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| {{For|the a general view of Inca civilisation, people and culture|Incas}} | |||
| {{Infobox Former Country | |||
| |native_name = Tawantinsuyu | |||
| |conventional_long_name = Inca Empire | |||
| |common_name = Inca Empire | |||
| |continent = South America | |||
| |region = Andes | |||
| |country = Peru | |||
| |era = Pre-Columbian | |||
| |status = Empire | |||
| |government_type = Monarchy | |||
| |date_pre = | |||
| |year_start = 1438 | |||
| |year_end = 1533 | |||
| |event_pre = | |||
| |event_start = ] created the Tawantinsuyu | |||
| |event_end = ] lead by Francisco Pizarro | |||
| |event1 = ] between Huascar and Atahualpa | |||
| |date_event1 = 1527-1532 | |||
| |p1 = Kingdom of Cusco | |||
| |flag_p1 = Escudo-echenique3.gif | |||
| |s1 = Viceroyalty of Peru | |||
| |flag_s1 = Flag of New Spain.svg | |||
| |image_map = Location Tawantin Suyu.png | |||
| |image_map_caption = The Inca Empire at its greatest extent. | |||
| |capital = ] <small><br>(]-])</small> | |||
| |common_languages = ] (official), ], ], ] family, ] and scores of smaller languages. | |||
| |religion = ] | |||
| |title_leader = ] | |||
| |leader1 = Pachacutec | |||
| |leader2 = Tupac Yupanqui | |||
| |leader3 = Huayna Capac | |||
| |leader4 = Huascar | |||
| |leader5 = Atahualpa | |||
| |year_leader1 = 1438-1471 | |||
| |year_leader2 = 1471-1493 | |||
| |year_leader3 = 1493-1525 | |||
| |year_leader4 = 1525-1532 | |||
| |year_leader5 = 1532-1533 | |||
| <!-- Area and population --> | |||
| |stat_year1 = ]<ref></ref> | |||
| |stat_area1 = 800000 | |||
| |stat_pop1 = 12000000 | |||
| |stat_year2 = ] | |||
| |stat_area2 = 2000000 | |||
| |stat_pop2 = 20000000 | |||
| |}} | |||
| The '''Inca Empire''' (or '''Inka Empire''') was the largest empire in ].<ref>Terence D'Altroy, ''The Incas'', pp. 2–3.</ref> The administrative, political and military center of the empire was located in ]. The Inca Empire arose from the highlands of ] sometime in early ]. From 1438 to 1533, the Incas used a variety of methods, from conquest to peaceful assimilation, to incorporate a large portion of western South America, centered on the ] mountain ranges, including large parts of modern ], ], western and south central ], northwest ], north and north-central ], and southern ]. The Incas identified their king as "child of the sun." | |||
| The ] name for the empire was '''Tawantinsuyu'''<ref name="fn_1">'''Tawantin suyu''' derives from the Quechua "tawa" (''four''), to which the suffix "-ntin" (''together'' or ''united'') is added, followed by "suyu" (''region'' or ''province''), which roughly renders as "''The four lands together''". The four '''suyos''' were: Chinchay Suyo (North), Anti Suyo (East. The Amazon jungle), Colla Suyo (South) and Conti Suyo (West).</ref> which can be translated as ''The Four Regions'' or ''The Four United Regions''. Before the ] it was written in ] as '''Tahuantinsuyo'''. ''Tawantin'' is a group of four things (''tawa'' "four" with the suffix ''-ntin'' which names a group); ''suyu'' means "region" or "province". The empire was divided into four ''Suyus'', whose corners met at the capital, ] (''Qosqo''), in modern-day ]. The official language of the empire was ], although scores if not hundreds of local languages were spoken. There were many local forms of worship, most of them concerning local sacred "]s", but the Inca leadership encouraged the worship of ] — the sun god — and imposed its sovereignty above other cults such as that of ].<ref></ref> | |||
| == History== | |||
| === Origin myths=== | |||
| {{see also|Inca mythology}} | |||
| ].]] | |||
| The Incas had various ]. In one, '']'' sent forth his four sons and four daughters (known as the ''Ayar brothers'') from ] to establish a village. Along the way, ] was born to ] and ], and Sinchi Roca led them to the valley of Cusco where they founded their new village. There Manco became their leader and became known as ].<ref>Gary Urton, The History of a Myth: Pacariqtambo and the Origin of the Inkas (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1990).</ref> | |||
| In another origin myth, the sun god ] ordered Manco Capac and ] to emerge from the depths of ]. They were born in the lake and wandered north to establish the city of Cusco. They travelled by means of underground caves until they reached Cusco where they established ], or the first dynasty of the Kingdom of Cusco. | |||
| These myths were apparently transmitted via oral tradition until early Spanish colonists recorded them; however some scholars believe that they may have been recorded on ]s (Andean knotted string records).<ref>Gary Urton, Signs of the Inka Khipu: Binary Coding in the Andean Knotted-String Records (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2003).</ref> | |||
| === Kingdom of Cusco=== | |||
| {{Main|Kingdom of Cusco}} | |||
| The Inca people began as a tribe in the Cusco area around the 12th century. Under the leadership of ], they formed the small city-state of Cusco (] ''Qusqu''), shown in red on the map. In 1438 they began a far-reaching expansion under the command of ] (paramount leader) ], whose name literally meant "earth-shaker". During his reign, he and his son brought much of the ] mountains (roughly modern Peru and Ecuador) under Inca control. | |||
| === Reorganization and formation of the Empire === | |||
| ] | |||
| Pachacuti reorganized the kingdom of Cuzco into an empire, the ], a ] which consisted of a central government with the Inca at its head and four provincial governments with strong leaders: ] (NW), ] (NE), ] (SW), and ] (SE).<ref>The three laws of Tawantinsuyu are still referred to in Bolivia these days as the three laws of the Kollasuyo.</ref> Pachacuti is also thought to have built ], either as a family home or as a summer retreat. | |||
| Pachacuti sent spies to regions he wanted in his empire; they brought reports on the political organization, military might and wealth. He would then send messages to the leaders of these lands extolling the benefits of joining his empire, offering them presents of luxury goods such as high quality textiles, and promising that they would be materially richer as subject rulers of the Inca. Most accepted the rule of the Inca as a '']'' and acquiesced peacefully. The ruler's children would then be brought to Cuzco to be taught about Inca administration systems, then return to rule their native lands. This allowed the Inca to indoctrinate the former ruler's children into the Inca nobility, and, with luck, marry their daughters into families at various corners of the empire. | |||
| ===Expansion and consolidation of the Tawantinsuyu=== | |||
| It was traditional for the Inca's son to lead the army; Pachacuti's son ] began conquests to the north in 1463, and continued them as Inca after Pachucuti's death in 1471. His most important conquest was the Kingdom of ], the Inca's only serious rival for the coast of Peru. Túpac Inca's empire stretched north into modern day Ecuador and Colombia. | |||
| Túpac Inca's son ] added a small portion of land to the north in modern day Ecuador and in parts of Peru<ref>The Incas and their Ancestors</ref>. At its height, Tahuantinsuyu included ] and ], most of what is now ], a large portion of what is today ] north of ], where they met massive resistance by the ] tribes. The empire also extended into corners of ] and ]. However, most of the southern portion of the Inca empire, the portion denominated as ], was desert wasteland. | |||
| Tahuantinsuyu was a patchwork of languages, cultures and peoples. The components of the empire were not all uniformly loyal, nor were the local cultures all fully integrated. The Inca empire as a whole had an economy based on exchange and taxation of luxury goods and labour {{Fact|date=February 2007}} (it is said that Inca tax collectors would take the head lice of the ] and old as a symbolic tribute). | |||
| ===Inca civil war and Spanish conquest=== | |||
| {{Main|Inca war of succession|Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire}} | |||
| ], the Inca stronghold of ]]] | |||
| Spanish ] led by ] and his brothers explored south from Panama, reaching Inca territory by 1526. It was clear that they had reached a wealthy land with prospects of great treasure, and after one more expedition (1529), Pizarro traveled to Spain and received royal approval to conquer the region and be its viceroy.{{Fact|date=June 2007}} | |||
| At the time they returned to Peru, in 1532, a ] between Huayna Capac's sons ] and ] and unrest among newly-conquered territories — and perhaps more importantly, ], which had spread from Central America — had considerably weakened the empire. It was an unfortunate fact for the Inca that the Spaniards arrived at the height of a civil war, fueled almost certainly by the devastating diseases that preceded the European colonization. | |||
| ] did not have a formidable force; with just 180 men, 1 ] and only 27 ]s, he often needed to talk his way out of potential confrontations that could have easily wiped out his party. The Spanish horseman, fully armored, had great technological superiority over the Inca forces. The traditional mode of battle in the ] was a kind of ] where large numbers of usually reluctant ]ees were sent to overwhelm opponents. The Spaniards had developed one of the finest military machines in the ], tactics learned in their centuries' long fight against ] kingdoms in ]. Along with this tactical and material superiority, the Spaniards also had acquired tens of thousands of native allies who sought to end the Inca control of their territories. This, combined with an audacious military attack by the Spaniards in ], allowed them to capture the emperor and send the Inca elite into a huge and paralyzing political struggle. Atahualpa ordered the death of his opponent, Huascar, and the Spaniards skillfully manipulated the various factions within the Inca state. They also were able to continually increase their native allies and ultimately launched a successful attack on the capital city of ]. | |||
| Their first engagement was the ], near present-day ], ] on the Pacific Coast; Pizarro then founded the city of ] in July 1532. ] was sent inland to explore the interior, and returned with an invitation to meet the Inca, Atahualpa, who had defeated his brother in the civil war and was resting at ] with his army of 80,000 troops. | |||
| Pizarro and some of his men, most notably a friar by the name of ] met with the Inca, who had brought only a small retinue. Through an interpreter Friar Vincente demanded that he and his empire accept the yoke of King ] and convert to Christianity. Due to the language barrier and perhaps poor interpretation, Atahualpa became somewhat puzzled by the friar's description of Christian faith and was said to have not fully understood the envoy's intentions. After Atahualpa attempted further enquiry into the doctrines of the Christian faith under which Pizarro's envoy served, the Spanish became frustrated and impatient, attacking the Inca's retinue (see ]) and capturing Atahualpa as hostage. | |||
| Atahualpa offered the Spaniards enough gold to fill the ] he was imprisoned in, and twice that amount of silver. The Inca fulfilled this ransom, but Pizarro deceived them, refusing to release the Inca afterwards. During Atahualpa's imprisonment Huascar was ]d elsewhere. The Spaniards maintained that this was at Atahualpa's orders; this was used as one of the charges against Atahualpa when the Spaniards finally decided to put him to death, in August 1533. | |||
| === The last Incas === | |||
| ], "the ] of the Incas".]] | |||
| The Spanish installed Atahualpa's brother ] in power; for some time Manco cooperated with the Spanish, while the Spanish fought to put down resistance in the north. Meanwhile an associate of Pizarro's, ], attempted to claim ] for himself. Manco tried to use this intra-Spanish feud to his advantage, recapturing Cuzco (1536), but the Spanish retook the city afterwards. Manco Inca then retreated to the mountains of ], where he and his successors ruled for another 36 years, sometimes raiding the Spanish or inciting revolts against them. In 1572 the last Inca stronghold was conquered, and the last ruler, ], Manco's son, was captured and executed. This ended resistance to the Spanish conquest under the political authority of the Inca state. | |||
| After the fall of Tahuantinsuyu, the new Spanish rulers brutally oppressed the people and suppressed their traditions. Many aspects of Inca culture were systematically destroyed, including their sophisticated farming system. The Spaniards used the Inca ] (mandatory public service) system to literally work the people to death. One member of each family was forced to work in the gold and silver mines, the foremost of which was the titanic silver mine at ]. When a family member died, which would usually happen within a year or two, the family would be required to send a replacement.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} | |||
| The effects of ] on ] (or the ] empire) were even more devastating. Beginning in ], smallpox spread rapidly before the Spanish invaders first arrived in the empire. The spread was probably aided by the efficient ]. Within months, the disease had killed the ] ], his successor, and most of the other leaders. Two of his surviving sons warred for power and, after a bloody and costly ], ] become the new Sapa Inca. As Atahualpa was returning to the capital ], ] arrived and through a series of deceits captured the young leader and his best general. Within a few years smallpox claimed between 60% and 94% of the Inca population, with other waves of European disease weakening them further. ] was only the first epidemic.<ref></ref> | |||
| ] (probably) in 1546, ] and smallpox together in 1558, smallpox again in 1589, ] in 1614, ] in 1618 - all ravaged the remains of Inca culture. | |||
| == Society == | |||
| {{main|Inca society|Inca education}} | |||
| ===Organization of the Empire=== | |||
| ]The most powerful figure in the empire was the ] ('the unique Inca'). Only descendants of the original Inca tribe ever ascended to the level of Inca. Most young members of the Inca's family attended ]s (houses of knowledge) to obtain their education. | |||
| The Tawantinsuyu was a ] which consisted of a central government with the Inca at its head and four provinces: ] (NW), ] (NE), ] (SW), and ] (SE). The four corners of these provinces met at the center, Cusco. Each province had a governor who oversaw local officials, who in turn supervised agriculturally-productive river valleys, cities and mines. There were separate chains of command for both the military and religious institutions, which created a system of partial checks and balances on power {{Fact|date=February 2007}}. The local officials were responsible for settling disputes and keeping track of each family's contribution to the ] (mandatory public service). | |||
| ===Language=== | |||
| ''For more information look at ]'' | |||
| Since the Tawantinsuyu lacked a written language, the empire's main form of communication and recording came from ] and ], the language the Incas imposed upon the peoples within the empire. The plethora of civilizations in the Andean region provided for a general disunity that the Incas needed to subdue in order to maintain control, peace, and order within all of the empire. Hence, by establishing a uniform language, the Incas would be able to better achieve such a goal. Nonetheless, it should be noted that Quechua had been spoken in the Andean region, like central Peru, for several years prior to the expansion of the ]. Moreover, the type of Quechua the Incas imposed was an adaptation from the ] (an early form of "Southern Quechua") of what some historians define as "Proto-Quechua" (The original Quechua dialect). <ref>http://www.macalester.edu/linguistics/endangered/Quechua/Quechua.htm</ref> <ref>http://www.quechua.org.uk/Eng/Sounds/Quechua/QuechuaOriginsAndDiversity.htm</ref> | |||
| As in many societies of the world, the language imposed by the Incas further diverted from its original phonetic tone as some societies formed their own regional varities, or ]. Of course, the diversity of Quechua at that point and even today does not come as a direct result from the Incas, whom are just a part of the reason for Quechua's diversity. The civilizations within the empire that had previously spoken Quechua kept their own variety distinct to the Quechua the Incas spread. Although these many kinds of Quechua were in some form similar, they were not the exact same thing. Not only that, but even though most of the societies within the empire implemented Quechua into their lives, the Incas allowed several societies kept their old languages such as ], which still remains a spoken language in various parts of South America. The linguistic body of the Tawantinsuyu was thus still largely varied, but it still remains quite an achievement for the Incas that went even beyond their times as the Spanish continued to use the spread of Quechua as a method to impose their culture upon the peoples of South America (even though that further increased the diversity of the language).<ref>http://www.quechua.org.uk/Eng/Sounds/Quechua/QuechuaOriginsAndDiversity.htm</ref> | |||
| On the other hand, the actual "Inca," or ruling elite, their kind of Quechua tended to remain somewhat closer to the "early Southern Quechua" of the Kingdom of Cusco mainly due to the complex educational facilities the Tawantinsuyu offered them. This standardized governmental Quechua is what served as the backbone for the Tawantinsuyu, but it also differentiated the social status of the community. Moreover, some historians even discuss the possibility that the "secret language" of the ruling elite might have simply been another form of Quechua.<ref>http://www.quechua.org.uk/Eng/Sounds/Quechua/QuechuaOriginsAndDiversity.htm</ref> | |||
| ===Life, education and beliefs=== | |||
| ] | |||
| The Inca diet consisted primarily of potatoes and grains, supplemented by fish, vegetables, nuts, and ] (corn). Camelid (llama and alpaca) meat and ]es (guinea pigs) were also eaten in large quantities. {{Fact|date=February 2007}}. In addition, they hunted various wild animals for meat, skins and feathers. Maize was malted and used to make ], a fermented alcoholic ]. The ] was key to farming success as it allowed distribution of foodstuffs over long distances. The Inca also constructed vast storehouses, which allowed them to live through ] years while neighboring civilizations suffered {{Fact|date=February 2007}}. | |||
| The Inca believed in ].<ref>http://www.netside.net/~manomed/inca.htm</ref> Those who obeyed the Incan moral code — ''ama suwa, ama llulla, ama quella'' (do not steal, do not lie, do not be lazy) — "went to live in the Sun's warmth while others spent their eternal days in the cold earth" {{Fact|date=February 2007}}. The Inca also practiced ].<ref>Burger, R.L. and L.C. Salazar. 2004. . Yale University Press, p. 45. ISBN 0-300-09763-8.</ref> They achieved this by wrapping tight cloth straps around the heads of newborns in order to alter the shape of their still-soft skulls into a more conical form. Studies are needed to determine whether these deformations caused actual brain damage. | |||
| ====Aqllawasi==== | |||
| The Aqllawasi (Acllahuasi) which means "house of the sun virgins" was developed under the Incans in Peru at about 1438–1532 CE{{Fact|date=February 2007}}. Its central purpose was in the manufacturing of garments for the Inca royalty and the worship of the sun god, Inti. | |||
| ==Arts and technology== | |||
| ] | |||
| ] leaves]] | |||
| ===Monumental architecture=== | |||
| ] was by far the most important of the Inca arts, with pottery and textiles reflecting motifs that were at their height in architecture. The main example is the capital city of Cuzco itself. The breathtaking site of ] was constructed by ]. The stone temples constructed by the Inca used a mortarless construction that fit together so well that you couldn't fit a knife through the stonework. This was a process first used on a large scale by the Pucara (ca. 300 BC–AD 300) peoples to the south in Lake Titicaca, and later in the great city of ] (ca. AD 400–1100) in present day Bolivia. The Inca imported the stoneworkers of the Tiwanaku region to Cuzco when they conquered the lands south of Lake Titicaca {{Fact|date=February 2007}}. The rocks used in construction were sculpted to fit together exactly by repeatedly lowering a rock onto another and carving away any sections on the lower rock where the dust was compressed. The tight fit and the concavity on the lower rocks made them extraordinarily stable. | |||
| ===Ceramics, precious metal work, and textiles=== | |||
| Almost all of the gold and silver work of the empire was melted down by the conquistadores. | |||
| Ceramics were painted in numerous motifs including birds, waves, felines, and geometric patterns. The most distinctive Inca ceramic objects are the Cusco bottles or ¨aryballos¨. <ref>Berrin, Katherine & ]. The Spirit of Ancient Peru:Treasures from the Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera. New York:Thames and Hudson, </ref> Many of these pieces are on display in Lima in the ] and the National Museum of Archaeology, Anthropology and History. | |||
| ===Mathematics and astronomy=== | |||
| A very important Inca technology was the ], which were assemblages of knotted strings used to record information, the exact nature of which is no longer known. Originally it was thought that Quipu were used only as mnemonic devices or to record numerical data. Recent discoveries, however, have led to the theory that these devices were instead a form of writing in their own right {{Fact|date=February 2007}}. | |||
| The Inca made many discoveries in medicine. They performed successful ], which involved cutting holes in the skull to release pressure from head wounds {{Fact|date=February 2007}}. ] leaves were used to lessen hunger and pain, as they still are in the Andes. The ] (messengers) chewed coca leaves for extra energy to carry on their tasks as runners delivering messages throughout the empire. | |||
| ===Weapons, armor, and warfare=== | |||
| ] | |||
| The Incas used weapons and had wars with other civilizations in the area. The Inca army was the most powerful in the area at that time, because they could turn an ordinary villager or farmer into a soldier, ready for battle. This is because every male Inca had to take part in war at least once so as to be prepared for warfare again when needed. By the time the empire had reached its large size, every section of the empire contributed in setting up an army for war. | |||
| The Incas had no iron or steel, and their weapons were no better than those of their enemies. They went into battle with the beating of drums and the blowing of trumpets. The armor used by the Incas included: | |||
| *Helmets made of wood, copper, bronze, cane, or animal skin; some were adorned with feathers | |||
| *Round or square shields made from wood or hide | |||
| *Cloth tunics padded with cotton and small wooden planks to protect spine | |||
| The Inca weaponry included: | |||
| *Bronze or bone-tipped spears | |||
| *Two-handed wooden swords with serrated edges (notched with teeth, like a saw) | |||
| *Clubs with stone and spiked metal heads | |||
| *Woolen slings and stones | |||
| *Stone or copper headed battle-axes | |||
| *Stones fastened to lengths of cord (bola) | |||
| Roads allowed very quick movement for the Inca army, and shelters called ''quolla'' were built one day's distance in travelling from each other, so that an army on campaign could always be fed and rested. (The name for the Sapa Inca's storehouses was ''tambo.'' This can be seen in names of ruins such as Ollantay Tambo, or My Lord's Storehouse. These were set up so the Inca and his entourage would always have supplies (and possibly shelter) ready as he traveled.) | |||
| === Inca flag === | |||
| ] | |||
| There are 16th and 17th century chronicles and references that support the idea of a banner, or flag, attributable to the Inca. | |||
| Francisco López de Jerez<ref>Francisco López de Jerez,''Verdadera relacion de la conquista del Peru y provincia de Cuzco, llamada la Nueva Castilla'', 1534.</ref>wrote in 1534: | |||
| <blockquote>"all of them came distributed into squads, with their flags and captains commanding them, as well-ordered as Turks" | |||
| <br>(''"todos venían repartidos en sus escuadras con sus banderas y capitanes que los mandan, con tanto concierto como turcos"'').</blockquote> | |||
| The chronicler, ], wrote: | |||
| <blockquote>"The royal standard or banner was a small square flag, ten or twelve spans around, made of cotton or wool linen, placed on the end of a long staff, stretched and stiff such that it did not wave in the air, and on it each king painted his arms and emblems, for each one chose different ones, though the sign of the Incas was the rainbow." | |||
| <br>(''...el guión o estandarte real era una banderilla cuadrada y pequeña, de diez o doce palmos de ruedo, hecha de lienzo de algodón o de lana, iba puesta en el remate de una asta larga, tendida y tiesa, sin que ondease al aire, y en ella pintaba cada rey sus armas y divisas, porque cada uno las escogía diferentes, aunque las generales de los Incas eran el arco celeste.'')<br>-<small>'''Bernabé Cobo, ''Historia del Nuevo Mundo''''' (1653)</small></blockquote> | |||
| ]'s 1615 book, ''El primer nueva corónica y buen gobierno'', shows numerous line drawings of Inca flags.<ref>Guaman Poma, ''El primer nueva corónica y buen gobierno'', (1615/1616), pp. 256, 286, 344, 346, 400, 434, 1077, this pagination corresponds to the Det Kongelige Bibliotek search engine pagination of the book. Additionally Poma shows both well drafted European flags and coats of arms on pp. 373, 515, 558, 1077, 0. On pages 83, 167-171 Poma uses a european heraldic graphic convention, a shield, to place certain totems related to Inca leaders.</ref> | |||
| In modern times the ] has been associated with the Tawantinsuyu and is displayed as a symbol of Inca heritage in Peru and Bolivia. The city of Cusco flies the Rainbow Flag. Peruvian President ] (2001–2006) flew the Rainbow Flag in ]'s presidential palace. The Rainbow Flag was taken down by President ] in July 2006{{Fact|date=November 2007}}. | |||
| {{See also|Wiphala|Rainbow flag#Andean peoples and social movements}} | |||
| == Legacy == | |||
| The minor languages of the empire, ] and ], were employed by the ] to evangelize in the ] region. In some cases, these languages were taught to peoples who had originally spoken other indigenous languages. Today, Quechua and Aymara remain the most widespread ]s. | |||
| ==References== | |||
| *Popenoe, Hugh, Steven R. King, Jorge Leon, Luis Sumar Kalinowski, and Noel D. Vietmeyer. ''Lost Crops of the Incas''. Washington DC: National Academy Press, 1989. | |||
| *De la Vega, Garcilaso . ''The Incas: The Royal Commentaries of the Inca''. New York: The Orion Press, 1961. | |||
| *Mc Neill, William H. "." Social Research 66.1 (1999) 16 Sep 2006. | |||
| * John Hemming. ''The Conquest of the Incas'' Harvest Press 2003. ISBN 978-0156028264. | |||
| * {{cite book | |||
| | last = Mann | |||
| | first = Charles. C | |||
| | authorlink = Charles_C._Mann | |||
| | title = 1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus | |||
| | publisher = ] | |||
| | date = 2005 | |||
| | pages = 64-96 | |||
| }} | |||
| * <i>The Last Days of the Incas</i> by Kim MacQuarrie. Simon & Schuster 2007. ISBN 978-0743260497. | |||
| * MacQuarrie, Kim. <i>The Last Days of the Incas.</i> Simon & Schuster, 2007. ISBN 978-0743260497. | |||
| == Notes == | |||
| {{Reflist}} | |||
| == See also == | |||
| <div style="-moz-column-count:3; column-count:3;"> | |||
| * ] | |||
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| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| </div> | |||
| == External links == | |||
| * – A high-quality digital version of the Corónica, scanned from the original manuscript. | |||
| * Full text, free to read and search. | |||
| * by ] (published 1912–1922 CE). | |||
| * 360 degree movies of inca artifacts and Peruvian landscapes. | |||
| * and other ancient civilizations by Genry Joil. | |||
| * : theory on how the Inca walls fit so perfectly. | |||
| * Great research site for kids. | |||
| * National Geographic site. | |||
| * NOVA site based on their series about the 1996 expedition that discovered Incan ice mummies. | |||
| * | |||
| * Inca history, society and religion. | |||
| * MIT asst. professor gives 40 minute lecture on Incan suspension bridges. | |||
| * of events mentioned in this article | |||
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