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{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict=Korean War
|partof= the ]
|image=]
|caption=Clockwise, from top: American trucks crossing the ], ] flying over Korea, the port in ] where the ] commenced, Chinese soldiers being welcomed back after the war, and USMC ] ] climbing the seawall in Incheon.
|date= June 25, 1950–the armistice on July 27, 1953
|place=]
|casus=]n attack on South Korea.
|terrtory= DMZ; both South and North gain some territory along the 38th parallel.
|result=]; ] invasion repelled; establishment of ] (DMZ); a few territorial changes along the 38th parallel, but essentially '']''.
|combatant1='''{{flag|United Nations}}''' (]):<br />
{{flag|Republic of Korea}}<br />
{{flag|Australia}}<br />
{{flag|Belgium|state}}<br />
{{flag|Canada}}<br />
{{flag|Colombia}}<br />
{{flagicon|Ethiopia|1897}} ]<br />
{{flagicon|France}} ]<br />
{{flagicon|Greece|royal}} ]<br />
{{flag|Luxembourg}}<br />
{{flag|Netherlands}}<br />
{{flag|New Zealand}}<br />
{{flag|Philippines|war}}<br />
{{flagicon|South Africa|1928}} ]<br />
{{flag|Thailand}}<br />
{{flag|Turkey}}<br />
{{flag|United Kingdom}}<br />
{{flag|United States|1912}}<br />
----
'''Naval Support and Military Servicing/Repairs''':<br />
{{flag|Japan|alt}}
----
'''Medical staff''':<br />
{{flag|Denmark}}<br />
{{flag|Italy}}<br />
{{flag|Norway}}<br />
{{flag|India}}<br />
{{flag|Sweden}}
|combatant2='''North Korea and Allies:'''
{{flagicon|North Korea}} ] <br />
{{flagicon|China}} ]<br />
{{flag|Soviet Union|1923}}
|commander1={{flagicon|South Korea}} ]
{{flagicon|South Korea}} ]<br />
{{flagicon|South Korea}} ]<br />
{{flagicon|Philippines|war}} ] <br>
{{flagicon|Philippines|war}} ] <br>
{{flagicon|Turkey}} ] <br>
{{flagicon|United States}} ]<br />
{{flagicon|United States}} ]<br />
{{flagicon|United States}} ]<br />
{{flagicon|United States}} ]<br />
{{flagicon|United States}} ]<br />
|commander2={{flagicon|North Korea}} ]
{{flagicon|North Korea}} ]<br />
{{flagicon|North Korea}} ]<br />
{{flagicon|China}} ]<br />
{{flagicon|China|army}} ]<br />
{{flagicon|Soviet Union|1923}} ]<br />
{{flagicon|Soviet Union|1923}} ]
|strength1=
{{flagicon|South Korea}} 590,911<br />
{{flagicon|United States}} 480,000<br />
{{flagicon|United Kingdom}} 63,000<ref>{{cite web | title =On This Day 29 August 1950 | publisher =] | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/29/newsid_3053000/3053107.stm
| accessdate =2007-08-15 }}</ref><br />
{{flagicon|Canada}} 26,791<ref>{{cite web | title =Veterans Affairs Canada&nbsp;— The Korean War | publisher = Veterans Affairs Canada | url =http://www.vac-acc.gc.ca/general/sub.cfm?source=history/koreawar | accessdate =2007-08-15 }}</ref><br />
{{flagicon|Australia}} 17,000<br />
{{flagicon|Philippines|war}} 7,430<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web | title =Filipino Soldiers in the Korean War (video documentary) | url =http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9SBmEl3Gv60 | accessdate =2008-03-24 }}</ref><br />
{{flagicon|Turkey}} 5,455<ref>{{cite web | last =Walker | first =Jack D | title =A brief account of the Korean War | url = http://www.koreanwar-educator.org/topics/brief/brief_account_of_the_korean_war.htm | accessdate =2007-08-15 }}</ref><br />
{{flagicon|Netherlands}}3,972<br />
{{flagicon|France}} 3,421<ref name="frinvolvement">{{cite web | title =French Participation in the Korean War | publisher =Embassy of France | url =http://www.info-france-usa.org/atoz/koreawar.asp | accessdate =2007-08-15 }}</ref><br />
{{flagicon|New Zealand}} 1,389<br />
{{flagicon|Thailand}} 1,294<br />
{{flagicon|Ethiopia|1897}} 1,271<br />
{{flagicon|Greece|royal}} 1,263<br />
{{flagicon|Colombia}} 1,068<br />
{{flagicon|Belgium}} 900<br />
{{flagicon|South Africa|1928}} 826<br />
{{flagicon|Luxembourg}} 44

'''Total: 941,356–1,139,518'''
|strength2=
{{flagicon|North Korea}} 260,000<br />
{{flagicon|China|army}} 780,000 <br />
{{flagicon|Soviet Union|1923}} 26,000

'''Total: 1,066,000'''

<small>Note: All figures may vary according to source. This measures peak strength as sizes changed during the war.</small>
|casualties1='''South Korea:'''<br />58,127 combat deaths<br />175,743 wounded<br />80,000 MIA or POW<ref>{{cite web | title =South Korean POWs | url =http://www.aiipowmia.com/inter27/in250107skoreapw.html
| accessdate =2007-08-15 }}</ref><br />
'''United States:'''<br />36,516 dead (including 2,830 non-combat)<br />92,134 wounded<br />8,176 MIA<br />7,245 POW<ref>{{cite web | title =All POW-MIA Korean War Casualties | url =http://www.aiipowmia.com/koreacw/kwkia_menu.html | accessdate =2007-08-15 }}</ref><br />
'''United Kingdom:'''<br />1,109 dead<ref>{{cite web | title =The UK & Korea, Defence Relations | publisher =Office of the Defence Attache, British Embassy, Seoul | url =http://www.britishembassy.gov.uk/servlet/Front?pagename=OpenMarket/Xcelerate/ShowPage&c=Page&cid=1101397831756 | accessdate =2007-08-15 }}</ref><br />2,674 wounded<br />1,060 MIA or POW<ref name="Hickey">{{cite web | last =Hickey | first =Michael | title =The Korean War: An Overview | url =http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/coldwar/korea_hickey_04.shtml | accessdate =2007-08-16 }}</ref><br />
'''Turkey:'''<br />721 dead<ref>{{cite web | title =The Turks in the Korean War | url =http://www.korean-war.com/turkey.html | accessdate =2007-08-15 }}</ref><br />2,111 wounded<br />168 MIA<br />216 POW<br />
'''Canada'''<br />516 dead<ref>{{cite web | title =Canadians in Korea: Epilogue| publisher =Veterans Affairs Canada |date=1998-10-06 | url =http://www.vac-acc.gc.ca/remembers/sub.cfm?source=history/koreawar/valour/epilogue| accessdate =2007-10-27}}</ref><br /> 1,042 wounded<br />
'''Australia'''<br />339 dead<ref>{{cite web | title =Korean War 1950–53: Epilogue| publisher =Australian War Memorial |date=2007-10-16 | url =http://www.awm.gov.au/atwar/korea.htm| accessdate =2007-11-12}}</ref><br /> 1,200 wounded<br />
'''France:'''<br />300 KIA or MIA<ref>{{cite web | title =''Departure of the French batallion'' | publisher =French newsreels archives (Les Actualités Françaises) | date =] | url =http://www.dailymotion.com/video/x2eo52_depart-du-bataillon-francais-051119 | accessdate =2007-08-16 }}</ref><br />
'''Philippines:'''<br />112 KIA<ref name="autogenerated1" /><br />
'''Netherlands;'''<br />123 KIA <br /> <ref> </ref><br />
'''Belgium;'''<br />106 KIA <br /> <ref> </ref><br />
'''Luxembourg;'''<br />2 KIA <br /> <ref> </ref><br />
''']:'''<br />33 KIA <ref> </ref><br />
'''South Africa'''<br />28 KIA and 8 MIA<ref>{{cite web |publisher= korean-war.com |date=November 20, 2006 |title= South Africa in the Korean War |url=http://www.korean-war.com/soafrica.html}}</ref><br />
'''Total: Over 474,000'''
|casualties2='''North Korea:'''<br />215,000 dead,<br /> 303,000 wounded,<br />120,000 MIA or POW<ref name="Hickey"/><br />
'''China<br />''(Chinese estimate)'':'''<br />114,000 killed in combat<br />34,000 non-combat deaths<br />380,000 wounded<br />21,400 POW<ref name="Xu">{{cite web | last =Xu | first =Yan | title =Korean War: In the View of Cost-effectiveness | publisher =Consulate-General of the People's Republic of China in New York | url =http://www.nyconsulate.prchina.org/eng/xw/t31430.htm | accessdate =2007-08-16 }}</ref><br />'''''(U.S. estimate)'':'''<ref name="Hickey"/><br />400,000+ dead<br />486,000 wounded<br />21,000 POW<br />
'''Soviet Union:'''<br />282 dead<ref>Кривошеев Г. Ф., ''Россия и СССР в войнах XX века: потери вооруженных сил. Статистическое исследование'' (Krivosheev G. F., ''Russia and the USSR in the wars of the 20th century: losses of the Armed Forces. A Statistical Study'' Greenhill 1997 ISBN 1-85367-280-7) {{ru icon}}</ref><br />
'''Total: 1,190,000-1,577,000+'''
|casualties3='''Civilians killed/wounded (total Koreans)''' = 2 Million (Est.)<ref>{{cite web | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/778094.stm | publisher = BBC | work = News Asia-Pacific | title = US cuts Korean war deaths}}</ref>
|notes=
}}
{{Campaignbox Korean War}}

The '''Korean War''' refers to a period of military conflict between ] (officially the ''Democratic People's Republic of Korea'') and ] (officially the ''Republic of Korea'') regimes, with major hostilities lasting from June 25, 1950 until the ] signed on July 27, 1953. The conflict arose from the attempts of the two Korean powers to re-unify ] under their respective governments. The period immediately before the war was marked by escalating border conflicts at the ] and attempts to negotiate elections for the entirety of Korea.<ref name ="TruceTent">{{cite book | last =Hermes, Jr. | first =Walter | title =Truce Tent and Fighting Front | publisher =Center of Military History |year=1966 | pages =2,6,9 | url = http://www.army.mil/cmh-pg/books/korea/truce/fm.htm}}</ref> These negotiations ended when the ] invaded the South on June 25, 1950. Under the aegis of the ], nations allied with the ] intervened on behalf of South Korea. After rapid advances in a South Korean counterattack, communist-allied ] forces intervened on behalf of North Korea, shifting the balance of the war and ultimately leading to an armistice that approximately restored the original boundaries between North and South Korea.

While some have referred to the conflict as a ], many other factors were at play.<ref name="AMH">{{cite web | title =The Korean War, 1950–1953 (an extract from American Military History, Volume 2&mdash;revised 2005) | url =http://www.army.mil/cmh-pg/books/AMH-V2/AMH%20V2/chapter8.htm | accessdate =2007-08-20 }}</ref> Each side was supported by external powers and the conflict expanded, becoming a ] in the ] between the ] and the ]. The term has also been used to describe both the events preceding and following the main hostilities.

==Name of the conflict==
In South Korea, the war is often called '''6·25''' or '''6·25 War''' ({{lang-ko|6·25 전쟁}}), from the date of the start of the conflict or, more formally, ''Hanguk jeonjaeng'' (]: 한국전쟁; ]: 韓國戰爭, literally "Korean War"). In North Korea, while commonly known as the Korean War, it is formally called the ''Joguk haebang jeonjaeng'' or '''Fatherland Liberation War''' (Hangul: 조국해방전쟁; Hanja: 祖國解放戰爭). In the United States, the conflict was officially termed a ]&nbsp;— the '''Korean Conflict'''&nbsp;— rather than a war, largely in order to avoid the necessity of a ]. The war is sometimes called '''The Forgotten War''' or '''The Unknown War''' because it is a major conflict of the 20th century that gets far less attention than ], which preceded it, and the ], which succeeded it.<ref>{{cite web | title =Remembering the Forgotten War: Korea, 1950-1953 | publisher =Naval Historical Center | url =http://www.history.navy.mil/ac/korea/korea1.htm | accessdate =2007-08-16 }}</ref> The war was a unique combination of the techniques utilized in both ] and World War II, beginning with swift, fast-paced ] advances following well-choreographed ] raids from the air by the American military and its UN allies. However, following both sides' failures at holding the land captured, battles quickly evolved into World War I-type ] in January 1951, lasting until the essential border ] at the end. In China, the conflict was known as the '''War to Resist America and Aid Korea''' (]]]]), but is today commonly called the "Korean War" (] ] ''Chaoxian zhanzheng'',<ref>{{cite web | title =War to Resist US Aggression And Aid Korea Marked in DPRK | publisher =(China's) Peoples Daily (English version) | url =http://english.people.com.cn/english/200010/26/eng20001026_53620.html | accessdate =2007-08-16 }}</ref> 韓國戰爭 ''Hanguo zhanzheng'', or simply 韓戰 ''Hanzhan'').

==Japanese rule==
{{POV|date=October 2008}}
Korea had been a unified country since the 6th century. In 1895, Japan defeated China in the ] of 1894–5, and their ] forces remained in Korea, occupying strategically important parts of the country. To Japan, a late arriving player in the game of great powers, Korea seemed a natural fit in their sphere of influence.<ref name="Stokesbury1990">{{cite book |title= A Short History of the Korean War|last=Stokesbury |first= James L|year= 1990|publisher=Harper Perennial |location= New York|isbn= 0688095135}}</ref>{{rp|22}}

Ten years later, the Japanese defeated the ] navy in the ] (1904–5), contributing to Japan's emergence as an imperial power.<ref name="FirstYear">{{cite web | last =James F | first =Schnabel | title = United States Army in the Korean War, Policy and Direction: The First Year | url =http://www.history.army.mil/books/P&D.HTM | pages =pp. 3, 18 | accessdate = 2007-08-19 }}</ref> Following the end of the Russo-Japanese War, The Japanese declared Korea was their protectorate and expanded their control over local institutions despite Korean opposition. In August 1910, a treaty of Annexation was signed.<ref>{{cite web | title =Treaty of Annexation (Annexation of Korea by Japan) | publisher = USC-UCLA Joint East Asian Studies Center | url = http://www.isop.ucla.edu/eas/documents/kore1910.htm | accessdate = 2007-08-19 }}</ref>

While Korean nationalists from both North and South Korea have their own versions of life under Japanese rule, it was clear that Japanese policies were harsh.<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|23}} Educated Koreans and nationalists were all endangered and most fled. The harshness intensified as Japan became increasingly militant in the 1930s; Korean and its literature were banned from schools and conscription began in 1938. During the Second World War, 2.6 million Koreans were conscripted for forced labour (in addition to the kidnapped "Comfort Women"). Japan, especially as the American submarine campaign intensified, stripped out all livestock, rice stocks, and metal–causing much hardship.<ref>R. Whelan "Drawing the Line: the Korean War 1950–53; London, 1990.</ref>
At the close of World War II, forces of both the ] and the United States occupied the peninsula in accordance with an agreement put forth by the United States government to divide the Korean peninsula. This decision, which was made without consultation of the Korean people, was made by then Colonel ] and Army officer ].<ref name="McCullough">{{cite book | last =McCullough | first =David | title = Truman | publisher =Simon & Schuster Paperbacks |year=1992 | pages =785, 786 | isbn =0671869205 }}</ref> The Soviet forces entered the peninsula on August 10, 1945 and remained north of the 38th parallel waiting for the US forces to arrive. A few weeks later, the American forces entered through ] led by U.S. Army Lt. Gen. ] and formally accepted the surrender of Japanese forces south of the 38th parallel on September 9, 1945 at Government House in ].<ref name="Appleman">{{cite book | last =Appleman | first =Roy E | title =South to the Naktong, North to the Yalu | publisher =Dept. of the Army |year=1998 | pages =3, 15, 381, 545, 771, 719 | url =http://www.army.mil/cmh/books/korea/20-2-1/toc.htm | isbn =0160019184 }}</ref>

At the end of the Second World War Korea was under-developed industrially and in terms of infrastructure, and famine was widespread as a result of Japanese confiscation of food-stocks. Further worsening Korea's situation: few qualified Korean administrative personnel remained.

==Division of Korea==
{{POV|date=February 2009}}
Though the eventual division of Korea was considered at the ],<ref name="Appleman" /><ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|24-25}} the wishes of the Korean people to be free of foreign interference were not considered.<ref name="Cumings1">{{cite book | last =Cumings | first =Bruce | authorlink =Bruce Cumings | title =Origins of the Korean War | publisher =Princeton University Press |year= 1981| pages =chapter 4 | isbn =89-7696-612-0 | nopp =true }}</ref><ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|25}} British Prime Minister ], Chinese Generalissimo ] and U.S. President ] had stated a determination for Korean independence and freedom at the ].<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|24}}<ref>{{cite book |title= Rogue Regime: Kim Jong Il and the Looming Threat of North Korea|last=Becker |first= Jasper|year= 2005|publisher=Oxford University Press, USA |location= New York|isbn= 019517044X|pages= 52}}</ref> During the earlier ] in February 1945, Soviet Premier ] called for “buffer zones” in both Asia and Europe.<ref name="Goulden17">{{cite book | last =Goulden | first =Joseph C | title = Korea: The Untold Story of the War | publisher =McGraw-Hill |year=1983 | pages =17 | isbn =0070235805 }}</ref> Stalin believed that Russia should have preeminence in China, and the US requested that the USSR join in the war against Japan “three months after the surrender of ].”<ref name ="Goulden17" /> On August 6, 1945, the Soviet Union declared war on the Japanese Empire and, on August 8, it began the liberation on the northern part of the Korean peninsula. As agreed with the United States, the USSR halted its troops at the ] on August 26.<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|24}} However, on September 3, Lt. Gen. John R. Hodge, commander of XXIV Corps and designated U.S. Commander in Korea, received a radio message from Lt. Gen. ], commander of the Japanese 17th Area Army in Korea, reporting that Soviet forces had advanced south of the 38th parallel only in the Kaesong area.<ref name = "Appleman" /> Hodge decided to trust the Japanese reports of events in Korea. U.S. troops arrived in the southern part of the peninsula in early September 1945.<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|25}}

On August 10, 1945, with the Japanese surrender imminent, the American government was unsure whether the Soviets would adhere to the proposal arranged by the U.S. government. A month earlier, Colonels ] and ], after deciding in their 1/2 hour session that at least two major ports should be included in the U.S. zone, had drawn the dividing line at the 38th parallel using a ] map for reference.<ref name ="Appleman" /><ref>{{Citation | last =McCune | first =Shannon C | title =Physical Basis for Korean Boundaries | journal =Far Eastern Quarterly | volume =May 1946 | issue = No. 5 | pages =286–7 |date=1946-05 }}</ref><ref>{{Citation | last = Grajdanzev | first =Andrew | title =Korean Divided | journal =Far Eastern Survey | volume =XIV | pages =282 |date=1945-10 }}</ref><ref>{{Citation | last =Grajdanzev | first =Andrew | title =History of Occupation of Korea | volume =I | issue =ch. 4 | pages =16 }}</ref> Rusk, later ], commented that the American military was “faced with the scarcity of U.S. forces immediately available and time and space factors which would make it difficult to reach very far north before Soviet troops could enter the area.”<ref name="Goulden17" />

The USSR agreed to the 38th parallel being the demarcation between occupation zones in the Korean peninsula, partly to better their position in the negotiations with the ] over ]. It was agreed that the USSR would receive surrendering Japanese troops on the northern part of Korea; the U.S., on the southern side. The Soviet forces entered and liberated the northern part of the peninsula weeks prior to the entry of American forces. In accordance with the arrangements made with the American government, the Soviet forces halted their advance at the 38th parallel.

The American forces arrived in Korea in early September.<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|25}} One of Hodge’s first directives was to restore many Japanese colonial administrators and collaborators to their previous positions of power within Korea. This policy was understandably very unpopular among Koreans who had suffered horribly under Japanese colonial rule for 35 years, and would prove to have enormous consequences for the American occupation.<ref name ="TruceTent" />{{POV-statement|date=February 2009}}

A second policy set forth by Hodge was to refuse to recognize the existing political organizations that had been established by the Korean people. Hodge sought to establish firm U.S. control over events throughout the southern half of the peninsula.<ref name= "FirstYear" /> These policies would help give rise to the later insurrections and guerrilla warfare that preceded the outbreak of the civil war.<ref name="FirstYear" /><ref name="Cumings1">{{cite book | last =Cumings | first =Bruce | authorlink = Bruce Cumings | title =Origins of the Korean War | publisher =Princeton University Press |year= 1981| pages =ch. 3 | isbn = 89-7696-612-0 }}</ref>

In December 1945, the United States and the Soviet Union agreed to administer the country under the U.S.-Soviet Joint Commission, as termed by the ]. It was agreed by the US and the USSR, but not the Koreans, that Korea would govern itself independently after five years of international oversight.<ref>{{cite book |title= Rogue Regime: Kim Jong Il and the Looming Threat of North Korea|last=Becker |first= Jasper|year= 2005|publisher=Oxford University Press, USA |location= New York|isbn= 019517044X|pages= 53}}</ref> However, both the U.S. and the USSR approved Korean-led governments in their respective halves, each of which were favorable to the occupying power’s political ideology.<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|25-26}} Some elements of the population responded with violent insurrections and protests in the South.<ref name="FirstYear" /> The ] tried to contain civil violence by banning strikes on December 8 and outlawing the revolutionary government and the people's committees on December 12. Events spiraled quickly out of US control, however, when Koreans<ref name="Cumings1">{{cite book | last = Cumings | first =Bruce | authorlink =Bruce Cumings | title =Origins of the Korean War | publisher =Princeton University Press |year= 1981| pages =chapter 3 | isbn = 89-7696-612-0 | nopp = true }}</ref> staged a massive strike on September 23, 1946 by 8,000 railway workers in ] which quickly spread to other cities in the South. The ] occurred on October 1, in which police attempts to control rioters caused the death of three student demonstrators and injuries to many others, sparking a mass counter-attack killing 38 policemen. It should be noted that at this time, the vast majority of members of the South Korean police force officers had been members of the Japanese police force during the colonial period.<ref name="Cumings1">{{cite book | last =Cumings | first =Bruce | authorlink =Bruce Cumings | title =Origins of the Korean War | publisher =Princeton University Press |year= 1981| pages =chapter 3 | isbn =89-7696-612-0 | nopp =true }}</ref> When the US forces sided with these former collaborators, it discredited the US in the eyes of many Koreans.<ref name="Cumings1">{{cite book | last =Cumings | first =Bruce | authorlink =Bruce Cumings | title =Origins of the Korean War | publisher =Princeton University Press |year= 1981| pages =ch. 3, 4 | isbn =89-7696-612-0 }}</ref> Over in ], a police station came under attack by a 10,000-strong crowd on October 3, killing over 40 policemen and the county chief. Other attacks killed about 20 landlords and pro-Japanese officials. The US administration responded by declaring ], firing into crowds of demonstrators and killing an unknown number of people.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.greenleft.org.au/2000/412/23267 | publisher | Green Left | work = Historical Feature | title = The Korean War–a war of counter-revolution}}</ref>

In South Korea, an anti-trusteeship right wing group known as the ] emerged, this group came to oppose these U.S. sponsored agreements.<ref>{{cite news |first= |last= |coauthors= |title= For Freedom|curly=y |work= TIME|page= |date= 20 May 1946|accessdate=2008-12-10|quote= Rightist groups in the American zone, loosely amalgamated in the Representative Democratic Council under elder statesman Syngman Rhee, protested heatedly...|url= http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,792877-1,00.html}}</ref> Because Koreans had suffered under Japanese colonization for 35 years, most Koreans opposed another period of foreign control. This opposition caused the U.S. to abandon the Soviet-supported ].<ref>{{cite web |url= http://myhome.shinbiro.com/~mss1/failure.html|title= The Failure of Trusteeship|accessdate=2008-12-10 |work= infoKorea|publisher= |date= }}</ref> The Americans did not want a communist government in South Korea, so they called for elections in all of Korea,<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|26}} but the Soviets opposed this idea.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.mcn.org/e/iii/politics/asian_war/korea_truman_notes.html|title= Korea Notes from Memiors by Harry S. Truman|accessdate=2008-12-10 |work= The U.S. War Against Asia (notes)|publisher=III Publishing |date= |quote=U.S. proposed general elections (U.S. style) but Russia insisted on Moscow Agreement. }}</ref>

The government that emerged was led by ] U.S.-educated ] ], a Korean who had been imprisoned by the Japanese as a young man and later fled to the United States.<ref name = "MacroHistory">{{cite web | title =The Korean War, The U.S. and Soviet Union in Korea | publisher =MacroHistory | url = http://www.fsmitha.com/h2/ch24kor.html | accessdate =2007-08-19 }}</ref> The Soviets, in turn, approved and furthered the rise of a ] government in the North.<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|26}} Bolstered by his history as an anti-Japanese fighter, his political skills, and his connections with the Soviet Union, ] rose to become leader of this new government and crushed any opposition to his rule by the summer of 1947.<ref name = "AMH" /> In the south, those who supported Communism were driven into hiding in the hills, where they prepared for a guerrilla war against the American-supported government.<ref name = "AMH" />

{{History of Korea}}

South Korean President Syngman Rhee and North Korean ] Kim Il-Sung were each intent on reuniting the peninsula under his own system.<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|27}} Partly because of numbers of Soviet tanks and heavy arms, the North Koreans were able to escalate ongoing border clashes and go on the offensive,<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|27}} while South Korea, with only limited American backing, had far fewer options. The American government believed at the time that the ] was a unified monolith, and that North Korea acted within this monolith as a pawn of the Soviet Union.

==Course==
===Invasion of South Korea===
{{Speculation|date=August 2008}}

In a little known event prior to the start of the Korean War, a CIA officer named Douglas MacKiernan stationed in China gathered intelligence that predicted the war. MacKiernan had volunteered to stay in China when all other diplomats had left the country. He gathered valuable intelligence on the intent of the North Koreans and their ally the Chinese. He and his local CIA trained security were forced to flee and they spent months trying to get over the Himalayas on horse back. MacKiernan was killed within miles of the Tibetian town of Lhasa. His men did make it with this valuable information and they turned it over to the US officials there. The North Koreans crossed the 38th parallel 13 days later. MacKiernan received the CIA's award for valor, the coveted ], for his actions. <ref>Gup, Ted (2000). The Book of Honor: Cover Lives and Classified Deaths at the CIA.</ref>

Under the guise of a counter-attack, the ] struck in the pre-dawn hours of Sunday, June 25, 1950, crossing the 38th parallel behind a firestorm of artillery.<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|14}} The North claimed ] (ROK) troops under the “bandit traitor ]" had crossed the border first, and that Rhee would be arrested and executed.<ref name= "Appleman" /> While certainly true that both Southern and Northern militaries had for the past year exchanged gunfire and crossed over the 38th parallel, the attack on June 25 was considered by some nations to be an extension of the North's plan to unify the country and not a direct result of a particular attack from the South.

The ] was convened in a few hours and passed the ] condemning the North Korean aggression unanimously. The resolution was adopted mainly because the Soviet Union, a ], had been boycotting proceedings since January, in protest that the ] (Taiwan) and not the People's Republic of China ] on the council.<ref>{{cite book | last=Malkasian | first =Carter| title= The Korean War: Essential Histories | publisher= Osprey Publishing | year =2001 |pages =p.16}}</ref> President Truman had made a statement on June 27, 1950 ordering the United States air and sea forces to give the South Korean regime support. While the ] was convened and had been debating the issue from the invasion forward it only issued ] on June 27 which definitively recommended member-states militarily assist the Republic of Korea. The Soviet Union's foreign minister accused the United States of starting armed intervention on behalf of the Republic of Korea before the Security Council was summoned to meet on June 27, and confronting the UN with a fait accompli.<ref></ref>

Critics charged that the information on this resolution was based on U.S. sources referring to reports of the South Korean army. The DPRK was not invited to sit as a temporary member in the UN which some say violated Article 32 of the UN Charter. It was argued that the situation in Korea did not fall within the scope of the UN Charter since the initial clashes between North and South Korean forces would have to be classified as a civil war. Since the USSR representative decided to boycott the United Nations with the announced purpose of preventing action by the Security Council, the legality of UN action was challenged; legal scholars argued that unanimity among the five permanent members was required to take action on important matters.<ref>.</ref><ref>.</ref>

At the outbreak of war, the North Korean Army was equipped with 274 ] tanks, about 150 ] fighters, 110 attack bombers, 200 artillery pieces, 78 YAK trainers and 35 reconnaissance planes. Around 231,000 North Korean soldiers invaded South Korea.<ref name="Appleman" /> These forces were assigned to the invasion while 114 more fighters, 78 bombers, 105 ] tanks, and 30,000 were stationed in North Korea. Their navy had several small warships, and launched attacks on the South Korean Navy. North Korea's logistics system was able to quickly move supplies south as the army advanced. Thousands of Korean civilians running south were forced to hand-carry supplies, many of whom later died in North Korean air attacks.{{Fact|date=September 2008}}

According to Roy E. Appleman in "South to the Naktong - North to the Yalu", the South Korean Army had 98,000 soldiers of whom only 65,000 were combat troops. Unlike their northern opponents the South Korean military had no tanks at all, and the South Korean air force consisted of a mere 12 liaison-type aircraft and 10 advance trainers (AT6). There were no large foreign combat units in the country when the war began, but there were large American forces stationed in nearby Japan.<ref name= "Appleman" />

The North's well-planned attack with about 231,000 troops achieved surprise and quick successes.<ref name="Appleman" /> North Korea attacked a number of key places including ], ], ] and ].

Within days, South Korean forces, often of dubious loyalty to the Southern regime, were in full retreat or defecting en masse to the North.<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|23}} As the ground attack continued, the North Korean Air Force conducted bombing of ] near ]. North Korean forces occupied Seoul on the afternoon of June 28. An air battle took place over the city in which 37 South Korean fighters were shot down while only 9 North Korean fighters were downed. Two days later, the largest battle between only North and South Korean forces happened. The North Koreans destroyed 89 tanks, 76 artillery pieces, 19 bombers, and 21 fighters. South Korean casualties were 7,000, while 16,000 were captured. Many of these South Koreans later fought for North Korea. Many South Koreans deserted after the battle.{{Fact|date=September 2008}} However, North Korea's hope for a quick surrender by the Rhee government and the reunification of the peninsula evaporated when the United States and other foreign powers intervened with UN approval.{{Fact|date=September 2008}}

===U.S. intervention===
{{Unreferenced|date=September 2008}}

Despite the post-World War II demobilization of U.S. and allied forces, which caused serious supply problems for American troops in the region,<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|42}} the United States still had substantial forces in Japan to oppose the North Korean military. These American forces were under the command of ] ]. Apart from ] units, no other nation could supply sizable manpower.

On Saturday June 24th, President ] received an emergency phone call from Secretary of State ] informing him that the forces of the Communist government of North Korea had crossed the 38th Parallel and invaded the American-backed South Korea.<ref> ''Hess, Gary R. Presidential Decisions for War : Korea, Vietnam and the Persian Gulf. New York: Johns Hopkins UP, 2001.'' </ref> Truman and Acheson began extensive discussions of the unfolding events and assembled a meeting of top state and defense department officials. The officials shared a conviction that the United States was obligated to respond to blatant acts of aggression.<ref>Graebner, Norman A. The Age of Global Power: The United States Since 1939. Vol. V3641. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1979.</ref> The group drew parallels with Hitler's aggressions in the 1930s and believed that the mistakes of ] could not be repeated. President Truman recognized the situation as critically relevant to the global containment of communism:

<blockquote>
Communism was acting in Korea, just as Hitler, Mussolini and the Japanese had ten, fifteen, and twenty years earlier. I felt certain that if South Korea was allowed to fall communist leaders would be emboldened to override nations closer to our own shores. If the Communists were permitted to force their way into the Republic of Korea without opposition from the free world, no small nation would have the courage to resist threat and aggression by stronger communist neighbors.
</blockquote><ref>Truman, Harry S. The Autobiography of Harry S. Truman. Ed. Robert H. Ferrell. New York: University P of Colorado, 1981. 1955</ref>

American intentions were announced as President Truman issued, in his first public statement concerning the fighting, that the United States of Government would counter "unprovoked aggression" and "vigorously support the effort of the security council to terminate this serious breach of peace".<ref>Hess, Gary R. Presidential Decisions for War : Korea, Vietnam and the Persian Gulf. New York: Johns Hopkins UP, 2001.</ref> In Congress, the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, ], spoke out against "appeasement" and declared that Korea was as good a place as any "for drawing the line" against Communist expansion. Truman and Acheson then prepared Congress to appropriate funds for additional military expenses essential to the goals of ] and in August 1950, $12 billion for military expenses in Asia was authorized.<ref>Hess, Gary R. Presidential Decisions for War : Korea, Vietnam and the Persian Gulf. New York: Johns Hopkins UP, 2001</ref>

Upon the recommendation of Acheson, U.S. President Truman then ordered MacArthur to transfer ammunition, arms and equipment to the ROK Army while using air cover to protect the evacuation of U.S. citizens. Truman did not agree with his advisors, who called for unilateral U.S. airstrikes against the North Korean forces, but did order the ] to protect ]'s ]. The ] (confined to the island of ]) asked to participate in the war. Their request was denied by the Americans who felt that it would only encourage intervention by the People's Republic of China (PRC).<ref>Korea: The Limited War|Rees|David |1964|MacMillan|London|p. 27</ref>
]
The first significant foreign military intervention was the American ], part of the ]'s ] based in Japan.<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|45}} On July 5, it fought for the first time at ] and was immediately defeated with 1,416 casualties and 785 taken prisoner.<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|45-47}} The victorious North Korean forces advanced southwards, and the 24th Division was forced to retreat to ], which also fell to the Northern forces.<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|48}} There were 3,602 casualties and 2,962 soldiers taken prisoner, along with Major General ], commander of the division.<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|48}} 18 American fighters were shot down in this battle compared to five North Korean fighters. 29 U.S. bombers were shot down by North Korean fighters and anti-aircraft fire in these actions.

By August, the South Korean forces and the ] under General ] had been driven back into a small area in the southeast corner of the Korean peninsula around the city of ].<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|53}} As the North Koreans advanced, they rounded up and killed civil servants.<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|56}} On August 20, MacArthur sent a message warning Kim Il Sung that he would be held responsible for further atrocities committed against UN troops.<ref name="MacroHistory" /><ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|56}}

By September, only the area around Pusan—about 10 percent of the Korean peninsula—was still in coalition hands. With the aid of massive American supplies, naval and air support, as well as ground reinforcements, the UN forces managed to stabilize a line along the ]. This desperate holding action became known in the United States as the ].

===Escalation of the Korean war===
]
In the face of fierce North Korean attacks, the allied defense became a desperate battle called the ] by Americans. However, the North Koreans failed to capture Pusan.

American air power arrived in force, flying 40 ] per day in ground support actions{{Fact|date=January 2008}} ]s (mostly ] based in Japan) closed most rail and road traffic by day, and destroyed 32 critical bridges necessary for the conduct of warfare.<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|47-48}} Trains used by military and civilians alike waited out the daylight hours in tunnels.<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|66}}

Throughout all parts of Korea, the American bombers knocked out the main supply dumps and eliminated oil refineries and seaports that handled imports. The bombing was designed to starve North Korean forces of ammunition and other martial supplies. Naval air power also attacked transportation choke points. The North Korean forces were already strung out over the peninsula, and the destruction caused by American bombers prevented needed supplies from reaching North Korean forces in the south.<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|58}}

Meanwhile, supply bases in Japan were pouring weapons and soldiers into Pusan.<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|59-60}} American tank battalions were rushed in from ]; by late August, America had over 500 medium tanks in the Pusan perimeter.<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|61}} By early September, UN-ROK forces were decidedly more powerful and outnumbered the North Koreans by 180,000 to 100,000. At that point, they began a counterattack.<ref name= "Appleman" /><ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|61}}

===South Korean and allied forces move north===
{{main|Battle of Incheon}}

In the face of these overwhelming reinforcements, the North Korean forces found themselves undermanned and with weak logistical support.<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|61}} They also lacked the substantial naval and air support of the Americans.<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|58}} In order to alleviate pressure on the Pusan Perimeter, General MacArthur, as UN ] for Korea, argued for an ] far behind the North Korean lines at ].<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|67}}

The violent tides and strong enemy presence made this an extremely risky operation.<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|66-67}} MacArthur had started planning a few days after the war began, but he had been strongly opposed by ].<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|67}} When he finally received permission, MacArthur activated the ] under General ] (comprising 70,000 troops of the ] and the Army's ] and augmented by 8,600 Korean troops) and ordered them to land at Incheon in Operation Chromite.<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|68}} By the time of the attack on September 15, thanks to reconnaissance by ]s, misinformation and extensive shelling prior to the invasion, the North Korean military had few soldiers stationed in Incheon, so the U.S. forces met only light resistance when they landed, though extensive shelling and bombing destroyed much of the city.<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|70}}

The landing was a decisive victory, as X Corps rolled over the few defenders and threatened to trap the main North Korean army.<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|71-72}} MacArthur quickly recaptured Seoul.<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|77}} The North Koreans, almost cut off, rapidly retreated northwards; about 25,000 to 30,000 made it back.<ref name="Schnabel">{{cite book | last =Schnabel | first =James F | title =United States Army In The Korean War: Policy And Direction: The First Year | publisher =Center of Military History |year=1992 | pages =155–92, 212, 283–4, 288–9, 304 | url = http://www.army.mil/cmh/books/P&D.HTM | isbn =0-16-035955-4 }}</ref><ref name="KIMH">{{cite book | last =Korea Institute of Military History | first = | title =The Korean War: Korea Institute of Military History 3 Volume Set | publisher =Bison Books, University of Nebraska Press | pages =vol. 1, p.730, vol. 2, pp. 512–529 | isbn =0803277946 | nopp =true }}</ref>

===Invasion of North Korea===
{{main|UN Offensive, 1950}}
The United Nations troops drove the North Koreans back past the 38th parallel.<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|79-94}}

]
The UN forces crossed into North Korea in early October 1950.<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|81}} The U.S. X Corps made amphibious landings at ] and ], which had already been captured by South Korean forces advancing by land.<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|87-88}} The Eighth U.S. Army, along with the South Koreans, drove up the western side of Korea and captured ] on October 19.<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|90}} By the end of October, the North Korean Army was rapidly disintegrating, and the UN took 135,000 prisoners.

The UN offensive greatly concerned the Chinese, who worried that the UN forces would not stop at the ], the border between North Korea and China, and might extend their rollback policy into China.<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|83}} Many in the West, including General MacArthur, thought that spreading the war to China would be necessary and that since North Korean troops were being supplied by bases in China, those supply depots should be bombed. However, Truman and the other leaders disagreed, and MacArthur was ordered to be very cautious when approaching the Chinese border.<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|83}}

===Chinese intervention===
On June 27, 1950, before China entered the conflict, President Truman ordered the 7th Fleet to enter the Taiwan Straits, in order to protect Taiwan from Chinese Communist forces.<ref>http://history.sandiego.edu/GEN/20th/korea.html</ref> The PRC warned American leaders through neutral diplomats that it would intervene to protect its ].<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|83}} Truman regarded the warnings as “a bald attempt to blackmail the U.N.” and did not take it seriously.<ref>Another Such Victory: President Truman and the Cold War, 1945–1953, p. 390, Published 2002 Stanford University Press, ISBN 0804747741.</ref> The PRC Government argued that in making Japan its main war base in the Far East, launching an invasion against Korea and the Chinese province of Taiwan, and carrying out active intervention in other countries in Asia, the United States was building up a military encirclement of China.<ref>Yearbook of the United Nations, 1950.</ref> The PRC Government reported that prior to China's entry in the Korean conflict, the United States violated Chinese airspace, bombing peaceful towns and villages.<ref>Communist China's Changing Attitudes Toward the United Nations, International Organization, Vol. 20, No. 4 (Autumn, 1966), pp. 677–704.</ref>

On October 15, 1950, Truman went to ] for a short, highly publicized meeting with MacArthur.<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|88}} MacArthur, saying he was speculating, saw little risk.<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|89}} MacArthur explained that the Chinese had lost their window of opportunity to help North Korea's invasion. He estimated the Chinese had 300,000 soldiers in ], with between 100,000-125,000 men along the Yalu; half could be brought across the Yalu. But the Chinese had no air force; hence, “if the Chinese tried to get down to Pyongyang, there would be the greatest slaughter.”<ref name="Schnabel" /><ref>{{cite book | last =Donovan | first =Robert J | title = Tumultuous Years: The Presidency of Harry S. Truman 1949-1953 | publisher =University of Missouri Press |year=1996 | pages =285 | url = | isbn =0826210856 }}</ref>

]
On October 8, 1950, the day after American troops crossed the 38th parallel, Chairman ] issued the order to assemble the ]. Seventy percent of the members of the PVA were Chinese regulars from the Chinese ]. Mao ordered the army to move to the Yalu River, ready to cross.{{Fact|date=March 2008}} Mao sought Soviet aid and saw intervention as defensive of the broader revolutionary situation in Asia: “If we allow the United States to occupy all of Korea, Korean revolutionary power will suffer a fundamental defeat, and the American invaders will run more rampant, and have negative effects for the entire Far East.” he told Stalin. Premier ] was sent to ] to add force to Mao's cabled arguments. Mao delayed while waiting for substantial Soviet help, postponing the planned attack from October 13 to October 19. However, Soviet assistance was limited to providing air support no nearer than sixty miles (100&nbsp;km) from the battlefront. The Soviet ]s in PRC colors did pose a serious challenge to UN pilots. In one area, nicknamed “]” by UN forces, they held local air superiority against the American-made ] until the newer ]s were deployed. The Chinese were angry at the limited extent of Soviet involvement, having assumed that they had been promised full scale air support.{{Fact|date=March 2008}}

The Chinese made contact with American troops on November 1, 1950. Thousands of Chinese had attacked from the north, northwest, and west against scattered U.S. and South Korean (Republic of Korea or ROK) units moving deep into North Korea. The Chinese seemed to come out of nowhere as they swarmed around the flanks and over the defensive positions of the surprised United Nations (UN) troops.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.history.army.mil/brochures/kw-chinter/chinter.htm | title = The Korean War: The Chinese Intervention | publisher = US Army}}</ref>

The Chinese march and ] discipline also minimized any possible detection.<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|102}} In a well-documented instance, a Chinese army of three ] marched on foot from An-tung in Manchuria, on the north side of the Yalu River, 286 miles (460&nbsp;km) to its assembly area in North Korea, in the combat zone, in a period ranging from 16 to 19 days. One division of this army, marching at night over circuitous mountain roads, averaged 18 miles (29&nbsp;km) per day for 18 days. The day's march began after dark at 19:00 and ended at 03:00 the next morning. Defense measures against aircraft were to be completed before 05:30. Every man, animal, and piece of equipment were to be concealed and camouflaged. During daylight, bivouac scouting parties moved ahead to select the next day's bivouac area. When Chinese units were compelled for any reason to march by day, they were under standing orders for every man to stop in his tracks and remain motionless if aircraft appeared overhead.<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|102}} Officers were empowered to shoot any man who violated this order.<ref name ="Appleman" />

]]]
In late November, the Chinese struck in the west, along the Chongchon River, and completely overran several South Korean divisions and successfully landed a heavy blow to the flank of the remaining UN forces.<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|98-99}} The ensuing defeat of the U.S. Eighth Army resulted in the longest retreat of any American military unit in history.<ref>{{cite book | last =Cohen | first =Eliot A | coauthors = Gooch, John | title =Military Misfortunes: The Anatomy of Failure in War | publisher =Free Press |year=2005 | pages =165–195 | url = | isbn =0743280822 }}</ref> Mostly due to the successful but very costly rear-guard action by the ] at ] during November 26 to 30th, which slowed the Chinese onslaught by 3-4 days, the U.S. ] escaped complete annihilation by the Chinese. In the east, at the ], a 30,000 man unit from the ] and ] was also unprepared for the Chinese tactics and was soon surrounded, though they eventually managed to escape the ], albeit with over 15,000 casualties, after inflicting heavy{{Specify|date=July 2008}} casualties on six Chinese divisions.<ref>{{cite book | last =Hopkins | first =William | title =One Bugle No Drums: The Marines at Chosin Reservoir | publisher =Algonquin |year=1986 | location = | pages = | url = | isbn = }}</ref>

While the Chinese soldiers initially lacked heavy fire support and light infantry weapons, their tactics quickly adapted to this disadvantage, as explained by ] in his book '']'':

{{quote|The usual method was to infiltrate small units, from a ] of fifty men to a ] of 200, split into separate detachments. While one team cut off the escape route of the Americans, the others struck both the front and the flanks in concerted assaults. The attacks continued on all sides until the defenders were destroyed or forced to withdraw. The Chinese then crept forward to the open flank of the next platoon position, and repeated the tactics.}}

Roy Appleman further clarified the initial Chinese tactics as:

{{quote|In the First Phase Offensive, highly skilled enemy light infantry troops had carried out the Chinese attacks, generally unaided by any weapons larger than mortars. Their attacks had demonstrated that the Chinese were well-trained disciplined fire fighters, and particularly adept at night fighting. They were masters of the art of camouflage. Their patrols were remarkably successful in locating the positions of the UN forces. They planned their attacks to get in the rear of these forces, cut them off from their escape and supply roads, and then send in frontal and flanking attacks to precipitate the battle. They also employed a tactic which they termed Hachi Shiki, which was a V-formation into which they allowed enemy forces to move; the sides of the V then closed around their enemy while another force moved below the mouth of the V to engage any forces attempting to relieve the trapped unit. Such were the tactics the Chinese used with great success at Onjong, Unsan, and Ch'osan but with only partial success at Pakch'on and the Ch'ongch'on bridgehead.<ref name="Appleman" />}}

The U.S. forces in northeast Korea, who had rushed forward with great speed only a few months earlier, were forced to race southwards with even greater speed and form a defensive perimeter around the port city of ], where a major evacuation was carried out in late December 1950.<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|104-111}} Facing complete defeat and surrender, 193 shiploads of American men and material were evacuated from Hungnam Harbor, and about 105,000 soldiers, 98,000 civilians, 17,500 vehicles, and 350,000 tons of supplies were shipped to Pusan in orderly fashion.<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|110}} As they left, the American forces blew up large portions of the city to deny its use to the communists, depriving many Korean civilians of shelter during the winter.<ref name ="Schnabel" /><ref>{{Citation | last =Rear Admiral Doyle | first =James H | last2 =Mayer | first2 =Arthur J | title =December 1950 at Hungnam | journal =U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings | volume =vol. 105 | issue =no. 4 | pages =44–65 |date=April 1979}}</ref>

==Aftermath of Chosin Battle-Operation Glory==
Following the conflict, the United Nations troop casualties were buried at a temporary gravesite near Hŭngnam. Operation Glory occurred from July to November 1954, during which the dead of each side were exchanged; remains of 4,167 U.S. soldiers and marines were exchanged for 13,528 North Korean and Chinese dead. In addition, 546 civilians who died in United Nations prisoner of war camps were turned over to the South Korean government.<ref name=OperationGlory>{{cite web|accessdate=2007-12-16
|url=http://www.qmmuseum.lee.army.mil/korea/op_glory.htm
|title=Operation Glory
|publisher=Army Quartermaster Museum, U.S. Army
|location:Fort Lee, Virginia}}</ref> After "Operation Glory" 416 Korean War "unknowns" were buried in the ]. According to a DPMO white paper <ref></ref> 1,394 names were also transmitted during "Operation Glory" from the Chinese and North Koreans {of whom 858 names proved to be correct}; of the 4,167 returned remains were found to be 4,219 individuals of whom 2,944 were found to be Americans of whom all but 416 were identified by name. Of 239 Korean War unaccounted for: 186 not associated with Punchbowl unknowns {176 were identified and of the remaining 10 cases 4 were non-Americans of Asiatic descent; one was British; 3 were identified and 2 cases unconfirmed}. In 1990-1994 North Korea excavated and returned more than 200 sets of remains-very few have been identifed-due to co-mingling of remains.<ref></ref>From 1996 to 2006 220 remains were recovered from near the Chinese border. <ref></ref>

===Fighting across the 38th Parallel (early 1951)===
] bomb supply warehouses in Wonsan, North Korea, 1951.]]

In January 1951, the Chinese and North Korean forces struck again in their 3rd Phase Offensive (also known as the ''Chinese Winter Offensive''). The Chinese repeated their previous tactics of mostly night attacks, with a stealthy approach from positions some distance from the front, followed by a rush with overwhelming numbers, and using trumpets or gongs both for communication and to disorient their foes. Against this the UN forces had no remedy, and their resistance crumbled; they retreated rapidly to the south (referred to by UN forces as the “bug-out”).<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|117}} Seoul was abandoned and was captured by communist forces on January 4, 1951.

To add to the Eighth Army's difficulties, General Walker was killed in an accident.<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|111}} He was replaced by a World War II airborne veteran, Lieutenant-General ], who took immediate steps to raise the morale and fighting spirit of the battered Eighth Army, which had fallen to low levels during its retreat.<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|113}} Nevertheless, the situation was so grim that MacArthur mentioned the use of ]s against China, much to the alarm of America's allies.{{Fact|date=May 2008}}

UN forces continued to retreat until they had reached a line south of ] in the west and ] in the center, and north of ] in the east, where the front stabilized.<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|117}} The People's Volunteer Army had outrun its supply line and was forced to recoil.<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|118}} The Chinese could not go beyond Seoul because they were at the end of their logistics supply line{{Fact|date=March 2008}}&nbsp;— all food and ammunition had to be carried at night on foot or bicycle from the Yalu River.

In late January, finding the lines in front of his forces deserted, Ridgway ordered reconnaissance in force, which developed into a full-scale offensive, ].<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|121}} The operation was planned to proceed gradually, to make full use of the UN's superiority in firepower on the ground and in the air;<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|120}} by the time ''Roundup'' was completed in early February, UN forces had reached the Han River and re-captured Wonju.<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|121}}

The Chinese struck back in mid-February with their Fourth Phase Offensive, from ] in the center against ] positions around ].<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|121}} A short but desperate siege there fought by units of the ], including the ], broke up the offensive;<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|121}} in this action, the UN learned how to deal with Chinese offensive tactics and be able to stand their ground.

Roundup was followed in the last two weeks of February 1951, with ], by a revitalized Eighth Army, restored by Ridgway to fighting trim.<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|121}} This was a full-scale offensive across the front, again staged to maximize firepower and with the aim of destroying as much of the Chinese and North Korean armies as possible.<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|121}} By the end of ''Killer'', ] had re-occupied all territory south of the Han, while IX Corps had captured Hoengsong.<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|122}}

On March 7, 1951, the Eighth Army pushed forward again, in ], and on March 14 they expelled the North Korean and Chinese troops from Seoul, the fourth time in a year the city had changed hands.<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|122}} Seoul was in utter ruins; its prewar population of 1.5 million had dropped to 200,000, with severe food shortages.<ref name ="KIMH" />

MacArthur was removed from command by President Truman on April 11, 1951 for ], setting off a firestorm of protest back in the U.S.<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|123-127}} The new supreme commander was Ridgway, who had managed to regroup UN forces for the series of effective counter-offensives.<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|127}} Command of Eighth Army passed to General ].<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|130}}

]
A further series of attacks slowly drove back the communist forces, such as Operations ] and ], a combined ground- and air-assault to trap communist forces between ] and ]. UN forces continued to advance until they reached Line Kansas, some miles north of the 38th parallel.<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|131}}

The Chinese were far from beaten, however; In April 1951 they launched their Fifth Phase Offensive (also called the ''Chinese Spring Offensive'').<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|131}} This was a major effort, involving three field armies (up to 700,000 men).<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|132}} The main blow fell on I Corps, but fierce resistance in battles at the ] and ], blunted its impetus, and the Chinese were halted at a defensive line north of Seoul (referred to as the ''No-Name Line'').<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|133-134}}

A further Communist offensive in the east against ROK and X Corps on May 15 also made initial gains, but by May 20 the attack had ground to a halt.<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|136-137}} Eighth Army counterattacked and by the end of May had regained Line Kansas.<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|137-138}}

The decision by UN forces to halt at Line Kansas, just north of the 38th Parallel, and not to persist in offensive action into North Korea, ushered in the period of stalemate which typified the remainder of the conflict.

===Stalemate (July 1951–July 1953)===
The rest of the war involved little territory change,<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|175-177}} large-scale bombing of the north,<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|175-177}} and lengthy peace negotiations, which began on July 10, 1951 at ].<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|145}} Even during the peace negotiations, combat continued. For the South Korean and allied forces, the goal was to recapture all of South Korea before an agreement was reached in order to avoid loss of any territory.<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|159}} The Chinese and North Koreans attempted similar operations, and later in the war they undertook operations designed to test the resolve of the UN to continue the conflict. Principal military engagements in this period were the actions around the Punchbowl,<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|159-163}} in the east, such as ]<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|160}} and ]<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|161-162}} in 1951, the battles for ], in the center, and the ], in the west, during 1952–53,<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|205-207}} ] in 1952, the sieges of ] and the battle for ] in 1953.
]

The peace negotiations went on for two years,<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|144-153}} first at Kaesong, and later at ].<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|147}} A major issue of the negotiations was repatriation of ].<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|187-199}} The Communists agreed to voluntary repatriation but only if the majority would return to China or North Korea, something that did not occur.<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{189-190}} Since many refused to be repatriated to the communist North Korea and China, the war continued until the Communists eventually dropped this issue.<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|242-245}}

In October 1951, U.S. forces performed ] intending to establish the capability to use ]s. Several B-29s conducted individual simulated bomb runs from ] to North Korea, delivering “dummy” nuclear bombs or heavy conventional bombs; the operation was coordinated from ] in Japan. The battle exercise was intended to test “actual functioning of all activities which would be involved in an atomic strike, including weapons assembly and testing, leading, ground control of bomb aiming,” and so on. The results indicated that nuclear bombs would be less effective than anticipated, because “timely identification of large masses of enemy troops was extremely rare.”<ref>{{Citation | last =Hasbrouck | first =S. V | title =memo to file (November 7, 1951), G-3 Operations file, box 38-A | publisher =Library of Congress | year =1951 }}</ref><ref>{{Citation | last =Army Chief of Staff | title =memo to file (November 20, 1951), G-3 Operations file, box 38-A | publisher =Library of Congress | year =1951 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last =Watson | first =Robert J | coauthors =Schnabel, James F. | title =The Joint Chiefs of Staff and National Policy, 1950–1951, The Korean War and 1951–1953, The Korean War (History of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Volume III, Parts I and II) | publisher =Office of Joint History, Office of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff |year=1998 | pages =part 1, p. v; part 2, p. 614 | nopp =true }}</ref><ref>{{Citation | last =Commanding General, Far East Air Force | title =Memo to 98th Bomb Wing Commander, Okinawa | year =1951 }}</ref><ref>{{Citation | last =Far East Command G-2 Theater Intelligence | title =Resumé of Operation, Record Group 349, box 752 | year =1951 }}</ref>

On November 29, 1952, U.S. President-elect ] fulfilled a campaign promise by going to Korea to find out what could be done to end the conflict.<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|240}} With the UN's acceptance of India's proposal for a Korean ], a ] was established on July 27, 1953, by which time the front line was back around the proximity of the 38th parallel, and so a ] (DMZ) was established around it, presently defended by North Korean troops on one side and by South Korean, American and UN troops on the other. The DMZ runs north of the parallel towards the east, and to the south as it travels west. The site of the peace talks, ], the old capital of Korea, was part of the South before hostilities broke out but is now part of the North. North Korea and the United States signed the ], with Syngman Rhee refusing to sign.<ref>{{cite web | title =Syngman Rhee Biography: Rhee Attacks Peace Proceedings | publisher =Korean War Commemoration Biographies | url =http://korea50.army.mil/history/biographies/rhee.shtml | accessdate =2007-08-22 }}</ref>

==Casualties==
] for South African casualties.]]
The total numbers of casualties suffered by all parties involved may never be known. Each country's self-reported casualties were largely based upon troop movements, unit rosters, battle casualty reports, and medical records.

The Western numbers of Chinese and/or North Korean casualties are based primarily on battle reports of estimated casualties, interrogation of POWs and captured documents.

The Chinese estimation of UN casualties states that the joint declaration of the Chinese People's Volunteers and the Korean People's Army said their forces "eliminated 1.09 million enemy forces, including 390,000 from the United States, 660,000 from South Korean, and 29,000 from other countries." The vague "eliminated" number gave no details to that of dead, wounded and captured. Regarding their own casualties, the same source said that "the Chinese People's Volunteers suffered 148,000 deaths altogether (among which 114,000 died in combat, incidents, and winterkill, 21,000 died after being hospitalized and 13,000 died from diseases); 380,000 were wounded and 29,000 missing, including 21,400 POWs (of whom 14,000 were sent to Taiwan, 7,110 were repatriated)." This same source concluded with these numbers for North Korean casualties, "the Korean People's Army had 290,000 casualties and 90,000 POWs; there was a large number of civilian deaths in the northern part of Korea, but no accurate figures were available."<ref>{{cite web | last = Xu | first = Yan | authorlink = Xu Yan | title =Korean War: In the View of Cost-effectiveness | publisher = Consulate General of the People's Republic of China in New York | date = ] | url = http://www.nyconsulate.prchina.org/eng/xw/t31430.htm | accessdate = 2007-08-12 }}</ref>

The casulties of the various UN forces are listed in the infobox, along with their estimates of Chinese and North Korean forces.

==Characteristics==
===Armored warfare===
] fires its 76 mm gun at enemy bunkers on “Napalm Ridge,” in support of the 8th ROK Division May 11, 1952.]]
In the initial invasion stage of the war, North Korean armor was able to establish dominance using their Soviet-supplied ] medium tanks.<ref>{{cite book |title= A Short History of the Korean War|last=Stokesbury |first= James L|year= 1990|publisher=Harper Perennial |location= New York|isbn= 0688095135|pages= 14, 43}}</ref> The WW2-vintage North Korean tanks were facing a South Korean force with no tanks of their own and few modern anti-tank weapons.<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|39}}

] to the later, larger M20 model]]
The South Korean army had anti-tank rockets but these were World War II vintage 2.36 inch (60&nbsp;mm) M9 ]s. The bazooka rocket could easily penetrate the 45&nbsp;mm side armor of the ] at any range, but the bazooka was nonetheless found to be ineffective.{{Fact|date=March 2008}}

As U.S. forces arrived in Korea, they were accompanied only by light ] tanks which had been left in Japan for post-WWII occupation duties (heavier tanks would have torn up Japanese roads).{{Fact|date=March 2008}} These light tanks were ineffective against the larger North Korean ].{{Fact|date=March 2008}} U.S. 105&nbsp;mm howitzers were used on at least one occasion to fire ] ammunition over open sights.{{Fact|date=March 2008}}

As the U.S. buildup continued, shipments of heavier American tanks such as the ], the ], the ], and the British ] as well as American and Allied ground attack aircraft were able to reverse the Communists' tank advantage.<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|182-184}}

However, in contrast to World War II's heavy emphasis on armor, few open tank battles actually occurred over the course of the Korean War. The country's heavily forested and mountainous terrain, as well as the poor road network, meant that tanks were able to operate only in small groups.

===Air warfare===
{{see|MiG Alley|United States Air Force Aircraft of the Korean War}}
] shot down by an ] over ]]]
] were shot down by communist aircraft.]]

The Korean War was one of the last major wars where propeller-powered fighters such as the ], ] and ]-based ] and ] were used.<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|174}} ] fighter aircraft such as ] and ]s came to dominate the skies, overwhelming North Korea’s propeller-driven ]s and ]s.<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|182}}

From 1950, North Koreans began flying the Soviet-made ] jet fighters, some of which were piloted by experienced ] pilots, a '']''<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|182}} deliberately overlooked by the UN allied forces who were reluctant to engage in open war with the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China. At first, UN jet fighters, which also included ] ], had some success, but the superior quality of the MiGs soon held sway over the first-generation jets used by the UN early in the war.<ref>{{cite web | last =CW2 Sewell | first =Stephen L | title = FEAF/U.N. Aircraft Used in Korea and Losses by Type | publisher =Korean-War.com | url =http://korean-war.com/AirWar/AircraftType-LossList.html | accessdate =2007-08-22 }}</ref>

In December 1950, the ] began using the ].<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|183}} The MiG could fly higher, 50,000 vs. {{convert|42000|ft|m|-2}}, offering a distinct advantage at the start of combat. In level flight, their maximum speeds were comparable&nbsp;— about {{convert|660|mi/h|km/h|-1|abbr=on}}. The MiG could climb better, while the Sabre could turn and dive better. For weapons, the MiG carried two 23&nbsp;mm and one 37&nbsp;mm cannon, compared to the Sabre’s six .50 (12.7&nbsp;mm) caliber machine guns. The American .50 caliber machine guns, while not packing the same punch, carried many more rounds and were aimed with a superior ]. The U.S. pilots also had the advantage of ]s, which were used for the first time in this war. However, maintenance was an issue with the Sabre, and a large proportion of the UN air strength was grounded because of repairs during the war.{{Fact|date=March 2008}}

Even after the Air Force introduced the advanced F-86, its pilots often struggled against the jets piloted by Soviet pilots.{{Fact|date=March 2008}} The UN gradually gained ] over most of Korea that lasted until the end of the war&nbsp;— a decisive factor in helping the UN first advance into the north, and then resist the Chinese invasion of South Korea.<ref name="Stokesbury1990"/>{{rp|182-184}} The Chinese and North Koreans also had jet power, but their training and experience were limited. With the introduction of the F-86F in late 1952, the Soviet and American aircraft had virtually identical performance characteristics.

After the war, the USAF claimed 792 MiG-15s and 108 additional aircraft shot down by Sabres for the loss of 78 Sabres, a ratio in excess of 10:1.{{Fact|date=January 2008}} Some post-war research has been able to confirm only 379 victories, although the USAF continues to maintain its official credits and the debate is possibly irreconcilable.

The Soviets claimed about 1,100 air-to-air victories and 335 combat MiG losses at that time. China's official losses were 231 planes shot down in air-to-air combat (mostly MiG-15) and 168 other losses. The number of losses of the North Korean Air Force was not revealed. It is estimated that it lost about 200 aircraft in the first stage of the war, and another 70 aircraft after Chinese intervention. Soviet claims of 650 victories over the Sabres, and China's claims of another 211 F-86s, are considered to be exaggerated by the USAF. According to a recent U.S. publication, the number of F-86s ever present in the Korean peninsula during the war totaled only 674{{Fact|date=October 2008}} and the total F-86 losses from all causes were about 230.<ref>{{cite web | title = Korean War Aces, USAF F-86 Sabre jet pilots | publisher =AcePilots.com | url =http://www.acepilots.com/korea_aces.html | accessdate = 2007-08-22 }}</ref>

Direct comparison of Sabre and MiG losses seem irrelevant, since primary targets for MiGs were heavy ] bombers and ground-attack aircraft, while the primary targets for Sabres were MiG-15s.

By early 1951, the battle lines hardened and did not change much for the rest of the conflict. Throughout the summer and early fall of 1951, the outnumbered Sabres (as few as 44 at one point) of the ] continued to seek battle in ] near the Yalu against an enemy fielding as many as 500 planes, although only a fraction of these were operational and active. Following Colonel ]'s famous message to the Pentagon, the ] reinforced the beleaguered 4th in December 1951.<ref name="thyngcite">{{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = | url = http://sabre-pilots.org/classics/v101thyng.htm| title = Harrison R. Thyng| format = | work = | publisher = Sabre Jet Classics| accessdate = December 24 | accessyear = 2006}}</ref> For the next year and a half, the combat continued in generally the same fashion.
] were used in the Korean war.<ref name = "Helicopter">{{cite web | url = http://www.historynet.com/the-rise-of-the-helicopter-during-the-korean-war.htm | publisher = History Net | title = The Rise of the Helicopter During the Korean War}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | publisher = US Army | url = http://tri.army.mil/LC/CS/csa/aahist.htm | work = Historic US Army Helicopters | title = World War II thru early Vietnam era helicopters}}</ref>]]

The Korean war was the first time the ] was used extensively in a conflict.<ref name = "Helicopter" /> While helicopters such as the ] were used in ],<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.olive-drab.com/od_medical_evac_helio_ww2.php | title = WW II Helicopter Evacuation | publisher = Olive Drab}}</ref> their use was rare, and ]s like the ] were the main method of removing an injured soldier. In the Korean war helicopters like the ] partially took over in the ] ] area.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/Rotary/MASH/HE12.htm | work = Centennial of Flight | publisher = US Centennial of Flight Commission | title = M.A.S.H./Medevac Helicopters}}</ref>

The helicopter proved to be a valuable military asset for the ] in Korea. Improvements made to helicopters since ] were tested in ]. The need for ] helicopters was seen, and by the time of the ] gunships like the ] had been produced. Helicopters like those used in the Korean war for Medevac missions and troop movement were also seen to work well in combat, and designs were also improved upon. This "combat test" for helicopters was important to the development of the military helicopter.<ref name = "Helicopter" />

===Bombing Campaigns===
The bombing of cities and villages in North Korea and partially in South Korea was absolutely comparable to that having occurred in Germany and Japan during World War 2. Remarkable is the fact that ] was used widely for the first time. On August 12 1950 the US Air Force dropped 625 tons of bombs on North Korea. Two weeks later, the daily load amounted to about 800 tons. 18 of North Korea's cities were more than 50% destroyed. General William Dean, who had been in North Korean captivity, reported that most of the North Korean cities and villages he had seen were in ruins or were simply snow-covered wastelands. <ref>http://monde-diplomatique.de/pm/2004/12/10/a0034.text</ref>

===Naval warfare===
As North Korea had no significant naval presence, naval battles were infrequent. The only significant "battle" took place on July 2, 1950, between the U.S. cruiser ], the British cruiser ], and the British frigate ], against four North Korean torpedo boats and two North Korean mortar gunboats. The torpedo boats attempted to attack but they were quickly destroyed by the Anglo-American fleet. Numerous other communist ships were sunk during the war. Supply and ammunition ships were sunk by U.N. forces, denying use of the sea to the North Koreans. ''Juneau'' sunk several ammunition ships that had been present in her previous battle. The last instance of ship-to-ship battle in the war occurred at Inchon a few days before the battle, when the ROK ship PC 703 sank an enemy mine-laying craft and three other vessels in waters off the Yellow Sea port. For the remainder of the war, the role of the navies was to provide shore bombardment.<ref name= "autogenerated2">{{cite web | url = http://www.defencetalk.com/forums/ext.php?ref=http://www.history.navy.mil/wars/korea/navalbattles.htm | publisher = US Navy | title = Naval Battles | last = Marolda | first = Edward | accessdate = 2008-11-02}}</ref>

===Proposed use of nuclear weapons===
Historian ] believes that Truman's allusions to the possibility of nuclear weapons use at a press conference on November 30, 1950 "was a threat based on contingency planning to use the bomb, rather than the faux pas so many assumed it to be." Cumings argues that Truman sought MacArthur's removal primarily because he felt that MacArthur would not be reliable enough in a situation in which Washington had decided to use atomic weapons. Cumings notes that the same day as the press conference, orders were sent between top Air Forces generals for the ] to "augment its capacities and that this should include “atomic capabilities." According to Cumings, the U.S. reached its closest point of using nuclear weapons during the war in April 1951. At the end of March, after the Chinese had moved large amounts of new forces near the Korean border, U.S. bomb loading pits at Kadena air base in ] were made operational, and bombs were assembled there "lacking only the essential nuclear cores." On April 5, the ] released orders for immediate retaliatory attacks using atomic weapons against Manchurian bases in the event that large numbers of new Chinese troops entered into the fights or bombing attacks originated from those bases. On the same day, Truman gave his approval for transfer of nine Mark IV nuclear capsules "to the air force's Ninth Bomb Group, the designated carrier of the weapons" and "the president signed an order to use them against Chinese and Korean targets." Remarking that the signed order was never sent, Cumings offers two reasons why this was the case. Firstly, Truman had used the crisis to convince the Joint Chiefs of the necessity of MacArthur's removal (announced April 10) and secondly, since the war was not thereafter escalated by the Chinese and Soviets, no necessity of using them presented itself.<ref name = "Cumings1">{{cite book | last =Cumings | first =Bruce | authorlink =Bruce Cumings | title =Korea's Place in the Sun: A History | publisher =WW Norton & Company |year=1997 | pages =289–92 | isbn =0393316815 }}</ref>{{Verify source|date=August 2008}}

This viewpoint is contradicted however by the facts, as on November 30, 1950, President Truman at a press conference, remarked–no doubt extemporaneously–that the use of the atomic bomb was under active consideration, unintentionally implying to some observers that its use would be left to the discretion of General MacArthur. Even though subsequently he attempted to subdue the storm of protest and consternation which followed by pointing out that only he could authorize use of the atomic bomb and that he had not given such authorization, he could not avoid the real issue that any decision to use the bomb would be a United States, not a United Nations, decision. This led to a meeting December 4 with British Prime Minister ] (who also represented the leaders of the other Commonwealth nations) and with French Premier ] and Foreign Minister ], to discuss their concerns over the possible use of the atomic bomb. Indian Ambassador ] recalls, "that Truman announced that he was thinking of using the atom bomb in Korea. But the Chinese seemed totally unmoved by this threat... The propaganda against American aggression was stepped up. The 'Aid Korea to resist America' campaign was made the slogan for increased production, greater national integration, and more rigid control over anti-national activities. One could not help feeling that Truman's threat came in very useful to the leaders of the revolution to enable them to keep up the tempo of their activities."<ref name="Schnabel" /><ref>{{cite book | last =Knightley | first =Phillip | title =The First Casualty: The War Correspondent as Hero, Propagandist and Myth-maker | publisher =Quartet |year=1982 | pages =334 | isbn =080186951X }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Panikkar | first =Kavalam Madhava | authorlink =Kavalam Madhava Panikkar | title =In Two Chinas: Memoirs of a Diplomat | publisher = Hyperion Press |year=1981 | isbn =0830500138 }}</ref>

Six days later, on December 6, 1950, after the Chinese intervention had forced the UN forces into a retreat from northern North Korea, General ] (]), General MacArthur, Admiral ] and General ], with key staff officers Hickey, Willoughby and Wright, met in ] for a full discussion of what moves to take against the Chinese. They projected three hypothetical scenarios covering the next few weeks or months.<ref name="Schnabel" />

In the first, they theorized that if the Chinese continued their all-out attack but with the UN Command forbidden to mount air attacks against China, no blockade of China set up, no reinforcements sent to Korea by ], and that there would be no substantial increase in MacArthur's U.S. forces until April 1951 when four ] divisions might be sent, then the ] might be used in North Korea.<ref name="Schnabel" />

Under the second scenario, the conferees assumed a situation in which the Chinese attack would continue but with an effective naval blockade of China put in effect, air reconnaissance and bombing of the Chinese mainland allowed, Chinese Nationalist forces exploited to the maximum, and the atomic bomb to be used if tactically appropriate. Given these conditions, General MacArthur said he should be directed to hold positions in Korea as far north as possible.<ref name="Schnabel" />

Under the third scenario, in which the Chinese would agree not to cross south of the 38th parallel, MacArthur felt the United Nations should accept an armistice. The conditions of the armistice should preclude movement of North Korean and Chinese forces below the parallel. North Korean guerrillas should withdraw into their own territory with the Eighth Army remaining in positions covering the Seoul-Inch'on area, while X Corps pulled back to Pusan. A United Nations commission should supervise the implementation of armistice terms.<ref name="Schnabel" />

So, while the U.S. had contemplated using the atomic bomb in Korea, Truman did not publicly threaten to use the bomb immediately after the Chinese intervention, but instead remarked about the consideration of using the bomb around 45 days later and only after UN forces were in retreat and had suffered some serious losses. MacArthur and other military leaders did not work on scenarios for using the bomb until after Truman's inadvertent remark during a press conference 6 days earlier. The decision not to use the atomic bomb also was not due to "a disinclination by the USSR and PRC to escalate" but rather due to pressure from UN allies, notably Britain, the British Commonwealth, and France, who were concerned that if the United States became involved in a war with Communist China, American commitments to ] would, through sheer necessity, go by the board. China then might have little difficulty in persuading the Soviets to move into ], and without U.S. resistance to this aggression, they could take all of Europe at little cost.<ref name="Schnabel" /><ref>{{cite book | last =Truman | first =Harry S | authorlink =Harry S Truman | title =Memoirs (2 volumes) | publisher =Doubleday |date=1955-1956 | pages =vol. II, pp. 394–5 | isbn =156852062X | nopp =true }}</ref>

===War crimes===
====Crimes against civilians====
{{main|No Gun Ri massacre}}
]

], South Korea, October 1950]]

When parts of South Korea were under North Korean control, political killings, reportedly into the tens of thousands, took place in the cities and villages. The communists systematically killed former South Korean government officials and others deemed hostile to the communists, and such killing was intensified as North Koreans retreated from the South.<ref name="SOD">{{cite book | last =Rummel | first =R.J | title =Statistics of Democide | pages =Chapter 10, Statistics Of North Korean Democide Estimates, Calculations, And Sources | url =http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/SOD.CHAP10.HTM | isbn = | nopp =true }}</ref>

South Korean military, police and ] forces, often with U.S. military knowledge and without trial, executed in turn tens of thousands of leftist inmates and alleged communist sympathizers in the incidents such as the massacre of the political prisoners from the Daejeon Prison and the bloody crackdown on the ].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20080519/ap_on_re_as/korea_mass_executions | title = AP Impact: Thousands killed in 1950 by US' Korean ally | publisher Yahoo! | work = News}}</ref> Gregory Henderson, a U.S. diplomat in Korea at the time, put the total figure at 100,000, and the bodies of those killed were often dumped into ]s. Recently, the South Korean ] has received reports of more than 7,800 cases of civilian killings in 150 locations across the country where mass killings of civilians took place before and during the war.

Korean forces on both sides routinely rounded up and forcibly ] both males and females in their area of operations; thousands of them never returned home. According to the estimate by ], a professor at the ], some 400,000 South Korean citizens were conscripted into the North Korean Army.<ref name="SOD"/> Before the September 1950 liberation of Seoul by the U.S. forces, an estimated 83,000 citizens of the city were taken away by retreating North Korean forces and disappeared, according to the South Korean government; their fate remains unknown.<ref>{{cite news | last =Choe | first = Sang-Hun | title =A half-century wait for a husband abducted by North Korea | publisher =International Herald Tribune:Asia Pacific | date =] | url =http://www.iht.com/articles/2007/06/25/news/missing.php | accessdate =2007-08-22 l}}</ref> North Korea insists the South Koreans ] voluntarily and were not held against their will.<ref>{{cite news | title =S Korea 'regrets' refugee mix-up | publisher =British Broadcasting Corp. (BBC) | date =] | url =http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/6274297.stm | accessdate =2008-08-22 }}</ref>

For a time, American troops were under orders to consider any Korean civilians on the battlefield approaching their position as hostile, and were instructed to "neutralize" them because of fears of ]. This led to the indiscriminate killings of hundreds of South Korean civilians by the U.S. military at places such as ], where many defenseless refugees&nbsp;— most of whom were women, children and old men&nbsp;— were shot at by the U.S. Army and may have been ] by the U.S. Air Force. Recently, the U.S. admitted having a policy of strafing civilians in other places and times.<ref name="wash">{{cite news
| first =Charles J.
| last =Hanley
| coauthors =Martha Mendoza
| date = ]
| title =U.S. Policy Was to Shoot Korean Refugees
| url =http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/05/29/AR2006052900485.html
| work = ]
| publisher = ]
| accessdate = 2007-04-15
}} </ref><ref name="Letter_reveals" >
{{cite news
| first = Charles J.
| last = Hanley
| coauthors = Martha Mendoza
| title = Letter reveals U.S. intent at No Gun Ri
| url = http://www.nola.com/newsflash/topstories/index.ssf?/base/international-21/1176512119139600.xml&storylist=topstories
| work = ]
| publisher = ]
| date = ]
| accessdate = 2007-04-14
}}</ref>

== Bodo League massacre ==
{{main|Bodo League massacre}}
South Korea massacred civilians who were suspected as the member of Bodo League. The casualties were from 200,000 to 1,200,000.<ref> The Hankyoreh Plus</ref>

At least 100,000 people were hastily shot and dumped into makeshift trenches, abandoned mines or the sea after communist North Korea invaded the south in June 1950. Declassified records show U.S. officers were present at one of these sites and that at least one U.S. officer sanctioned another mass political execution if prisoners otherwise would be freed by the North Koreans. Uncounted hundreds were subsequently killed, witnesses reported. Some mass killings were carried out before the war; many came in the first weeks after the June 25, 1950, invasion, and others occurred later in 1950 when U.S. and South Korean forces recaptured Seoul and the southerners rounded up and shot alleged northern collaborators.<ref name="breitbart_D94TJ7800">{{cite web |date=December 6, 2008 |url = http://www.breitbart.com/article.php?id=2008-12-06_D94TJ7800|title = Children 'executed' in 1950 South Korean killings|format = HTML |publisher = ]| accessdate = 2008-12-15 | last=CHARLES J. HANLEY and JAE-SOON CHANG |quote=}}</ref>

The South Korean Truth and Reconciliation Commission<ref></ref> says petitions relating to executions of leftists outnumber by 6-to-1 those dealing with right-wingers' deaths. It should be noted that this figure relfects the absence of North Korean participation in the Commission. Survivor Kim Jong-chol, 71, reported his experience in Namyangju as follows;

{{Cquote2|When the people from the other side (North Korea) came here, they didn't kill many people," he said, contrasting that with "indiscriminate" killing by southern authorities.|Kim Jong-chol <ref name="breitbart_D94TJ7800"/>}}

The AP has reported that declassified U.S. military documents show U.S. Army officers took photos of the assembly line-style executions outside the central city of Daejeon, where the commission believes between 3,000 and 7,000 people were shot and dumped into mass graves in early July 1950. Other once-secret files show that a U.S. Army lieutenant colonel reported giving approval to the killing of 3,500 political prisoners by a South Korean army unit he was advising in Busan, if the North Koreans approached that southern port city, formerly spelled Pusan.<ref name="breitbart_D94TJ7800"/> The files show the U.S. command was aware in other ways as well of the organized bloodbaths.{{Fact|date=December 2008}} Although at the time U.S. diplomats reported confidentially they had urged restraint on the South Koreans, there was no sign the U.S. military, with formal command over the southerners, tried to halt the mass executions.<ref name="breitbart_D94TJ7800"/>

====Crimes against POWs====
{{POV-section|date=September 2008}}
]

The North Koreans were alleged by a U.S. Government report to have mistreated prisoners of war.<ref>
{{cite news
| first = Charles
| last = Potter
| authorlink = Charles Potter
| title = Korean War Atrocities
| url = http://www.loc.gov/rr/frd/Military_Law/pdf/KW-atrocities-part2.pdf
| format = PDF, online
| work = United States Senate Subcommittee on Korean War Atrocities of the Permanent Subcommittee of the Investigations of the ].
| publisher = US GPO
| date = December 3, 1953
| accessdate =2008-01-18
| quote = We marched 2 days. The first night we got some hay and we slept in the hay cuddling together to keep warm. The second night we slept in pigpens, about six inches space between the logs. That night I froze my feet. Starting out again the next morning, after bypassing the convoy, I picked up two rubber boots, what we call "snow packs". They was both for the left foot; I put those on. After starting out the second morning, I didn't have time to massage my feet to get them thawed out. I got marching the next sixteen days after that. During that march all the meat had worn off my feet, all the skin had dropped off, nothing but the bones showing. After arriving in Kanggye they put us up, there, in mud huts, Korean mud huts. We stayed there—all sick and wounded, most of us was—stayed there, in the first part of January 1951. Then the Chinese come around in the night, about twelve o'clock, and told us those who was sick and wounded they was going to move us out to the hospital, which we knew better. There could have been such a thing, but we didn't think so. —— Sgt. Wendell Treffery, RA-
115660.
}}
</ref> Some made allegations of frequent communist-imposed beatings, starvation, ], ]s, and ]es on UN prisoners.<ref>{{cite book | last =Carlson | first =Lewis H | title =Remembered Prisoners of a Forgotten War: An Oral History of Korean War POWs | publisher =St. Martin's Griffin |year=2003 | isbn =0312310072 }}</ref> North Korean forces allegedly committed several massacres of captured U.S. troops at places such as Hill 312 and Hill 303<ref>{{cite web | last = Lakshmanan | first =Indira A.R | title =Hill 303 Massacre | publisher =Boston Globe |year=1999 | url =http://www.rt66.com/~korteng/SmallArms/hill303.htm | accessdate =2007-08-22 }}</ref> on the Pusan Perimeter, and in and around Daejeon; this occurred during early "mopping-up" actions. A ]ional report alleges "two-thirds of all American prisoners of war in Korea died due to war crimes."<ref>{{cite web | last =Van Zandt | first =James E | title ='You are about to die a horrible death'—Korean War&nbsp;— the atrocities committed by the North Koreans during the Korean War | publisher =VFW Magazine |month=February | year=2003 | url = http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0LIY/is_6_90/ai_97756107 | accessdate =2007-08-22 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | title =American Ex-Prisoners of War | publisher =Department of Veterans Affairs | pages = | url =http://www1.va.gov/vhi/docs/pow_www.pdf | isbn = |format=PDF}}</ref>

North Korean forces claimed to have captured more than 70,000 South Korean soldiers, repatriating 8,000. (In contrast, South Korea repatriated 76,000 North Korean POWs.)<ref>{{cite web | last =Lee | first =Sookyung | title =Hardly Known, Not Yet Forgotten, South Korean POWs Tell Their Story | publisher =AII POW-MIA InterNetwork |year=2007 | url =http://www.aiipowmia.com/inter27/in250107skoreapw.html | accessdate =2007-08-22 }}</ref> In addition to some 12,000 deaths in captivity, some 50,000 South Korean POWs might have been press-ganged into the North Korean military.<ref name="SOD"/> According to the ], by 2003 there were at least 300 POWs still alive being held captive in North Korea. More than 30 South Korean prisoners managed to escape the North between 1994 and 2003, including a soldier captured in the war who escaped in 2003.<ref>{{cite news | title =S Korea POW celebrates escape | publisher =British Broadcasting Corp. (BBC) | date =] | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3409835.stm | accessdate =2007-08-22 }}</ref> Pyongyang denied holding any POWs.

The state controlled ] claims that the United States and its allies killed at least 33,600 POWs of the Korean People's Army, and that tens of thousands more were wounded or crippled. On May 27, 1952 it was alleged that at least 800 POWs were killed by flame throwers at the 77th camp on Koje Island for rejecting "voluntary repatriation" and insisting on their repatriation to the North Korea. According to the North Korean Central News Agency, some 1,400 prisoners of war had been secretly sent to the United States to be subjected to experiments with atomic weapons. It has also been alleged that on July 19, 1951, a total of 100 prisoners of war had been shot by machine-gun fire in the prisoner-of-war camp No. 62, in order to give the machine-gunners training in shooting at moving targets.<ref></ref><ref>United Nations Yearbook, 1950, 1951, 1952.</ref>

==Legacy==
{{main|Legacy of the Korean War}}

The Korean War was the first armed confrontation of the ] and set the standard for many later conflicts. It created the idea of a ], where the two ]s would fight in another country, forcing the people in that nation to suffer the bulk of the destruction and death involved in a war between such large nations. The superpowers avoided descending into an all-out war with one another, as well as the mutual use of nuclear weapons. It also expanded the Cold War, which to that point had mostly been concerned with Europe.

The Korean War damaged both Koreas heavily. Although South Korea stagnated economically in the decade following the war, it was later able to modernize and industrialize. In contrast, the ] recovered quickly after the war and until around 1975 surpassed that of South Korea.{{Fact|date=March 2008}} However, North Korea's economy eventually slowed. Today, the North Korean economy is virtually nonexistent while the ] is expanding. The ] estimates North Korea's ] (]) to be $40 billion, which is a mere 3.34% of South Korea's $1.196 trillion GDP (PPP). The North's per capita income is $1,800, which is 7.35% of South Korea's $24,500 per capita income.

A ] (DMZ) on the 38th parallel continues to divide the peninsula today. Anti-Communist and anti-North Korea sentiment still remain in South Korea today, and most South Koreans are against the North Korean government. However, a "]" was used by the then controlling party, the ]. The Uri Party and former South Korean President ], often disagreed with the United States in talks about North Korea. The ] (GNP), the Uri Party's main opposing party, maintains an anti-North Korea policy today.

The war affected other nations as well. ]'s participation in the war helped it become a ] member.<ref>M. Galip Baysan,"Turkish Brigade in Korean War- Kunuri Battles, Turkish Weekly, 09 January 2007</ref>

According to a September 7, 2007 ] report, U.S. President ] stated that it is his administration's position that a formal peace treaty with North Korea would be possible only when the North abandoned its nuclear weapons programs.<ref>{{cite news | last =Gonyea | first =Don | title =U.S., South Korea Differ over North Korea | publisher =National Public Radio (NPR) | date =] | url =http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=14232869 | accessdate =2007-08-22 }}</ref> According to Bush, "We look forward to the day when we can end the Korean War. That will end&nbsp;— will happen when Kim verifiably gets rid of his weapons programs and his weapons."<ref>{{cite news | title =N. Korea Agrees to Allow Nuclear Inspectors | publisher =National Public Radio (NPR) | date =] | url =http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=14232535 | accessdate =2007-08-22 }}</ref> Some have characterized this as a reversal of Bush's stated policy of regime change with respect to North Korea.<ref>{{cite news | last =Goldenberg | first =Suzanne | title =Policy Shift Offers US Hope of N Korea Success | publisher =Sydney Morning Herald | date =] | url =http://www.smh.com.au/news/world/policy-shift-offers-us-hope-of-n-korea-success/2007/09/04/1188783237179.html | accessdate =2007-08-22 }}</ref>

At the second ] in October 2007, ] Roh Moo-hyun and North Korean leader ] signed a joint declaration calling for international talks towards a peace treaty formally ending the war.<ref>{{cite news |title=Korean leaders issue peace call |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7027236.stm |publisher=] |date=2007-10-04 |accessdate=2007-10-04 }}</ref>

As the health of the Northern leader ] has waned, North Korea has acted with increasing hostility. In ] 2009, threats has been issued towards the south, and all communication has been stalled. By ] 2009, North Korea once again threatens to open a war between the countries.

==Depictions==
===Art===
<!-- Image with inadequate rationale removed: ]'s ] (1951; in the Musée Picasso, Paris)]] -->Artist ]'s painting '']'' (1951) depicted violence against civilians during the Korean War. By some accounts, killing of civilians by U.S. forces in Shinchun, ] Province was the motive of the painting.{{Fact|date=April 2008}} ]'s ''War Trash'' contains a vivid description of the beginning of the war from the point of view of a Chinese soldier and of the fear of retribution Chinese POWs felt from other Chinese prisoners if they were suspected of being unsympathetic to communism or to the war.

===Film===
Unlike World War II, there are relatively few Western ]s depicting the Korean War.
*'']'' (1957) stars ] as Colonel ], who became a preacher after bombing a German orphanage during World War II. He later volunteered as a USAF fighter pilot instructor in Korea.
*'']'' (1955) stars ] as a ] assigned to destroy the bridges at Toko Ri, while battling doubts; it is based on an eponymous ] novel.
*'']'' (2004) features a decimated tank unit, lost behind enemy lines, battling the vicissitudes of the war, as well as their own demons.
* '']'' (1958), adapted from the novel '']'' by ], stars ] and ] as two very different United States Air Force fighter pilots in the midst of the Korean War.
* '']'' (1982) portrays the Battle of Inchon, a turning point in the war. Controversially, the film was partially financed by ]'s ]. It became a notorious financial and critical failure, losing an estimated $40 million of its $46 million budget, and remains the last mainstream Hollywood film to use the war as its backdrop. The film was directed by ], and starred an elderly ] as General Douglas MacArthur. According to press materials from the film, psychics hired by Moon's church contacted MacArthur in heaven and secured his posthumous approval of the casting.
* '']'', a 1959 thriller novel, was cinematically adapted to '']'' (1962), directed by ], and featuring ] and ]. It is about brainwashed POWs of the U.S. Army, and an officer's investigation to learn what happened to him and his platoon in the war.
* '']'', by ] (pseudonym for H. Richard Hornberger), was later adapted into ] and a ]; the TV series had a total of 251 episodes, lasted 11 years, and won awards, and its concluding episode was a most-watched program.<ref>{{cite web | title =What is M*A*S*H | url =http://www.mash4077.co.uk/what.html | accessdate =2007-08-22 }}</ref> Yet the sensibilities they presented were more of the 1970s than of the 1950s; the Korean War setting was an oblique and uncontroversial treatment of the then-current American war in Vietnam.{{Fact|date=April 2008}}
* '']'' (1959) is a ]-directed film with ] as an infantry lieutenant fighting the bitterly fierce first ], between the U.S. Army's ], and Chicom (Chinese Communist) forces at war's end in April 1953. The movie is lampooned by the ] album '']'' in the story of Lieutenant Tirebiter.

There were several South Korean films, including:
* '']'' (2004), directed by ], became extremely popular in South Korea and at the 50th ], ''Taegukgi'' won the "Best Film", while Kang Je-gyu was awarded the "Best Director". Taegukgi saw a limited release in the United States.
* '']'' (2005) shows the effect of the warring sides on a remote village. The titular village soon becomes home to surviving North Korean and South Korean soldiers, who in time lose their suspicion and hatred for each other and work together to help save the village after the Americans mistakenly identify it as an enemy camp.

North Korea has made many films about the war, mostly by the government supporting forceful, armed reunification of the North and South of Korea. These have been highly propagandized to portray potential war crimes by American or South Korean soldiers while glorifying members of the North Korean military as well as North Korean ideals.<ref>Delisle, Guy ''Pyongyang: A Journey Into North Korea'', pp. 63, 146, 173. Drawn & Quarterly Books.</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/2982213.stm
|accessdate=2008-12-25
|section=Asia-Pacific
|title=South Korea's tunnel hunters
|first=Caroline
|last=Gluck
|work=]
|date=2003-04-29
}}</ref>

'']'' (Shanggan Ling, Chinese: 上甘岭) is a depiction of the Korean War from the Chinese point of view, made in 1956. The movie is about a group of Chinese soldiers blocked in ] area for several days and survive until they are relieved.

==See also==
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ] - the UN Command Military Armistice Commission operating from 1953 to the present
* ] - the 1950 United Nations Commission on Korea
* ] - the 1951 UN Commission for the Unification and Rehabilitation of Korea
* ]
* ]

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}

==References==
<div class="references-small">
* Brune, Lester and Robin Higham, eds., ''The Korean War: Handbook of the Literature and Research'' (Greenwood Press, 1994)
* Edwards, Paul M. '' Korean War Almanac'' (2006)
* Foot, Rosemary, "Making Known the Unknown War: Policy Analysis of the Korean Conflict in the Last Decade," ''Diplomatic History'' 15 (Summer 1991): 411–31, in JSTOR
* Goulden, Joseph C., ''Korea: The Untold Story of the War'', New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1982.
* Hickey, Michael, ''The Korean War: The West Confronts Communism, 1950-1953'' (London: John Murray, 1999) ISBN 0719555590 9780719555596
* {{cite news |last=Ho, Kang, Pak |first= |url=http://uk.share.geocities.com/wpkanniversary60/KoreanWar.htm |title=The US Imperialists Started the Korean War |publisher=Foreign Languages Publishing House |date=Pyongyang 1993}}
* Kaufman, Burton I. ''The Korean Conflict'' (Greenwood Press, 1999).
* Knightley, P. ''The First Casualty: The War Correspondent as Hero, Propagandist and Myth-maker'' (Quartet, 1982)
* Korea Institute of Military History, ''The Korean War'' (1998) (English edition 2001), 3 vol, 2600 pp; highly detailed history from South Korean perspective, U of Nebraska Press. ISBN 0-8032-7802-0
* Leitich, Keith. ''Shapers of the Great Debate on the Korean War: A Biographical Dictionary'' (2006) covers Americans only
* James I. Matray, ed., ''Historical Dictionary of the Korean War'' (Greenwood Press, 1991)
* Millett, Allan R, “A Reader's Guide To The Korean War” ''Journal of Military History'' (1997) Vol. 61 No. 3; p. 583+ full text in JSTOR;
* Millett, Allan R. "The Korean War: A 50 Year Critical Historiography," ''Journal of Strategic Studies'' 24 (March 2001), pp. 188-224. full text in Ingenta and Ebsco; discusses major works by British, American, Korean, Chinese, and Russian authors
* Summers, Harry G. ''Korean War Almanac'' (1990)
* Sandler, Stanley ed., ''The Korean War: An Encyclopedia'' (Garland, 1995)
* {{cite news |last=Masatake |first=Terauchi |url=http://www.isop.ucla.edu/eas/documents/kore1910.htm |title=Treaty of Annexation |publisher=USC-UCLA Joint East Asian Studies Center |date=1910-08-27 |accessdate=2007-01-16}}
</div>

==Further reading==
], Korea.]]

===Combat studies, soldiers===
* Appleman, Roy E. ''South to the Naktong, North to the Yalu'' (1961), Official U.S. Army history covers the Eighth Army and X Corps from June to November 1950
* Appleman, Roy E.. ''East of Chosin: Entrapment and Breakout in Korea'' (1987); ''Escaping the Trap: The U.S. Army in Northeast Korea, 1950'' (1987); ''Disaster in Korea: The Chinese Confront MacArthur'' (1989); ''Ridgway Duels for Korea'' (1990).
* Blair, Clay. ''The Forgotten War: America in Korea, 1950-1953'' (1987), revisionist study that attacks senior American officials
* Field Jr., James A. ''History of United States Naval Operations: Korea'', University Press of the Pacific, 2001, ISBN 0-89875-675-8. official U.S. Navy history
* Farrar-Hockley, General Sir Anthony. ''The British Part in the Korean War'', HMSO, 1995, hardcover 528 pages, ISBN 0-11-630962-8
* Futrell, Robert F. ''The United States Air Force in Korea, 1950–1953,'' rev. ed. (Office of the Chief of Air Force History, 1983), official U.S. Air Force history
* ]. ''The Coldest Winter: America and the Korean War'', Hyperion, 2007, ISBN 1401300529.
* Hallion, Richard P. ''The Naval Air War in Korea'' (1986).
* Hamburger, Kenneth E. ''Leadership in the Crucible: The Korean War Battles of Twin Tunnels and Chipyong-Ni.'' Texas A. & M. U. Press, 2003. 257 pp.
* Hastings, Max. ''The Korean War'' (1987). British perspective
* James, D. Clayton ''The Years of MacArthur: Triumph and Disaster, 1945-1964'' (1985)
* James, D. Clayton with Anne Sharp Wells, ''Refighting the Last War: Command and Crises in Korea, 1950-1953'' (1993)
* Johnston, William. ''A War of Patrols: Canadian Army Operations in Korea.'' U. of British Columbia Press, 2003. 426 pp.
* Kindsvatter, Peter S. ''American Soldiers: Ground Combat in the World Wars, Korea, and Vietnam.'' U. Press of Kansas, 2003. 472 pp.
* Millett, Allan R. ''Their War for Korea: American, Asian, and European Combatants and Civilians, 1945–1953.'' Brassey's, 2003. 310 pp.
* Montross, Lynn et al., ''History of U.S. Marine Operations in Korea, 1950–1953,'' 5 vols. (Washington: Historical Branch, G-3, Headquarters, Marine Corps, 1954–72),
* Mossman, Billy. ''Ebb and Flow'' (1990), Official U.S. Army history covers November 1950 to July 1951.
* Russ, Martin. ''Breakout: The Chosin Reservoir Campaign, Korea 1950'', , Penguin, 2000, 464 pages, ISBN 0-14-029259-4
* Toland, John. ''In Mortal Combat: Korea, 1950-1953'' (1991)
* Varhola, Michael J. ''Fire and Ice: The Korean War, 1950-1953'' (2000)
* Watson, Brent Byron. ''Far Eastern Tour: The Canadian Infantry in Korea, 1950–1953.'' 2002. 256 pp.

===Origins, politics, diplomacy===
* Chen Jian, ''China's Road to the Korean War: The Making of the Sino-American Confrontation'' (Columbia University Press, 1994),
* Goncharov, Sergei N., John W. Lewis; and Xue Litai, ''Uncertain Partners: Stalin, Mao, and the Korean War'', Stanford University Press, 1993, ISBN 0-8047-2521-7, diplomatic
* Kaufman, Burton I. ''The Korean War: Challenges in Crisis, Credibility, and Command''. Temple University Press, 1986), focus is on Washington
* Matray, James. "Truman's Plan for Victory: National Self Determination and the Thirty-Eighth Parallel Decision in Korea," ''Journal of American History'' 66 (September, 1979), 314–33. Online at JSTOR
* Millett, Allan R. ''The War for Korea, 1945–1950: A House Burning'' vol 1 (2005)ISBN 0-7006-1393-5, origins
*
* Spanier, John W. ''The Truman-MacArthur Controversy and the Korean War'' (1959).
* Stueck, William. ''Rethinking the Korean War: A New Diplomatic and Strategic History.'' Princeton U. Press, 2002. 285 pp.
* Stueck, Jr., William J. ''The Korean War: An International History'' (Princeton University Press, 1995), diplomatic
* Zhang Shu-gang, ''Mao's Military Romanticism: China and the Korean War, 1950–1953'' (University Press of Kansas, 1995)

===Primary sources===
* Bassett, Richard M. ''And the Wind Blew Cold: The Story of an American POW in North Korea.'' Kent State U. Press, 2002. 117 pp.
* Bin Yu and Xiaobing Li, eds ''Mao's Generals Remember Korea'', University Press of Kansas, 2001, hardcover 328 pages, ISBN 0-7006-1095-2
* S. L. A. Marshall, ''The River and the Gauntlet'' (1953) on combat
* Matthew B. Ridgway, ''The Korean War'' (1967).

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