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	The largest objective measure in the above definitions is the "certain degree"–how unrelated do organisms need to be to be members of different phyla? Implicitly, the general definition is that they should be closely enough related that it is clear that they are more closely related to one another than to any other group.<ref name=Budd2000/> However, this too is problematic, as the definition is a function of our current knowledge about relationships. As more data becomes available, particularly from molecular studies, we are better able to judge the relationships between groups; therefore the phyla will eventually be merged as it becomes apparent that they are related to one another; for instance, the ] and ] are now accepted as stem group ]s; by the general definition, these three phyla should be combined.		The largest objective measure in the above definitions is the "certain degree"–how unrelated do organisms need to be to be members of different phyla? Implicitly, the general definition is that they should be closely enough related that it is clear that they are more closely related to one another than to any other group.<ref name=Budd2000/> However, this too is problematic, as the definition is a function of our current knowledge about relationships. As more data becomes available, particularly from molecular studies, we are better able to judge the relationships between groups; therefore the phyla will eventually be merged as it becomes apparent that they are related to one another; for instance, the ] and ] are now accepted as stem group ]s; by the general definition, these three phyla should be combined.

	This has led to calls for the concept of a phylum to be abandoned in favour of cladistics, a method in groups are placed on a "family tree" without any formal ranking of group size.<ref name=Budd2000/> So as to provide a handle on the size and significance of groups, a "body-plan" based definition of a phylum has been proposed by ~~palaeontolgists~~ Graham Budd an Sören Jensen. The definition was posited by ~~palaeontologists~~ because it is extinct organisms that are typically hardest to classify, because they can be extinct off-shoots that diverged from a phylum's history before the characters that define the modern phylum were all ~~aquired~~.		This has led to calls for the concept of a phylum to be abandoned in favour of cladistics, a method in groups are placed on a "family tree" without any formal ranking of group size.<ref name=Budd2000/> So as to provide a handle on the size and significance of groups, a "body-plan" based definition of a phylum has been proposed by paleontologists Graham Budd an Sören Jensen. The definition was posited by paleontologists because it is extinct organisms that are typically hardest to classify, because they can be extinct off-shoots that diverged from a phylum's history before the characters that define the modern phylum were all acquired.

	By Budd and Jensen's definition, phyla are defined by a set of characters shared by all their living representatives. This has a couple of small problems – for instance, characters common to most members of a phylum may be secondarily lost by some members. It is also defined based on an arbitrary point of time (the present). However, as it is character based, it is easy to apply to the fossil record. A more major problem is that it relies on an objective decision of which group of organisms should be considered a phylum.		By Budd and Jensen's definition, phyla are defined by a set of characters shared by all their living representatives. This has a couple of small problems – for instance, characters common to most members of a phylum may be secondarily lost by some members. It is also defined based on an arbitrary point of time (the present). However, as it is character based, it is easy to apply to the fossil record. A more major problem is that it relies on an objective decision of which group of organisms should be considered a phylum.

Revision as of 00:39, 20 October 2008

For other uses, see phyla.

A phylum (plural: phyla) is a taxonomic rank between Kingdom and above Class. "Phylum" is equivalent to the botanical term division.

Although a phylum is often spoken of as if it were a hard and fast entity, no satisfactory definition of a phylum exists. Consequently the number of phyla varies from author to author. The relationship of phyla is increasingly well known, and larger clades can be erected to contain many of the phyla.

Informally, phyla can be thought of as grouping animals based on general body plan, developmental or internal organizations. For example, though seemingly divergent, spiders and crabs both belong to Arthropoda, whereas earthworms and tapeworms, similar in shape, are from Annelida and Platyhelminthes, respectively. Although the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature allows the use of the term "phylum" in reference to plants, the term "Division" is almost always used by botanists.

The best known animal phyla are the Mollusca, Porifera, Cnidaria, Platyhelminthes, Nematoda, Annelida, Arthropoda, Echinodermata, and Chordata, the phylum to which humans belong. Although there are approximately 35 phyla, these nine include over 96% of animal species. Many phyla are exclusively marine, and only one phylum, the Onychophora (velvet worms) is entirely absent from the world's oceans–although ancestral oncyophorans were marine.

The origin of phyla has traditionally been interpreted as a sudden and rapid event early in the Cambrian period, known as the Cambrian explosion. However, this interpretation stemmed from an incomplete knowledge of the fossil record, and a circular definition of a phylum; organisms of the time were mainly similar to, but not strictly members of, modern phyla. The significance of this event depends on (1) for how long modern phyla had existed prior to the Cambrian–fossil embryos and new interpretations of the Ediacara biota suggest that there may be a fair Precambrian root to the phyla; and (2) how soon phyla appeared in the Cambrian, a factor that depends on both the definition of a phylum and our interpretation of early fossils which may not display vital characteristics–for instance, non-mineralised parts of organisms rarely preserve.

The magnitude of the event was also overestimated as early authors felt it necessary to erect a new phylum for any organism that could not be accommodated in modern phyla. This approach is misleading and unhelpful; by one definition, such organisms do not fall into any phylum, but are classified as "aunts" of a phylum.

Defining a phylum

At the most basic level, a phylum can be defined in two ways: as a group of organisms with a certain degree of morphological or developmental similarity (the phenetic definition), or a group of organisms with a certain degree of relatedness (the phylogenetic definition). Attempting to define a level of the Linnean hierarchy without referring to relatedness is an unsatisfactory approach, but the phenetic definition is more useful when addressing questions of a morphological nature–such as how successful different body plans were.

The largest objective measure in the above definitions is the "certain degree"–how unrelated do organisms need to be to be members of different phyla? Implicitly, the general definition is that they should be closely enough related that it is clear that they are more closely related to one another than to any other group. However, this too is problematic, as the definition is a function of our current knowledge about relationships. As more data becomes available, particularly from molecular studies, we are better able to judge the relationships between groups; therefore the phyla will eventually be merged as it becomes apparent that they are related to one another; for instance, the onychophora and tardigrada are now accepted as stem group arthropods; by the general definition, these three phyla should be combined.

This has led to calls for the concept of a phylum to be abandoned in favour of cladistics, a method in groups are placed on a "family tree" without any formal ranking of group size. So as to provide a handle on the size and significance of groups, a "body-plan" based definition of a phylum has been proposed by paleontologists Graham Budd an Sören Jensen. The definition was posited by paleontologists because it is extinct organisms that are typically hardest to classify, because they can be extinct off-shoots that diverged from a phylum's history before the characters that define the modern phylum were all acquired.

By Budd and Jensen's definition, phyla are defined by a set of characters shared by all their living representatives. This has a couple of small problems – for instance, characters common to most members of a phylum may be secondarily lost by some members. It is also defined based on an arbitrary point of time (the present). However, as it is character based, it is easy to apply to the fossil record. A more major problem is that it relies on an objective decision of which group of organisms should be considered a phylum.

Its utility is that it makes it easy to classify extinct organisms as "stem groups" to the phyla with which they bear the most resemblance, based only on the taxonomically important similarities. However, proving that a fossil belongs to the crown group of a phylum is difficult, as it must display a character unique to a sub-set of the crown group. Further, organisms in the stem group to a phylum can bear all the aspects of the "body plan" of the phylum without all the characters necessary to fall within it. This weakens the idea that each of the phyla represents a distinct body plan.

Based upon this definition, which some say is unreasonably affected by the chance survival of rare groups, which vastly increase the size of phyla, representatives of many modern phyla did not appear until long after the Cambrian–as late as the Carboniferous in the case of the Priapulids.

Lists

Animal phyla

Phylum	Meaning	Group	Distinguishing characteristics	Species described
Acanthocephala	Thorny head	Thorny-headed worms	Reversible spiny proboscis	about 750
Acoelomorpha	Without gut	Acoels	No mouth or alimentary canal
Annelida	Little ring	Segmented worms	Multiple circular segments	about 15,300 modern
Arthropoda	Jointed foot	Arthropods	Chitin exoskeleton	1,134,000+
Brachiopoda	Arm foot	Lamp shells	Lophophore and pedicle	between 300 and 500 extant
Bryozoa	Moss animals	Moss animals, sea mats	Lophophore, no pedicle, ciliated tentacles	about 5,000 living species
Chaetognatha	Longhair jaw	Arrow worms	Chitinous spines either side of head, fins	about 100 modern species
Chordata	Cord	Chordates	Hollow dorsal nervous chord, notochord, pharyngeal slits, endostyle, post-anal tail	about 100,000+
Cnidaria		Coelenterates	Nematocysts (stinging cells)	about 11,000
Ctenophora	Comb bearer	Comb jellies	Eight "comb rows" of fused cilia	about 100 modern species
Cycliophora	Wheel carrying	Symbion	Circular mouth surrounded by small cilia	at least 3
Echinodermata	Spiny skin	Echinoderms	Five-fold radial symmetry, mesodermal calcified spines	about 7,000 extant and 13,000 extinct species
Echiura	Spine tail	Spoon worms	Set of hooks at posterior end	about 140
Entoprocta	Inside anus	Goblet worm	Anus inside ring of cilia	about 150
Gastrotricha	Hair stomach	Meiofauna	Two terminal adhesive tubes	about 690
Gnathostomulida	Jaw orifice	Jaw worms		about 100
Hemichordata	Half cord	Acorn worms, pterobranchs	Stomochord in collar, pharyngeal slits	about 100 living species
Kinorhyncha	Motion snout	Mud dragons	Eleven segments, each with a dorsal plate	about 150
Loricifera	Corset bearer	Brush heads	Umbrella-like scales at each end	about 122
Micrognathozoa	Tiny jaw animals	—	Accordion like extensible thorax	1
Mollusca	Thin shell	Mollusks / molluscs	Muscular foot and mantle round shell	112,000
Nematoda	Thread like	Round worms	Round cross section, keratin cuticle	80 000 – 1 million
Nematomorpha	Thread form	Horsehair worms		about 320
Nemertea	A sea nymph	Ribbon worms		about 1200
Onychophora	Claw bearer	Velvet worms	Legs tipped by chitinous claws	about 200 modern
Orthonectida	Straight swim		Single layer of ciliated cells surrounding a mass of sex cells	about 20
Phoronida	Zeus' mistress	Horseshoe worms	U-shaped gut	20
Placozoa	Plate animals			1
Platyhelminthes	Flat worms	Flat worms		about 25,000
Porifera	Pore bearer	Sponges	Perforated interior wall	over 5,000 modern
Priapulida	Penis	Priapulid worms	Retractable proboscis surrounded by papillae	17
Rhombozoa	Lozenge animal	—	Single axial cell surrounded by ciliated cells	75
Rotifera	Wheel bearer	Rotifers	Anterior crown of cilia	about 2000
Sipuncula	Small tube	Peanut worms	Mouth surrounded by invertible tentacles	144–320
Tardigrada	Slow step	Water bears	Four segmented body and head	1,000+
Xenoturbellida	Strange flatworm	—	Ciliated deuterostome	2
TOTAL: 36				2,000,000-

Groups formerly ranked as phyla

Name as phylum	Common name	Current consensus
Aschelminthes	Pseudocoelomates	Divided into several pseudocoelomate phyla.
Craniata	—	Subgroup of phylum Chordata; perhaps synonymous with Vertebrata.
Cephalochordata	Lancelets	Subphylum of phylum Chordata.
Cephalorhyncha	—	Superphylum Scalidophora.
Enterepneusta	Acorn worms	Class of phylum Hemichordata.
Gephyra	Peanut worms and spoon worms	Divided into phyla Sipuncula and Echiura.
Mesozoa	Mesozoans	Divided into phyla Orthonectida and Rhombozoa.
Myxozoa	—	Severely modified Cnidarians.
Pentastomida	Tongue worms	Subclass of Maxillopoda of phylum Arthropoda.
Pogonophora	Beard worms	Part of family Siboglinidae of phylum Annelida.
Pterobranchia	—	Class of phylum Hemichordata.
Symplasma	Glass sponges	Class Hexactinellida of phylum Porifera.
Urochordata	Tunicates	Subphylum of phylum Chordata.
Vestimentifera	Vent worms	Part of family Siboglinidae of phylum Annelida.

Plant divisions

Division	Meaning	Common name	Distinguishing characteristics
Anthocerotophyta	Flower-horn plants	Hornworts	Horn-shaped sporophytes, no vascular system
Bryophyta	Moss plants	Mosses	Persistent unbranched sporophytes, no vascular system
Marchantiophyta	Marchantia plants	Liverworts	Ephemeral unbranched sporophytes, no vascular system
Lycopodiophyta	Wolf foot plants	Clubmosses & Spikemosses	Microphyll leaves, vascular system
Pteridophyta	Fern plants	Ferns & Horsetails	Prothallus gametophytes, vascular system
Pteridospermatophyta	Fern with seeds plant	Seed ferns	Only known from fossils, mostly Devonian, ranking in dispute
Pinophyta	Sap/pitch plants	Conifers	Cones containing seeds and wood composed of tracheids
Cycadophyta	Palm plants	Cycads	Seeds, crown of compound leaves
Ginkgophyta	Ginkgo plants	Ginkgo, Maidenhair	Seeds not protected by fruit (single species)
Gnetophyta		Gnetophytes	Seeds and woody vascular system with vessels
Anthophyta (or Magnoliophyta)	Flower plant	Flowering plants	Flowers and fruit, vascular system with vessels

Fungal divisions

Phylum	Meaning	Common name	Distinguishing characteristics
Chytridiomycota	Little pot mushroom	Chytrids	Cellulose in cell walls, flagellated gametes
Deuteromycota	Second mushroom	Imperfect fungi	Only reproduce asexually
Zygomycota	Yoke mushroom	Zygomycetes	Blend gametangia to form a zygosporangium
Glomeromycota	Ball mushroom	None	Form arbuscular mycorrhizae with plants
Ascomycota	Bag/Wineskin Mushroom	Sac fungi	Produce spores in an 'ascus'
Basidiomycota	Basidium Mushroom	Club Fungi	Produce spores from a 'basidium'

References

"Life sciences". The American Heritage New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy (third edition ed.). Houghton Mifflin Company. 2005. Retrieved 2008-10-04. Phyla in the plant kingdom are frequently called divisions. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)
Valentine, James W. (2004). On the Origin of Phyla. Chicago: University Of Chicago Press. p. 7. 0226845486."Classifications of organisms in hierarchical systems were in use by the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Usually organisms were grouped according to their morphological similarities as perceived by those early workers, and those groups were then grouped according to their similarities, and so on, to form a hierarchy."
Parker, Andrew (2003). In the blink of an eye: How vision kick-started the big bang of evolution. Sydney: Free Press. pp. 1–4. 0743257332."The job of an evolutionary biologist is to make sense of the conflicting diversity of form – there is not always a relationship between internal and external parts. Early in the history of the subject, it became obvious that internal organisations were generally more important to the higher classification of animals than are external shapes. The internal organisation puts general restrictions on how an animal can exchange gases, obtain nutrients and reproduce."
Davidson, E. H.; Erwin, D. H. (2006), Science, 311 (5762), American Association for the Advancement of Science: 796–800 http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/311/5762/796 {{citation}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
Template:Wonderful life
^ Budd, G.E. (2000). "A critical reappraisal of the fossil record of the bilaterian phyla". Biological Reviews. 75 (02): 253–295. doi:10.1017/S000632310000548X. Retrieved 2007-05-26. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
^ Briggs, D. E. G.; Fortey, R. A. (2005), "Wonderful strife: systematics, stem groups, and the phylogenetic signal of the Cambrian radiation", Paleobiology, 31 (2 (Suppl)): 94–112, doi:10.1666/0094-8373(2005)031[0094:WSSSGA]2.0.CO;2{{citation}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
Budd, G.E. (1998), Lethaia, 31 (3), Blackwell Synergy: 197–210 http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1502-3931.1998.tb00508.x {{citation}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
Feldkamp, S. (2002) Modern Biology. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, USA. (pp. 725)
Species Register. "Flatworms — Phylum Platyhelminthes". Marine Discovery Centres. Retrieved 2007-04-09. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
"Kingdon Plantae Tree of Life"

External links

Etymology:

American Heritage Dictionary: New Latin phylum, from Greek phūlon, class.
Online Etymological Dictionary: from Gk. phylon "race, stock," related to phyle "tribe, clan," and phylein "bring forth" of physikos "pertaining to nature," from physis "nature"

Taxonomic ranks

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