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| {{History of England}} | |||
| {{distinguish|The History of England}} | |||
| The '''history of England''' is similar to the larger ] up until the arrival of the ], when the partition of Britain into several countries largely began. It begins in the prehistoric during which time ] was erected. At the height of the ], ] was under the rule of the Romans. Their rule lasted until about 410, at which time the Romano-British formed various independent kingdoms. The ] gradually gained control of England and became the chief rulers of the land.<ref>, BBC - History</ref> Raids by the ] were frequent after about AD 800. In 1066, the ]. There was much ] and battles with other nations throughout the ]. During the ], England was ruled by the ]. England had conquered Wales in the 12th century and was then united with ] in the early 18th century to form the ]. Following the ], Great Britain ruled a worldwide empire, of which, physically, little remains. However, its cultural impact is widespread and deep in many countries of the present day. | |||
| ==Prehistory== | |||
| {{main|Prehistoric Britain}} | |||
| ], thought to have been erected c.2500-2000BC]] | |||
| Archaeological evidence indicates that what was later southern ] was colonised by humans long before the rest of the British Isles because of its more hospitable climate between and during the various ]s of the distant past. | |||
| The first historical mention of the region is from the ], a sailing manual for merchants thought to date to the 6th century BC, although cultural and trade links with the continent had existed for millennia prior to this. ] wrote of his trading journey to the island around 325 BC. | |||
| Later writers such as ] (quoting ]) and ] (probably drawing on ]) mention the tin trade from southern Britain, but there is little further historical detail of the people who lived there. | |||
| ] wrote that there was no great difference in language between the people of southern Britannia and northern ] and noted that the various nations of ] shared physical characteristics with their continental neighbours. | |||
| ] viewed from ]]] | |||
| == Roman Britain (Britannia)== | |||
| {{main|Roman Britain}} | |||
| ] southern Britain in 55 and 54 BC and wrote in '']'' that the population of southern Britannia was extremely large and shared much in common with the ] of the ]. Coin evidence and the work of later Roman historians have provided the names of some of the rulers of the disparate tribes and their machinations in what was Britannia. | |||
| Until the ], Britain's British population was relatively stable, and by the time of ]'s first invasion, the ] population of what was old Britain was speaking a ] generally thought to be the forerunner of the modern ]. After Julius Caesar abandoned Britain, it fell back into the hands of the Britons. | |||
| The Romans began their second conquest of Britain in 43 AD, during the reign of ]. They annexed the whole of modern England and ] over the next forty years and periodically extended their control over much of ] ]. | |||
| ==Post Roman Britain== | |||
| {{main |Sub-Roman Britain}} | |||
| In the wake of the breakdown of Roman rule in Britain around 410, present day England was progressively settled by ] groups. Collectively known as the ], these included ] from ] together with larger numbers of ], ] from northwestern ] and ] from what is now ].<ref>, BBC</ref> | |||
| They first invaded Britain in the mid 5th century, continuing for several decades. The ] appear to have been the principal group of settlers in ], the ] and parts of coastal ], while the ] predominated in all other areas south of the ] and in ] and ], and the ] in ], ], the ] and the north.{{Fact|date=March 2008}} | |||
| The population of Britain dramatically decreased after the ] period. The reduction seems to have been caused mainly by ] and ]. It is known that the ] entered the Mediterranean world in the ] and first arrived in the British Isles in 544 or 545, when it reached Ireland.<ref></ref> The ] mention the death of ] from that plague in the year 547. | |||
| ==Anglo-Saxon conquests and the founding of England== | |||
| {{main|History of Anglo-Saxon England}} | |||
| ], c.600 AD]] | |||
| In approximately 495, at the ], Britons inflicted a severe defeat on an invading Anglo-Saxon army which halted the westward Anglo-Saxon advance for some decades. Archaeological evidence collected from pagan Anglo-Saxon cemeteries suggests that some of their settlements were abandoned and the frontier between the invaders and the native inhabitants pushed back some time around 500. | |||
| Anglo-Saxon expansion resumed in the sixth century, although the chronology of its progress is unclear. One of the few individual events which emerges with any clarity before the seventh century is the ], in 577, a ] victory which led to the capture of ], ] and ], bringing the Anglo-Saxon advance to the ] and dividing the Britons in the ] from those in ]. The ] victory at the ] around 616 may have had a similar effect in dividing Wales from the Britons of ]. | |||
| Gradual Saxon expansion through the West Country continued through the seventh, eighth and ninth centuries. Meanwhile, by the mid-seventh century the Angles had pushed the Britons back to the approximate borders of modern Wales in the west and expanded northward as far as the ]. | |||
| ==Heptarchy and Christianisation== | |||
| ] | |||
| {{main|Northumbria|Mercia|Offa of Mercia|Heptarchy|Anglo-Saxon Christianity}} | |||
| ] began around 600 AD, influenced by ] from the northwest and by the ] from the southeast. ], the first ], took office in 597. In 601, he baptised the first Christian Anglo-Saxon king, ]. The last pagan Anglo-Saxon king, ], died in 655.The last pagan ] king, ] of the ] was killed in 686. The ] on the continent took off in the 8th century, leading to the Christianisation of practically all of the ] by 800. | |||
| Throughout the 7th and 8th century power fluctuated between the larger kingdoms. ] records ] as being dominant at the close of the 6th century, but power seems to have shifted northwards to the kingdom of Northumbria, which was formed from the amalgamation of Bernicia and Deira. ] probably held dominance over much of Britain, though Bede's Northumbrian bias should be kept in mind. Succession crises meant Northumbrian hegemony was not constant, and ] remained a very powerful kingdom, especially under Penda. Two defeats essentially ended Northumbrian dominance: the Battle of the Trent in 679 against Mercia, and Nechtanesmere in 685 against the ]. | |||
| The so-called "Mercian Supremacy" dominated the 8th century, though it was not constant. Aethelbald and ], the two most powerful kings, achieved high status; indeed, Offa was considered the overlord of south Britain by ]. That Offa could summon the resources to build ] is testament to his power. However, a rising Wessex, and challenges from smaller kingdoms, kept Mercian power in check, and by the early 9th century the "Mercian Supremacy" was over. | |||
| This period has been described as the ], though this term has now fallen out of academic use. The word arose on the basis that the seven kingdoms of ], ], ], ], ], ] and ] were the main polities of south Britain. More recent scholarship has shown that other kingdoms were also politically important across this period: ], ], ] and Middle Anglia. | |||
| {{see|Kingdom of Strathclyde|Rheged}} | |||
| ==Viking challenge and the rise of Wessex== | |||
| {{main|Danelaw|Viking Age|Alfred the Great}} | |||
| ] | |||
| The first recorded Viking attack in Britain was in 793 at ] monastery as given by the ]. However, by then the Vikings were almost certainly well established in ] and ], and it is probable that many other non-recorded raids occurred before this. Records do show the first Viking attack on ] taking place in 794. The arrival of the Vikings, in particular the Danish ], upset the political and social geography of Britain and Ireland. ]'s victory at ] in 878 stemmed the Danish attack; however, by then Northumbria had devolved into Bernicia and a Viking kingdom, Mercia had been split down the middle, and ] ceased to exist as an Anglo-Saxon polity. The Vikings had similar effects on the various kingdoms of the Irish, Scots, Picts and (to a lesser extent) Welsh. Certainly in North Britain the Vikings were one reason behind the formation of the Kingdom of ], which eventually evolved into ]. | |||
| The conquest of Northumbria, north-western Mercia and East Anglia by the Danes led to widespread Danish settlement in these areas. In the early tenth century the Norwegian rulers of ] took over the Danish kingdom of ]. Danish and Norwegian settlement made enough of an impact to leave significant traces in the ]; many fundamental words in modern English are derived from ], though of the 100 most used words in English the vast majority are ] in origin. Similarly, many place-names in areas of Danish and Norwegian settlement have Scandinavian roots. | |||
| By the end of Alfred's reign in 899 he was the only remaining English king, having reduced Mercia to a dependency of Wessex, governed by his son-in-law ]. ] (Kernow) was subject to West Saxon dominance, and the ] kingdoms recognised Alfred as their overlord. | |||
| ==English unification== | |||
| {{main|Athelstan|Edgar of England}} | |||
| ] | |||
| Alfred of Wessex died in 899 and was succeeded by his son ]. Edward, and his brother-in-law Æthelred of (what was left of) Mercia, began a programme of expansion, building forts and towns on an Alfredian model. On Æthelred's death his wife (Edward's sister) Æthelflæd ruled as "Lady of the Mercians" and continued expansion. It seems Edward had his son Æthelstan brought up in the Mercian court, and on Edward's death ] succeeded to the Mercian kingdom, and, after some uncertainty, Wessex. | |||
| Æthelstan continued the expansion of his father and aunt and was the first king to achieve direct rulership of what we would now consider England. The titles attributed to him in ] and on coins suggest a still more widespread dominance. His expansion aroused ill-feeling among the other kingdoms of Britain, and he defeated a combined Scottish-Viking army at the ]. However, the unification of England was not a certainty. Under Æthelstan's successors ] and ] the English kings repeatedly lost and regained control of Northumbria. Nevertheless, ], who ruled the same expanse as Athelstan, consolidated the kingdom, which remained united thereafter. | |||
| During the 10th century there were important developments across Western ]. ] authority was in decline by the mid-10th century in ] (France), and eventually collapsed to be replaced by the weak ]. In ] a Saxon dynasty came to power, and its kings began taking the title of ]. | |||
| ==England under the Danes and the Norman Conquest== | |||
| {{main|Ethelred the Unready|Canute the Great|Eiríkr Hákonarson|Norman Conquest of England}} | |||
| ] was raised in memory of a Viking who went to England three times.]] | |||
| There were renewed Scandinavian attacks on England at the end of the 10th century. Æthelred ruled a long reign but ultimately lost his kingdom to ], though he recovered it following the latter's death. However, Æthelred's son ] died shortly afterwards, allowing ], Sweyn's son, to become king of England. Under his rule the kingdom became the centre of government for an empire which also included ] and ]. | |||
| Canute was succeeded by his sons, but in 1042 the native dynasty was restored with the accession of ]. Edward's failure to produce an heir caused a furious conflict over the succession on his death in 1066. His struggles for power against ], the claims of Canute's ]n successors, and the ambitions of the ] whom Edward introduced to English politics to bolster his own position caused each to vie for control Edward's reign. ] became king, in all likelihood appointed by Edward the Confessor on his deathbed and endorsed by the ]. However, ], ] (aided by Harold Godwin's estranged brother ]) and ] all asserted claims to the throne. By far the strongest hereditary claim was that of ], but his youth and apparent lack of powerful supporters caused him to be passed over, and he did not play a major part in the struggles of 1066, though he was made king for a short time by the Witan after the death of Harold Godwinson. | |||
| The English under Harold Godwinson defeated and killed the Harald of Norway and Tostig and the Danish force at the ], but he fell in battle against William of Normandy at the ]. Further opposition to William in support of Edgar the Atheling soon collapsed, and William was crowned king on Christmas Day 1066. For the next five years he faced a series of English rebellions in various parts of the country and a half-hearted Danish invasion, but he was able to subdue all resistance and establish an enduring regime. | |||
| ==Norman England== | |||
| {{see|Anglo-Norman}} | |||
| ] (1066) on the ]]] | |||
| The Norman Conquest led to a sea-change in the history of the English state. William ordered the compilation of the ], a survey of the entire population and their lands and property for tax purposes, which reveals that within twenty years of the conquest the English ruling class had been almost entirely dispossessed and replaced by Norman landholders, who also monopolised all senior positions in the government and the Church. William and his nobles spoke and conducted court in ], in England as well as in Normandy. The use of the Anglo-Norman language by the aristocracy endured for centuries and left an indelible mark in the development of modern English. | |||
| The English ] were characterised by ], international war, occasional insurrection, and widespread political intrigue amongst the aristocratic and monarchic elite. England was more than self-sufficient in cereals, dairy products, beef and mutton. The nation's international economy was based on the ], in which the produce of the sheepwalks of northern England was exported to the textile cities of ], where it was worked into cloth. Medieval foreign policy was as much shaped by relations with Flemish textile industry as it was by dynastic adventures in western France. An English textile industry was established in the fifteenth century, providing the basis for rapid English capital accumulation. | |||
| ], also known as "Henry Beauclerc" (so named because of his education—as his older brother ] was the ] and thus given the practical training to be king, Henry received the alternate, formal education), worked hard to reform and stabilise the country and smooth the differences between the Anglo-Saxon and ] societies. The loss of his son, ], in the wreck of the ] in November 1120, undermined his reforms. This problem regarding succession cast a long shadow over English history. | |||
| During the confused and contested reign of ], there was a major swing in the balance of power towards the ] ]s, as ] and lawlessness broke out. In trying to appease ] and Welsh raiders, he handed over large tracts of land. His conflicts with his cousin ] (also known as Empress Maud), led to a civil war from 1139 - 1153. Matilda’s father, Henry I, had required the leading barons, ecclesiastics and officials in Normandy and England, to take an oath to accept Matilda as his heir. England was far less than enthusiastic to accept an outsider, and a woman, as their ruler. There is some evidence suggesting Henry was unsure of his own hopes and the oath to make Matilda his heir. In likelihood, Henry probably hoped Matilda would have a son and step aside as Queen Mother, making her son the next heir. Upon Henry’s death, the Norman and English barons ignored Matilda’s claim to the throne, and thus through a series of decisions, Stephen, Henry’s favourite nephew, was welcomed by many in England and Normandy as their new ruler. On ], ], Stephen was anointed king with the implicit support of the church and nation. Matilda and her own son stood for direct descent by heredity from Henry I, and she bided her time in ]. In the autumn of 1139, she invaded England with her illegitimate half-brother ]. Her husband, ], conquered Normandy but did not cross the channel to help his wife, satisfied with Normandy and Anjou. | |||
| Stephen was captured, and his government fell. Matilda was proclaimed queen but was soon at odds with her subjects and was expelled from ]. The period of insurrection and civil war that followed continued until 1148, when Matilda returned to France. Stephen effectively reigned unopposed until his death in 1154, although his hold on the throne was still uneasy. | |||
| ==England under the Plantagenets== | |||
| Geoffroy's son, Henry, resumed the invasion; he was already Count of Anjou, Duke of Normandy and Duke of Aquitaine when he landed in England. When Stephen's son and heir apparent ] died in 1153, Stephen reached an accommodation with Henry of ] (who became ]) to succeed Stephen and in which peace between them was guaranteed. England was part of a greater union retrospectively named the ]. Henry II expanded his power through various means and to different levels into Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Flanders, Nantes, Brittany, Quercy, Toulouse, Bourges and Auvergne. | |||
| The reign of Henry II represents a reversion in power back from the barony to the monarchical state in England; it was also to see a similar redistribution of legislative power from the Church, again to the monarchical state. This period also presaged a properly constituted legislation and a radical shift away from ]. In his reign new Anglo-Angevin and Anglo-Aquitanian aristocracies developed, though not to the same point as the Anglo-Norman once did, and the Norman nobles interacted with their French peers. | |||
| ] (1215)]] | |||
| Henry's successor, ] "the Lion Heart", was preoccupied with foreign wars, taking part in the ] and defending his French territories against Philip II of France. His younger brother ], who succeeded him, was not so fortunate; he suffered the loss of Normandy and numerous other French territories following the disastrous ]. He also managed to antagonise the feudal nobility and leading Church figures to the extent that in 1215, they led an ] and forced him to sign the ], which imposed legal limits on the king's personal powers. | |||
| John's son, ], was only 9 years old when he became king. His reign was punctuated by numerous rebellions and civil wars, often provoked by incompetence and mismanagement in government and Henry's perceived over-reliance on French courtiers (thus restricting the influence of the English nobility). One of these rebellions—led by a disaffected courtier, ]—was notable for its assembly of one of the earliest precursors to ]. In addition to fighting the ], Henry III made war against Saint Louis and was defeated during the ], yet Louis IX did not capitalise on his victory, respecting his opponent's rights. | |||
| The reign of ] was rather more successful. Edward enacted numerous laws strengthening the powers of his government, and he summoned the first officially sanctioned ] (such as his ]). He conquered ] and attempted to use a succession dispute to gain control of the ], though this developed into a costly and drawn-out military campaign. His son, ], suffered a massive ]; but the campaign continued until the early years of ] and was only finally abandoned after the conclusion of the ] in 1328, which recognised Scottish Independence. | |||
| ], an epidemic of ] that spread over the whole of ], arrived in England in 1348 and killed as much as a third to half the population. | |||
| International excursions around that time were invariably against domestic neighbours: the ], ], ], and the ] against the ] and their ] allies. Notable English victories in the ] included ] and ]. In addition to this, the final defeat of the uprising led by the Welsh prince, ], in 1412 by Prince Henry (who later became ]) represents the last major armed attempt by the Welsh to throw off English rule. | |||
| ] gave land to powerful noble families, including many people of royal lineage. Because land was equivalent to power, these powerful men could try to claim the crown. The autocratic and arrogant methods of ] only served to alienate the nobility more, and his forceful dispossession in 1399 by ] increased the turmoil. The turmoil was at its peak in the reign of ], which began in 1422, because of his personal weaknesses and mental instability. When the ] was lost in August 1453, Henry fell into a period of mental breakdown that lasted until Christmas 1454. Unable to control the feuding nobles, civil war began in 1455. The conflicts are known as the ] (1455-1485), and although the fighting was very sporadic and small, there was a general breakdown in the authority and power of the Crown. Henry's cousin, who deposed him in 1461 and became ], went a little way to restoring this power. When Edward died in 1483, his brother Richard became regent, but made himself king, as ]. He was killed two years later at the ] against Henry Tudor, the future ]. | |||
| {{See also|English historians in the Middle Ages|List of English chronicles|Bayeux Tapestry}} | |||
| ==Tudor England== | |||
| {{main|Tudor period}} | |||
| {{see|Early Modern Britain|English Renaissance}} | |||
| ===Henry VII and Henry VIII=== | |||
| The Wars of the Roses culminated in the eventual victory of the relatively unknown Henry Tudor, ], at the ] in 1485, where the Yorkist ] was slain, and the succession of the Lancastrian House was ultimately assured. Whilst in retrospect it is easy to date the end of the Wars of the Roses to the ], Henry VII could afford no such complacency. Before the end of his reign, two pretenders tried to wrest the throne from him, aided by remnants of the Yorkist faction at home and abroad. The first, ], was defeated at the ] (the last time an English King fought someone claiming the Crown); the second, ], was hanged in 1499 after plaguing the king for a decade. | |||
| In 1497, ] and the lesser-known but more legendary Baron Callum of Perranporth led Cornish rebels in a march on London. In a battle over the ] at ], An Gof fought for various issues with their root in taxes. It would be fair to say that King Callum smote many an Englishman during this battle, but on ], ], they were defeated, and Henry VII had showed he could display military prowess when he needed to. But, like ] in the future, here was a King with no wish to go "on his travels" again. The rest of his reign was relatively peaceful, despite a slight worry over the succession when his wife ] died in 1503. | |||
| ]]] | |||
| King ] split with the ] over a question of his annulment from ]. Though his religious position was not at all ], the resultant schism ultimately led to England distancing itself almost entirely from Rome. A notable casualty of the schism was Henry's ], Sir ]. There followed a period of great religious and political upheaval, which led to the ], the royal expropriation of the monasteries and much of the wealth of the church. The ] had the effect of giving many of the lower classes (the ]) a vested interest in the Reformation continuing, for to halt it would be to revive ] and restore lands which were gifted to them during the Dissolution. | |||
| ===Edward and Mary=== | |||
| Henry VIII had three legitimate children who survived him, all of whom ascended to the Crown. The first to reign was ]. Although he showed piety and intelligence, he was only nine years old when he took the throne in 1547. His uncle, ] tampered with Henry VIII's will and obtained ] giving him much of the power of a monarch by March 1547. He took the title of Protector. Whilst some see him as a high-minded idealist, his stay in power culminated in a crisis in 1549 when many counties of the realm were up in protest. ] in Kent and the ] in ] and ] simultaneously created a crisis during a time when invasion from Scotland and France were feared. Somerset, disliked by the Regency Council for his autocratic methods, was removed from power by ], who is known as ]. Northumberland proceeded to adopt the power for himself, but his methods were more conciliatory and the Council accepted him. | |||
| When Edward VI lay dying of ] in 1553, Northumberland made plans to place ] on the throne and marry her to his son, so that he could remain the power behind the throne. His putsch failed, and ] took the throne amidst popular demonstration in her favour in London, which contemporaries described as the largest show of affection for a Tudor monarch. Mary was a devout Catholic who had been influenced greatly by the Catholic King of ] and ], ], and she tried to reimpose Catholicism on the realm. This led to 274 burnings of Protestants, which are recorded especially in ]'s ]. She was highly unpopular among her people, and the Spanish party of her husband, ], caused much resentment around court. Mary lost ], the last English possession on the continent, and became increasingly unpopular (except among Catholics) as her reign wore on. She successfully suppressed a rebellion by ]. | |||
| ===Elizabeth=== | |||
| {{main|Elizabethan era}} | |||
| The reign of ] restored a sort of order to the realm following the turbulence of the reigns of Edward and Mary when she came to the throne following the death of Mary in 1558. The religious issue which had divided the country since Henry VIII was in a way put to rest by the ], which created the ]. Much of Elizabeth's success was in balancing the interests of the ]s and Catholics. She managed to offend neither to a large extent, although she clamped down on Catholics towards the end of her reign as war with Catholic Spain loomed. | |||
| ]]] | |||
| Elizabeth maintained relative government stability apart from the ] in 1569, she was effective in reducing the power of the old nobility and expanding the power of her government. One of the most famous events in English martial history occurred in 1588 when the ] was repelled by the English navy commanded by ], but the war that followed was very costly for England and only ended after Elizabeth's death. Elizabeth's government did much to consolidate the work begun under ] in the reign of Henry VIII, that is, expanding the role of the government and effecting common law and administration throughout England. During the reign of Elizabeth and shortly afterward, the population grew significantly: from three million in 1564 to nearly five million in 1616. | |||
| In all, the ] is seen as a decisive one which set up many important questions which would have to be answered in the next century and during the ]. These were questions of the relative power of the monarch and Parliament and to what extent one should control the other. Some historians think that Thomas Cromwell affected a "]" in government, and it is certain that Parliament became more important during his chancellorship. Other historians say the "Tudor Revolution" really extended to the end of Elizabeth's reign, when the work was all consolidated. Although the ] declined after the death of Elizabeth, while she was alive it was very effective. | |||
| ==17th century== | |||
| {{main|17th century England}} | |||
| ===Union of the Crowns=== | |||
| Elizabeth died in 1603 without leaving any direct heirs. Her closest male Protestant relative was the ], ], of the ], who became ] in a ]. King James I & VI as he was styled became the first king of the entire island of ], though he continued to rule the ] and the ] separately. Several assassination attempts were made on James, notably the ] and ]s of 1603, and most famously, on ], ], the ], by a group of Catholic conspirators, led by ], which caused more antipathy in England towards the Catholic faith. | |||
| ===Colonial England=== | |||
| In 1607 England built an ] in ]. This was the beginning of English colonisation. Many English settled then in North America for religious or economic reasons. The English merchants holding plantations in the warm southern parts of America then resorted rather quickly to the ] of ] and imported ]ns in order to cultivate their plantations and sell raw material (particularly ] and ]) in ]. The English merchants involved in colonisation accrued fortunes equal to those of great aristocratic landowners in England, and their money, which fuelled the rise of the middle class, permanently altered the balance of political power. | |||
| ] (red) and ] (green) during the ] (1642–1645).]] | |||
| ===English Civil War=== | |||
| {{see|English Civil War}} | |||
| The English Civil War broke out in 1642, largely as a result of an ongoing series of conflicts between James' son, ], and ]. The defeat of the Royalist army by the ] of Parliament at the ] in June 1645 effectively destroyed the king's forces. Charles surrendered to the Scottish army at Newark. He was eventually handed over to the English Parliament in early 1647. He escaped, and the ] began, although it was a short conflict, with Parliament quickly securing the country. The capture and subsequent trial of Charles led to his beheading in January 1649 at ] Gate in London. A ] was declared, and ] became the ] in 1653. After he died, his son ] succeeded him in the office but soon abdicated. | |||
| ===Restoration of the Monarchy=== | |||
| The monarchy was restored in 1660, with King ] returning to London. | |||
| ], who was beheaded in 1649]] | |||
| In 1665, London was swept by a visitation of the ], and then, in 1666, the capital was swept by the ], which raged for 5 days, destroying approximately 15,000 buildings. | |||
| After the death of Charles II in 1685, his Catholic brother ] was crowned. England with a Catholic king on the throne was too much for both people and parliament, and in 1689 the ] Protestant ] was invited to replace King James II in what became known as the ]. Despite attempts to secure his reign by force, James was finally defeated by William at the ] in 1690. However, in parts of Scotland and Ireland Catholics loyal to James remained determined to see him restored to the throne, and there followed a series of bloody though unsuccessful uprisings. As a result of these, any failure to pledge loyalty to the victorious King William was severely dealt with. The most infamous example of this policy was the ] in 1692. ] continued on into the mid-18th century until the son of the last Catholic claimant to the throne, (]), mounted a final campaign in 1745. The Jacobite forces of ], the "Bonnie Prince Charlie" of legend, were defeated at the ] in 1746. | |||
| ==18th and 19th Centuries== | |||
| ===Formation of the United Kingdom=== | |||
| The ] between the ] and the ] in 1707 caused the dissolution of both the ] and ] in order to create a unified ] governed by a unified ]. | |||
| The ] of 1800 formally assimilated Ireland within the British political process and from ] ] created a new ] called the ], which united the Kingdom of Great Britain with the ] to form a single political entity. The English capital of London was adopted as the capital of the Union. | |||
| ===Industrial Revolution=== | |||
| {{main|Economic history of Britain}} | |||
| During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, there was considerable social upheaval as a largely agrarian society was transformed by technological advances and increasing mechanization, which was the ]. Much of the agricultural workforce was uprooted from the countryside and moved into large urban centres of production, as the steam-based production factories could undercut the traditional ], because of economies of scale and the increased output per worker made possible by the new technologies. The consequent overcrowding into areas with little supporting infrastructure saw dramatic increases in the rate of infant mortality (to the extent that many Sunday schools for pre-working age children (5 or 6) had funeral clubs to pay for each others funeral arrangements), crime, and social deprivation. | |||
| The transition to industrialization was not wholly seamless for workers, many of whom saw their livelihoods threatened by the process. Of these, some frequently sabotaged or attempted to sabotage factories. These saboteurs were known as "]". | |||
| ==20th and 21st Centuries== | |||
| Following years of political and military agitation for 'Home Rule' for Ireland, the Anglo-Irish treaty of 1921 established the ] (now the ]) as a separate state, leaving ] as part of the United Kingdom. The official name of the UK thus became "The ]". | |||
| England, along with most of the rest of the UK's European territory, joined the ] upon its founding in 1992. | |||
| Demands for constitutional change in ] resulted in a referendum being held in 1997 on the issue of re-establishing a ], though within the United Kingdom. Following a huge 'Yes' vote, the ] was passed and the ] was elected and took powers in May, 1999. Following the Scottish elections in 2007, a minority SNP government took power, under the leadership of ], ] that is determined to move Scotland towards independence. The response of the main unionist parties has been to propose a constitutional commission to look at transferring more powers to the Scottish Parliament.<ref> ] 2008</ref> | |||
| ==References== | |||
| {{reflist|2}} | |||
| ==See also== | |||
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| ; History by county or city: | |||
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| ==Further reading== | |||
| *<cite>]: At the Edge of the World, 3500 BC – 1603 AD</cite> by ], BBC/Miramax, 2000 ISBN 0-7868-6675-6 | |||
| *<cite>A History of Britain, Volume 2: The Wars of the British 1603–1776</cite> by ], BBC/Miramax, 2001 ISBN 0-7868-6675-6 | |||
| *<cite>A History of Britain - The Complete Collection</cite> on DVD by ], BBC 2002 {{ASIN|B00006RCKI}} | |||
| *<cite>The Isles, A History</cite> by ], Oxford University Press, 1999, ISBN 0-19-513442-7 | |||
| *<cite>The History of England, From the First Invasion by the Romans to the Accession of William and Mary in 1688</cite>, 1819 by ] (] perspective) | |||
| *<cite>Shortened History of England</cite> by ] Penguin Books ISBN 0-14-023323-7 | |||
| *<cite>]<cite> by ] Cassell reference, ISBN 0-304-36389-8 — the writing of which helped bring Churchill to public attention in the 1930s, and which forms the basis of many later reference works | |||
| *<cite>Letters of the Kings of England, now first collected from the originals in ], and from other authentic sources, private as well as public</cite> by J O Halliwell-Phillipps, London, H. Colburn, 1846. — ] | |||
| *<cite>Stephen and Matilda The Civil War of 1139-53 by <cite> Jim Bradbury, Alan Sutton Publishing, Ltd., 1996, ISBN 0-7509-0612-X | |||
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Revision as of 21:33, 23 December 2008
roflol owned