Misplaced Pages

Revision as of 15:54, 13 February 2009

A great power is a nation or state that has the ability to exert its influence on a global scale. Great powers characteristically possess economic, military, diplomatic, and cultural strength, which may cause other, smaller nations to consider the opinions of great powers before taking actions of their own.

The term "great power" was first used to represent the most important powers in Europe during the post-Napoleonic era. Since then, power has been shifted numerous times, most dramatically during World War I and World War II. While some nations are widely considered to be great powers, there is no definitive list, leading to a continuing debate.

Characteristics

There are no set or defined characteristics of a great power. These characteristics have often been treated as empirical, self-evident to the assessor. However, this approach has the disadvantage of subjectivity. As a result, there have been attempts to derive some common criteria and to treat these as essential elements of great power status.

Early writings on the subject tended to judge nations by the realist criterion, as expressed by the historian AJP Taylor:

The test of a Great power is the test of strength for war.

— AJP Taylor

Later writers have expanded this test, attempting to define power in terms of overall military, economic, and political capacity. Kenneth Waltz the founder of Neo-realism uses a set of five criteria to determine great power: population and territory; resource endowment; economic capability; political stability and competence; and military strength. These expanded criteria can be divided into three heads: power capabilities, spatial aspects, and status.

Power dimension

As noted above, for many, power capabilities were the sole criterion. However, even under the more expansive tests power retains a vital place.

This aspect has received mixed treatment, with some confusion as to the degree of power required. Writers have approached the concept of great power with differing conceptualizations of the world situation, from multi-polarity to overwhelming hegemony. In his essay, 'French Diplomacy in the Postwar Period', the French historian Jean-Baptiste Duroselle spoke to the multi-polarity conceptualization:

A Great power is one which is capable of preserving its own independence against any other single power.

— Jean-Baptiste Duroselle

This differed from earlier writers, notably from Leopold von Ranke, who clearly had a different idea of the world situation. In his essay 'The Great Powers', written in 1833, he wrote:

If one could establish as a definition of a Great power that it must be able to maintain itself against all others, even when they are united, then Frederick has raised Prussia to that position.

— Leopold von Ranke

These positions have been the subject of criticism. For Duroselle's definition to result in more than one great power, major world powers must be equal in power—each able to resist one another. This fails to take into account the general state of international relations in which amongst great powers there are nations which are stronger than others.

Spatial dimension

All nations have a geographic scope of interests, actions, or projected power. This is a crucial factor in distinguishing a great power from a regional power; by definition the scope of a regional power is restricted to its region. It has been suggested that a great power should be possessed of actual influence throughout the scope of the prevailing international system.

Great power may be defined as a political force exerting an effect co-extensive with the widest range of the society in which it operates. The Great powers of 1914 were 'world-powers' because Western society had recently become 'world-wide'.

— Arnold J. Toynbee

Other suggestions have been made that a great power should have the capacity to engage in extra-regional affairs and that a great power ought to be possessed of extra-regional interests, two propositions which are often closely connected.

Status dimension

Formal or informal acknowledgment of a nation's status as a great power.

The status of Great power is sometimes confused with the condition of being powerful, The office, as it is known, did in fact evolve from the role played by the great military states in earlier periods ... But the Great power system institutionalizes the position of the powerful state in a web of rights and obligations.

— George Modelski

This approach restricts analysis to the post-Congress of Vienna epoch; it being there that great powers were first formally recognized. In the absence of such a formal act of recognition it has been suggested that great power status can arise by implication, by judging the nature of a state's relations with other great powers.

A further option is to examine a state's willingness to act as a great power. As a nation will seldom declare that it is acting as such, this usually entails a retrospective examination of state conduct. As a result this is of limited use in establishing the nature of contemporary powers, at least not without the exercise of subjective observation.

Other important criteria throughout history are that great powers should have enough influence to be included in discussions of political and diplomatic questions of the day, and have influence on the final outcome and resolution. Historically, when major political questions were addressed, several great powers met to discuss them. Before the era of groups like the United Nations, participants of such meetings were not officially named, but were decided based on their great power status. These were conferences which settled important questions based on major historical events. This might mean deciding the political resolution of various geographical and nationalist claims following a major conflict, or other contexts.

There are several historical conferences and treaties which display this pattern, such as the Congress of Vienna, the Congress of Berlin, the discussions of the Treaty of Versailles which redrew the map of Europe, and the Treaty of Westphalia.

History

Different sets of great, or significant, powers have existed throughout history; however, the term "great power" has only been used in scholarly or diplomatic discourse since the Congress of Vienna in 1815. The Congress established the Concert of Europe as an attempt to preserve peace after the years of Napoleonic Wars.

Lord Castlereagh, the British Foreign Secretary, first used the term in its diplomatic context, in a letter sent on February 13, 1814:

It affords me great satisfaction to acquaint you that there is every prospect of the Congress terminating with a general accord and Guarantee between the Great powers of Europe, with a determination to support the arrangement agreed upon, and to turn the general influence and if necessary the general arms against the Power that shall first attempt to disturb the Continental peace.

— Lord Castlereagh

The Congress of Vienna consisted of five main powers: the United Kingdom, the Austrian Empire, Prussia, France, and Russia. Other powers, such as Spain, Portugal, and Sweden were consulted on certain specific issues, but they were not full participants. Hanover, Bavaria, and Württemberg were also consulted on issues relating to Germany. These five primary participants constituted the original great powers as we know the term today.

Over time, the relative power of these five nations fluctuated, which by the dawn of the 20th century had served to create an entirely different balance of power. Some, such as the UK and Prussia (as part of the newly-formed German state), experienced continued economic growth and political power. Others, such as Russia and Austria-Hungary, slowly stagnated.. At the same time, other states were emerging and expanding in power, largely through the process of industrialization. The foremost of these emerging powers were Japan after the Meiji Restoration and the United States after its civil war, both of which had been minor powers in 1815. By the dawn of the 20th century the balance of world power had changed substantially since the Congress of Vienna. The Eight-Nation Alliance was a belligerent alliance of eight nations against the Boxer Rebellion in China. It formed in 1900 and consisted of the five Congress powers plus Italy, Japan, and the United States, representing the great powers at the beginning of 20th century.

Shifts of international power have most notably occurred through major conflicts. The conclusion of World War I and the resulting treaties of Versailles, St-Germain, and Trianon witnessed the United Kingdom, France, Italy, Japan and the United States as the chief arbiters of the new world order. The end of World War II saw the United States, United Kingdom, and Soviet Union emerge as the primary victors. The importance of Republic of China and France was acknowledged by their inclusion, along with the other three, in the group of countries allotted permanent seats in the United Nations Security Council.

Since the end of the World Wars, the term "great power" has been joined by a number of other power classifications. Foremost among these is the concept of the superpower, used to describe those nations with overwhelming power and influence in the rest of the world. This term middle power has emerged for those nations which exercise a degree of global influence, but are insufficient to be decisive on international affairs. Regional powers are those whose influence is generally confined to their region of the world. Since the end of World War II, there has been no unanimous agreement among authorities as to the current status of the great powers, with Germany and Japan sometimes being called middle powers or economic great powers.

Since the founding of the United Nations Security Council in 1945, the permanent seat of the Republic of China was transferred to the People's Republic of China in 1971 and the permanent seat of the Soviet Union was transferred to the Russian Federation in 1991, as its successor state. There are at present calls to reform the Security Council so that other states, including India and Brazil, have permanent seats.

Change of great powers

In the past, the term great power was mostly restricted to powers within Europe (see history above). Ever since the term was first academically used in 1815, numerous powers have rotated between the status of great power, middle power and superpower. These are listed below. Major power shifts occurred in the aftermath of the First and Second World Wars. Austria-Hungary, the Russian Empire and the Ottoman Empire all collapsed after World War I. The Ottoman and Austria-Hungarian empires were divided into new, less powerful states; the Russian Empire fell to a communist revolt. After World War II, the United States and the Soviet Union emerged as the only two superpowers.

After World War II, the European powers of the United Kingdom, France, and Germany managed to rebuild their economies. France and the United Kingdom maintained technologically advanced armed forces with power projection capabilities, and currently have the largest defence budgets after the United States. Germany is considered by experts to be an economic great power. It is considered by Chancellor Angela Merkel, former president Johannes Rau and leading media of the country as a middle power in Europe. China, with the world's greatest population, has built up to great power status during the post-war period, with large growths in economic and military power. In addition, in Asia, Japan is considered by many to be a great power, and by experts as an economic power like Germany. After the dissolution of the USSR, the newly formed Russian Federation emerged on the level of a great power, leaving the United States as the sole superpower (although this is disputed in favor of the multipolar world view). Russia is however sometimes described as an energy superpower.

Great powers in 1815

These were the recognized great powers at the Congress of Vienna. This is the beginning of the Pax Britannica and of The Great Game between Britain and Russia.

•  Austria
• British Empire
• France
•  Prussia
•  Russia

Great powers c. 1880

In the middle of the 19th century the Austrian Empire had become Austria-Hungary, and Prussia became part of a larger, unified German state. Otto von Bismarck said in 1880 "All politics reduces itself to this formula: try to be one of three, as long as the world is governed by the unstable equilibrium of five great powers"

• Austria-Hungary
• British Empire
• France
• German Empire
•  Russia

Great powers c. 1900

By the turn of the 20th century the Empire of Japan, the Kingdom of Italy, and the United States had grown to become great powers. The great powers of the early 1900s are best shown by their actions in the Eight-Nation Alliance during the Boxer Rebellion.

• Austria-Hungary
• British Empire
•  Japan
• France
• German Empire
• Italy
•  Russia
• United States

Great powers in 1919

In the aftermath of the Great War there were five main victors. During the Treaty of Versailles the "Big Three" - France, the United Kingdom, and the United States held noticeably more power and influence on the proceedings and outcome of the treaty than Italy or Japan. By the early 1920s the British Empire would reach its peak.

• British Empire
•  Japan
• France
• Italy
• United States

Great powers in 1945

In the aftermath of World War II the United Nations was established and five nations had permanent seats on its Security Council.

•  Republic of China
•  France
•  Soviet Union (also referred to as a superpower)
•  United Kingdom (until the 1950s also referred to as a superpower)
•  United States (also referred to as a superpower)

The United States and Soviet Union subsequently became the world's superpowers during the era known as the Cold War. As the Cold War continued, authorities began to question if the United Kingdom and France could retain their long held great power status.

Current great powers

Great powers

Although the five powers listed below are still sometimes referred to by authorities as great powers, there is no unanimous agreement among authorities. All five have, and are the only states to have at present, permanent seats on the UN Security Council. They are also the recognised "Nuclear Weapons States" under the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty.

•  China (successor state to the Republic of China)
•  France
•  Russia (successor state to the Soviet Union)
•  United Kingdom
•  United States (also referred to as a superpower)

Economic great powers

With considerable economies, the following countries are also sometimes considered to be great powers, despite a lack of nuclear weapons and a permanent seat at the UN Security Council (although both are mentioned in recent proposals to expand the permanent membership of the Security Council). They are sometimes referred to as middle powers.

•  Germany
•  Italy
•  India
•  Japan

See also

• Superpower (and Hyperpower)
• Potential superpowers
• Historical powers
• Middle power
• Regional power
• The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers

References

1. Waltz, Kenneth N - Theory of International Politics, McGraw-Hill (1979) - p131
2. Taylor, AJP - The Struggle for Mastery in Europe 1848-1918, Oxford: Clarendon (1954), xxiv
3. Organski, AFK - World Politics, Knopf (1958)
4. Danilovic, op. cit., p225
5. contained on page 204 in: Kertesz and Fitsomons (eds) - Diplomacy in a Changing World, University of Notre Dame Press (1959)
6. Iggers and von Moltke "In the Theory and Practice of History", Bobbs-Merril (1973)
7. Danilovic, op. cit., p226
8. Toynbee, Arnold J - The World After the Peace Conference, Humphrey Milford and Oxford University Press (1925) - p4
9. Stoll, Richard J - State Power, World Views, and the Major Powers, Contained in: Stoll and Ward (eds) - Power in World Politics, Lynne Rienner (1989)
10. Modelski, George - Principles of World Politics, Free Press (1972) - p141
11. ^ Danilovic, Vesna - When the Stakes Are High - Deterrence and Conflict among Major Powers, University of Michigan Press (2002), p228 - (PDF copy).
12. Domke, William K - Power, Political Capacity, and Security in the Global System, Contained in: Stoll and Ward (eds) - Power in World Politics, Lynn Rienner (1989)
13. Domke, William K - Power, Political Capacity, and Security in the Global System - p161, Contained in: Stoll and Ward (eds) - Power in World Politics, Lynn Rienner (1989)
14. Danilovic, Vesna. "When the Stakes Are High—Deterrence and Conflict among Major Powers", University of Michigan Press (2002), p 27 (PDF chapter downloads).
15. Webster, Charles K, Sir (ed), British Diplomacy 1813–1815: Selected Documents Dealing with the Reconciliation of Europe, G Bell (1931), p307.
16. "Multi-polarity vs Bipolarity, Subsidiary hypotheses, Balance of Power" (PPT). University of Rochester. Retrieved 2008-12-20.
17. Tonge, Stephen. "European History Austria-Hungary 1870–1914". Retrieved 2008-12-20. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
18. "A Short History of Russia". Electionworld. Retrieved 2008-12-20.
19. Power Transitions as the cause of war.
20. Globalization and Autonomy by Julie Sunday, McMaster University.
21. Otte M, Greve J (2000) A Rising Middle Power?: German Foreign Policy in Transformation, 1989-1999, St. Martin's Press
22. Sperling J (2001) Neither Hegemony nor Dominance: Reconsidering German Power in Post Cold-War Europe, CUP
23. Dottori G, Amorosi M (2004) La NATO dopo l'11 settembre
24. Er LP (2006) Japan's Human Security Rolein Southeast Asia
25. Sperling, James (2001). "Neither Hegemony nor Dominance: Reconsidering German Power in Post Cold-War Europe". British Journal of Political Science. doi:10.1017/S0007123401000151.
26. Max Otte, Jürgen Greve (2000). A Rising Middle Power?: German Foreign Policy in Transformation, 1989-1999. Germany. p. 324. ISBN 0312226535.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
27. Robert Birnbaum. "Porträt: [[Angela Merkel]]" (in German). Tagesspiegel online. Retrieved 2007-01-31. Weichenstellungen in der Außen– und ihrem Unterkapitel, der Sicherheitspolitik sind zugleich von großer Bedeutung für die Zukunft der Mittelmacht Deutschland. {{cite web}}: URL–wikilink conflict (help)
28. Wolfgang Harrer interviewing Roméo Dallaire. "German Dream: "Hat Eure Bundeswehreine Seele?"" (in German). ZDF heute.de. Retrieved 2007-01-31. Deutschland als führende Mittelmacht
29. ^ Peter Howard, B.A., B.S., M.A., Ph.D. Assistant Professor, School of International Service, American University. (2008). "Great Powers". Encarta. MSN. Retrieved 2008-12-20. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
30. Peace, War, and the European Powers, 1814-1914
31. ^ "The Downside of Victory, Consequences of the Franco-Prussian war 1870/71". Blacks Academy. Retrieved 2008-12-20.
32. Ideology and International Relations in the Modern World
33. The Transformation of European Politics, 1763-1848
34. Britain And Germany: from Ally to Enemy
35. "The Great Powers in 1871: Austria-Hungary". Blacks Academy. Retrieved 2008-12-20.
36. ^ Defence and Diplomacy By Christopher John Bartlett
37. "The Great Powers in 1871: Great Britain". Blacks Academy. Retrieved 2008-12-20.
38. ^ "Rivalry between the Great Powers over China from 1890". Blacks Academy. Retrieved 2008-12-20.
39. "The Great Powers in 1871: France". Blacks Academy. Retrieved 2008-12-20.
40. "The Great Powers in 1871: Germany". Blacks Academy. Retrieved 2008-12-20.
41. "The Great Powers in 1871: Russia". Blacks Academy. Retrieved 2008-12-20.
42. Dallin, David. The Rise of Russia in Asia. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
43. http://en.citizendium.org/Treaty_of_Versailles
44. Paris 1919 by Margaret MacMillan has the Council of Five Britain, France, Italy, Japan and the United States as the main victors and renaming Great Powers.
45. MacMillan, Margaret (2003). Paris 1919. United States of America: Random House Trade. pp. 36, 306, 431. ISBN 0-375-76052-0. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
46. Boemeke, Manfred (1998). The Treaty of Versailles: 75 Years After. United States of America: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-62132-1. {{cite book}}: External link in |title= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
47. "the prime minister of Canada (during the Treaty of Versailles) said that there were "only three major powers left in the world the United States, Britain and Japan" ... (but) The Great Powers could not be consistent. At the instance of Britain, Japan's ally, they gave Japan five delegates to the Peace Conference, just like themselves, but in the Supreme Council the Japanese were generally ignored or treated as something of a joke." from MacMillan, Margaret (2003). Paris 1919. United States of America: Random House Trade. p. 306. ISBN 0-375-76052-0. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
48. 1956 Suez Crisis suggested that Britain, financially weakened by two world wars, could not then pursue its foreign policy objectives on an equal footing with the new superpowers without sacrificing convertibility of its reserve currency as a central goal of policy. - from superpower cited by Adam Klug and Gregor W. Smith, 'Suez and Sterling', Explorations in Economic History, Vol. 36, No. 3 (July 1999), pp. 181-203.
49. HOLMES, JOHN. "Middle Power". The Canadian Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2008-12-20.
50. "Britain: Crisis". Time. Jun. 30, 1961. Retrieved 2008-12-20. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
51. Yong Deng and Thomas G. Moore (2004) "China Views Globalization: Toward a New Great-Power Politics?" The Washington Quarterly
52. ^ UW Press: Korea's Future and the Great Powers
53. ^ PINR - Uzbekistan and the Great Powers
54. "Analyzing American Power in the Post-Cold War Era". Retrieved 2007-02-28.
55. Cohen, Eliot A. (July/August 2004). "History and the Hyperpower". Foreign Affairs. Retrieved 2006-07-14. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
56. "Country Profile: United States of America". BBC News. 2008-04-22. Retrieved 2008-05-18.
57. Richard N. Haass, "Asia’s overlooked Great Power", Project Syndicate April 20, 2007.

Further reading

• The Tragedy of Great Power Politics by John J. Mearsheimer
• Theory of International Politics by Kenneth N Waltz
• World Politics: Trend and Transformation by Eugene R. Witkopf
• The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers by Paul Kennedy
• France and the Nazi Threat: The Collapse of French Diplomacy 1932-1939 by Jean-Baptiste Duroselle, Introduction by Anthony Adamthwaite (Enigma Books, ISBN 1-929631-15-4)

• States by power status