||
| *'']'' (1859) | |||
| *'']'' (1860) | |||
| *''Walking'' (1861) | |||
| *''Autumnal Tints'' (1862) | |||
| *''Wild Apples: The History of the Apple Tree'' (1862) | |||
| *''Excursions'' (1863) | |||
| *'']'' (1863) | |||
| *''Night and Moonlight'' (1863) | |||
| *''The Highland Light'' (1864) | |||
| *''The Maine Woods'' (1864) | |||
| *''Cape Cod'' (1865) | |||
| *''Letters to Various Persons'' (1865) | |||
| *''A Yankee in Canada, with Anti-Slavery and Reform Papers'' (1866) | |||
| *''Early Spring in Massachusetts'' (1881) | |||
| *''Summer'' (1884) | |||
| *''Winter'' (1888) | |||
| *''Autumn'' (1892) | |||
| *''Misellanies'' (1894) | |||
| *''Familiar Letters of Henry David Thoreau'' (1894) | |||
| *''Poems of Nature'' (1895) | |||
| *''Some Unpublished Letters of Henry D. and Sophia E. Thoreau'' (1898) | |||
| *''The First and Last Journeys of Thoreau'' (1905) | |||
| *''Journal of Henry David Thoreau'' (1906)</div> | |||
| ===Additional online texts=== | |||
| {{Wikisource author}} | |||
| {{wikiquote}} | |||
| {{Commons|Henry David Thoreau}} | |||
| *. The annotated works of Henry David Thoreau. | |||
| *, at the Thoreau Institute at Walden Woods. | |||
| *{{gutenberg author|id=Henry_David_Thoreau|name=Henry David Thoreau}}. Text and HTML. | |||
| * at ]. Scanned books. | |||
| * at ]. Scanned books. | |||
| * | |||
| * (relating to political philosophy) | |||
| * | |||
| ==See also== | |||
| * ], a project that aims to provide accurate texts of Thoreau's works | |||
| * ], which contains many of Thoreau's possessions | |||
| * '']'', a two-act ] by ] and ]. | |||
| == References == | |||
| {{reflist|2}} | |||
| ===Further reading=== | |||
| * Henry David Thoreau: ''A Week, Walden, The Maine Woods, Cape Cod'' (Robert F. Sayre, ed.) (], 1985) ISBN 978-0-94045027-1 | |||
| * Henry David Thoreau: ''Collected Essays and Poems'' (Elizabeth Hall Witherell, ed.) (], 2001) ISBN 978-1-88301195-6 | |||
| * Henry David Thoreau: ''The Price of Freedom: Excerpts from Thoreau’s Journals'' ISBN 978-1434805522 | |||
| * Bode, Carl. ''Best of Thoreau's Journals''. Southern Illinois University Press. 1967. | |||
| * Botkin, Daniel. ''No Man's Garden''. | |||
| * Dassow Walls, Laura. ''Seeing New Worlds: Henry David Thoreau and 19th Century Science''. University of Wisconsin Press. 1995. ISBN 978-0-29914740-2 | |||
| * Dean, Bradley P. ed., ''Letters to a Spiritual Seeker''. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2004. | |||
| * Harding, Walter. ''The Days of Henry Thoreau''. Princeton University Press, 1982. | |||
| *Hendrix, George. "". The New England Quarterly. 1956. | |||
| * Howarth, William. ''The Book of Concord: Thoreau's Life as a Writer''. Viking Press, 1982. | |||
| * Meyerson, Joel et al. ''The Cambridge Companion to Henry David Thoreau''. Cambridge University Press. 1995. | |||
| * Nash, Roderick. ''Henry David Thoreau, Philosopher''. | |||
| * Parrington, Vernon. ''''. V 2 online. 1927. | |||
| * Petroski, Henry. ''H. D. Thoreau, Engineer''. American Heritage of Invention and Technology, Vol. 5, No. 2, pp. 8-16. | |||
| ==External links== | |||
| * | |||
| * — by Randall Conrad | |||
| *http://hdthoreau.com | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * The Works and Life of Henry D. Thoreau | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * at Victorian Literary Studies Archive | |||
| * — courtesy of the UK ''Guardian'', an edited extract from the introduction to Updike’s new edition of ''Walden'' | |||
| * | |||
| * from Vernon L. Parrington’s ''Main Currents in American Thought'' | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| <!-- Metadata: see ] --> | |||
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| |NAME= Thoreau, Henry David | |||
| |ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Thoreau, David Henry | |||
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| |PLACE OF BIRTH=], ] | |||
| |DATE OF DEATH=], ] | |||
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Revision as of 21:10, 22 January 2008
He was a guy. Desmond was here !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1