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| {{pp-move-indef|small=yes}} | |||
| {{distinguish|Columbia}} | |||
| {{otheruses}} | |||
| {{Infobox Country | |||
| |native_name = ''República de Colombia''{{spaces|2}}<small>{{es icon}}</small> | |||
| |conventional_long_name = Republic of Colombia | |||
| |common_name = Colombia | |||
| |image_flag = Flag of Colombia.svg | |||
| |image_coat = Coat of arms of Colombia 3.svg | |||
| |image_map = LocationColombia.svg | |||
| |national_motto = "Libertad y Orden"{{spaces|2}}<small>{{es icon}}</small><br />"Liberty and Order"</small> | |||
| |national_anthem = "]"{{spaces|2}}<small>{{es icon}}</small> | |||
| |capital = ] ] | |||
| |latd = 4 | |||
| |latm = 39 | |||
| |latNS = N | |||
| |longd = 74 | |||
| |longm = 3 | |||
| |longEW = W | |||
| |largest_city = capital | |||
| |official_languages = ] | |||
| |regional_languages = <small>The languages and dialects of ethnic groups are also official in their territories</small><ref> (Article 10)</ref> | |||
| |ethnic_groups = 58% ], 20% ], 14% ], 4% ], 3% ], 1% ]<ref name="CIAWFB"> {{cite web | author = CIA world fact book | url = https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/co.html | title = Colombia | work = CIA |date = 2009-01-22| accessdate = 2009-01-24 }}</ref> | |||
| |demonym = Colombian | |||
| |government_type = ] | |||
| |leader_title1 = ] | |||
| |leader_title2 = ] | |||
| |leader_title3 = ] | |||
| |leader_title4 = ] | |||
| |leader_name1 = ] | |||
| |leader_name2 = ] | |||
| |leader_name3 = ] | |||
| |leader_name4 = ] | |||
| |sovereignty_type = ] | |||
| |sovereignty_note = from Spain | |||
| |established_event1 = Declared | |||
| |established_date1 = July 20, 1810 | |||
| |established_event2 = Recognized | |||
| |established_date2 = August 7, 1819 | |||
| |area_rank = 26th | |||
| |area_magnitude = 1 E12 | |||
| |area_km2 = 1,141,748 | |||
| |area_sq_mi = 440,839 <!--Do not remove per ]--> | |||
| |percent_water = 8.8 | |||
| |population_estimate = 44,760,630 <!--UN WPP--> | |||
| |population_estimate_rank = 29th | |||
| |population_estimate_year = January 2009 | |||
| |population_census = 42,888,592 | |||
| |population_census_year = 2005 | |||
| |population_density_km2 = 40 | |||
| |population_density_sq_mi = 104 <!--Do not remove per ]--> | |||
| |population_density_rank = 168th | |||
| |GNI_per_capita = $2,020 | |||
| |GNI_per_capita = 123rd <!--WorldBank List--> | |||
| |GDP_PPP = $378.624 billion<ref name=imf2>{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2008/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2004&ey=2008&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=233&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=48&pr.y=9 |title=Colombia|publisher=International Monetary Fund|accessdate=2008-10-09}}</ref> | |||
| |GDP_PPP_rank = 28th | |||
| |GDP_PPP_year = 2007 | |||
| |GDP_PPP_per_capita = $7,968<ref name=imf2/> | |||
| |GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 82nd | |||
| |GDP_nominal = $202.630 billion<ref name=imf2/> | |||
| |GDP_nominal_rank = 37th <!---IMF---> | |||
| |GDP_nominal_year = 2007 | |||
| |GDP_nominal_per_capita = $4,264<ref name=imf2/> | |||
| |GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 82nd <!---IMF---> | |||
| |Gini = 52 | |||
| |Gini_year = 2006 | |||
| |Gini_category = <font color="#e0584e">high</font> | |||
| |HDI = {{decrease}} 0.787 | |||
| |HDI_rank = 80th | |||
| |HDI_year = 2008 | |||
| |HDI_category = <font color="#ffcc00">medium</font> | |||
| |HPI = 67.2 | |||
| |HPI_rank = 2nd | |||
| |HPI_year = 2006 | |||
| |HPI_category = <font color="#ffcc00">high</font> | |||
| |currency = ] | |||
| |currency_code = COP | |||
| |country_code = | |||
| |time_zone = | |||
| |utc_offset = -5 | |||
| |time_zone_DST = | |||
| |utc_offset_DST = | |||
| |drives_on = right | |||
| |cctld = ] | |||
| |calling_code = 57 | |||
| |Happy Planet Index = 2 (by 2007) | |||
| }} | |||
| '''Colombia''' ({{IPAEng|kəˈlʌmbɪə}}), officially the '''Republic of Colombia''' ({{Audio-es|República de Colombia|República de Colombia.ogg}}, {{IPA-es|reˈpuβlika ðe koˈlombja}}), is a country in north-western ]. Colombia is bordered to the east by ]<ref name = "lablaa"> {{cite web | author = Gerhar Sandner, Beate Ratter, Wolf Dietrich Sahr and Karsten Horsx | url = http://www.lablaa.org/blaavirtual/geografia/ctemc/ctemc03.htm| title = Conflictos Territoriales en el Mar Caribe: El conflicto fronterizo en el Golfo de Venezuela | work = Biblioteca Luis Angel Arango| year = 1993| accessdate = 2008-01-05 | language = Spanish}}</ref> and ];<ref name = "IBS"> {{cite web | author = The Geographer Office of the Geographer Bureau of Intelligence and Research | url = http://www.law.fsu.edu/library/collection/LimitsinSeas/IBS174.pdf | title = Brazil-Colombia boundary| work = International Boundary Study | date = 1985-04-15| accessdate = 2008-01-05 | language =English |format=PDF}}</ref> to the south by ] and ];<ref name = "CIA"> {{cite web | author = CIA | url = https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ec.html| title = Ecuador| work = World Fact Book | date = 2007-12-13| accessdate = 2008-01-05 }}</ref> to the north by the ]; to the north west by ]; and to the west by the ]. Colombia also shares maritime borders with ], ], the ], ], ] and ].<ref name = "jsicat">{{es icon}} </ref><ref>{{es icon}} </ref> Colombia is the ] in the world and the fourth largest in South America (after Brazil, ], and Peru). It has the ] in the world and the second largest in South America, after Brazil. Colombia has the third largest ] population in the world after ] and ]. | |||
| The territory of what is now Colombia was originally inhabited by ] including the ], ], and ]. The Spanish arrived in 1499 and initiated a period of ] which ultimately led to the creation of the ] (comprising modern-day Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador and Panama) with its capital at ].<ref name = "LABLAA6"> {{cite web | author = Nicolás del Castillo Mathieu | url = http://www.lablaa.org/blaavirtual/revistas/credencial/marzo1992/marzo3.htm | title = LA PRIMERA VISION DE LAS COSTAS COLOMBIANAS, Repaso de Historia | work = Revista Credencial | month = March | year = 1992| accessdate = 2008-02-29 | language = Spanish}}</ref> Independence from Spain was ] in 1819, but by 1830 "]" had collapsed with the secession of Venezuela and Ecuador. What is now Colombia and Panama emerged as the ]. The new nation experimented with federalism as the ] (1858), and then the ] (1863), before the Republic of Colombia was finally declared in 1886.<ref name="CIAWFB"></ref>] in 1903. | |||
| colombia is the best!!! | |||
| Colombia has a long tradition of constitutional government, and the ] and ] parties, founded in 1848 and 1849 respectively, are two of the oldest surviving political parties in the Americas. However, tensions between the two have frequently erupted into violence, most notably in the ] (1899-1902) and ], beginning in 1948. Since the 1960s, ], ] and ] have been engaged in the continent's longest-running ]. Fuelled by the ], this escalated dramatically in the 1990s. However, the insurgents lack the military or popular support necessary to overthrow the government, and in recent years the violence has been decreasing. Many paramilitary groups have demobilised as part of a controversial peace process with the government, and the guerrillas have lost control in many areas where they once dominated.<ref name="CIAWFB" /> Meanwhile Colombia's ], for many years the highest in the world, has almost halved since 2002.<ref> http://www.unodc.org/pdf/Colombia_Dec06_en.pdf</ref> | |||
| Colombia is a standing ]<ref name = "FSU"> {{cite web | author =David R. Davis, Brett Ashley Leeds and Will H. Moore | url = http://garnet.acns.fsu.edu/~whmoore/ipi/harmel.conf.pdf | title = Measuring Dissident and state behaviour: The Intranational Political Interactions (IPI) Project | work = Florida State University | date = 1998-11-21| accessdate = 2008-01-05 |format=PDF}}</ref> with the ] in South America. It is very ethnically diverse, and the interaction between descendants of the original ] inhabitants, ] colonists, ] slaves and twentieth-century immigrants from ] and the ] has produced a rich cultural heritage. This has also been influenced by Colombia's varied geography. The majority of the urban centres are located in the highlands of the ], but Colombian territory also encompasses ], ] and both Caribbean and Pacific coastlines. Ecologically, Colombia is one of the world's 17 ]. | |||
| ==Etymology== | |||
| ] | |||
| The word "Colombia" comes from the name of ] (Italian: ''Cristoforo Colombo'', Spanish: ''Cristóbal Colón''). It was conceived by the revolutionary ] as a reference to all the ], but especially to those territories and colonies under Spanish and ] rule. The name was later adopted by the ] of 1819, formed out of the territories of the old ] (modern day Colombia, Panama, Venezuela and Ecuador).<ref name="LABLAA5"> {{cite web | author = Carlos Restrepo Piedrahita | url = http://www.lablaa.org/blaavirtual/revistas/credencial/febrero1992/febrero2.htm | title = EL NOMBRE "COLOMBIA", El único país que lleva el nombre del Descubrimiento | work = Revista Credencial | month = February | year = 1992| accessdate = 2008-02-29 | language = Spanish}}</ref> | |||
| In 1830, when Venezuela and Ecuador broke away, the ] region that remained became a new country — the ]. In 1858 New Granada officially changed its name to the ], then in 1863 the ], before finally adopting its present name — the Republic of Colombia — in 1886.<ref name="LABLAA5"/> | |||
| ==Geography== | |||
| {{main|Geography of Colombia}} | |||
| {{see also|Natural Regions of Colombia|Geology of Colombia}} | |||
| ] | |||
| Colombia is the ] in the world and the fourth largest in South America. It is bordered to the east by ] and ]; to the south by ] and ]; to the north by ] and the ]; and to the west by the ]. Colombia is the only country in South America to touch both ] and Pacific oceans. | |||
| Part of the ], a region of the world subject to ]s and ], Colombia is dominated by the ] mountains. Beyond the ] (in the south-western departments of ] and ]) these are divided into three branches known as ''cordilleras'' (from the ] for "rope"): the '']'', running adjacent to the Pacific coast and including the city of ]; the '']'', running between the ] and ] river valleys (to the west and east respectively) and including the cities of ], ] and ]; and the '']'', extending north east to the ] and including ], ] and ]. Peaks in the ''Cordillera Occidental'' exceed 13,000 ft (4,000 m), and in the ''Cordillera Central'' and ''Cordillera Oriental'' they reach 18,000 ft (5,500 m).<ref name="Tallest Mountains"></ref> At 8,500 ft (2,600 m), Bogotá is the highest city of its size in the world. | |||
| East of the Andes lies the ] of the '']'', part of the ], and, in the far south east, the ] of the ]. Together these lowlands comprise over half Colombia's territory, but they contain less than 3% of the population. To the north the ], home to 20% of the population and the location of the major port cities of ] and ], generally consists of low-lying plains, but it also contains the ] mountain range, which includes the country's tallest peaks (] and ]), and the ]. By contrast the narrow and discontinuous ], backed by the ] mountains, are covered in dense vegetation and sparsely populated. The principal Pacific port is ]. | |||
| Colombian territory also includes a number of ]. | |||
| ===Climate=== | |||
| {{main|Climate of Colombia}} | |||
| ], 5,200+ m (17,060 ft).]] | |||
| The climate of Colombia is primarily determined by its proximity to the ], with ] and ] climate predominating. Other influences are the ]s and the effect of the ] on precipitation. Colombia is also affected by the ] phenomena. | |||
| Temperatures generally decrease about 3.5°] (2°]) for every 1,000-ft (300-m) increase in altitude above sea level, presenting perpetual snowy peaks to hot river valleys and basins. Rainfall is concentrated in two ]s (roughly corresponding to the spring and autumn of temperate latitudes) but varies considerably by location. Colombia's Pacific coast has one of the highest levels of rainfall in the world, with the south east often drenched by more than 200 in (500 cm) of rain per year. On the other hand rainfall in parts of the ] seldom exceeds 30 in (75 cm) per year. Rainfall in the rest of the country runs between these two extremes. | |||
| ], one of the rainiest regions in the world.]] | |||
| Altitude not only affects temperature but is also one of the most important influences on vegetation patterns. The mountainous parts of the country can be divided into several vegetation zones according to altitude, although the altitude limits of each zone may vary somewhat depending on the latitude. Below 3,300 ft (1,000 m) are the tropical crops of the ] (hot land). The most productive land and the majority of the population can be found in the ] (temperate land, 3,300-6,600 ft or 1,000-2,000 m), which provide the best conditions for the country's ] growers, and the ] (cold land, 6,600-10,500 ft, 2,000-3,200 m), where wheat and potatoes dominate. Beyond this lie the alpine conditions of the ] (forested zone, 10,500-12,800 ft, 3,200-3,900 m) and then the treeless grasslands of the ]s (12,800-15,100 ft, 3,900-4,600 m). Above 15,100 ft (4,600 m), where temperatures are below freezing, is the ], a zone of permanent snow and ice. | |||
| Colombian ] and ] also interact with climate zone patterns. Scrub woodland of scattered trees and bushes dominates the semi-arid north-eastern ] and ]. To the south, ] (tropical grassland) vegetation covers the eastern plains, the Colombian portion of the ''Llanos''. The rainy areas in the south east are blanketed by tropical ]. In the mountains, the spotty patterns of precipitation in alpine areas complicate vegetation patterns. The rainy side of a mountain may be lush and green, while the other side, in the rain shadow, may be parched. As a result Colombia is one of the world's 17 ].<ref name = "cwlvaj">{{cite news | first= | last= | coauthors= | title=South America Banks on Regional Strategy to Safeguard Quarter of Earth's Biodiversity | date= | publisher= | url =http://web.archive.org/web/20050310115345/http://www.conservation.org/xp/news/press_releases/2003/091603_andean_eng.xml | work =Conservation International | pages = | accessdate = 2007-06-29 | language = }}</ref> | |||
| ===Environmental issues=== | |||
| {{main|Environmental issues in Colombia}} | |||
| ] erupted in 1985, causing the ].]] | |||
| The environmental challenges faced by Colombia are caused by both natural hazards and human agency. Many natural hazards result from Colombia's position along the Pacific Ring of Fire and the consequent geological instability. Colombia has ], the eruptions of which have on occasion resulted in substantial loss of life, such as at ], and geological faults that have caused numerous devastating earthquakes, such as the ]. Heavy floods both in mountainous areas and in low-lying watersheds and coastal regions regularly cause deaths and considerable damage to property during the rainy seasons. Rainfall intensities vary with the El Niño Southern Oscillation which occurs in unpredictable cycles, at times causing especially severe flooding. | |||
| ] at ].]] | |||
| Human induced ] has substantially changed the Andean landscape and is creeping into the rainforests of Amazonia and the Pacific coast. Deforestation is also linked to the conversion of lowland tropical forests to ] plantations. However, compared to neighbouring countries rates of deforestation in Colombia are still relatively low.<ref name="HDR Deforestation"></ref> In urban areas industry, the use of ]s, and other human produced waste have contaminated the local environment, and demand from rapidly expanding cities has placed increasing stress on the water supply as watersheds are affected and ground water tables fall. Participants in the country's ] have also contributed to the pollution of the environment. Illegal armed groups have deforested large areas of land to plant illegal crops, with an estimated 99,000 hectares used for the cultivation of ] in 2007,<ref name="WDR Summary"> | |||
| </ref> while in response the government have ] using hazardous chemicals. Insurgents have also destroyed oil pipelines creating major ecological disasters. | |||
| ==History== | |||
| {{main|History of Colombia|Timeline of Colombian history|La Violencia|El Bogotazo|National Front (Colombia)|Colombian armed conflict (1964–present)}} | |||
| ===Pre-Columbian era===<!--This spelling is correct, please do not edit it. It originates from "Columbus", not "Colombia"--> | |||
| ] used to cover his body in gold and, from his raft, he offered treasures to the ''Guatavita'' goddess in the middle of the sacred lake. This old Muisca tradition became the origin of the ] legend.]] | |||
| Approximately 10,000 BC, ] societies existed near present-day Bogotá (at "]" and "Tequendama") which traded with one another and with cultures living in the ] Valley.<ref>Van der Hammen, T. and Correal, G. 1978: "Prehistoric man on the Sabana de Bogotá: data for an ecological prehistory"; Paleography, Paleoclimatology, Paleoecology 25:179-190</ref> Beginning in the first millennium BC, groups of ]s developed the political system of "]s" with a pyramidal structure of power headed by ]. Within Colombia, the two cultures with the most complex cacicazgo systems were the ]s in the ], and the ]s in the highlands around Bogotá, both of which were of the ] language family. The Muisca people are considered to have had one of the most developed political systems in South America, after the ]s.<ref>Broadbent, Sylvia 1964: Los Chibchas: organización socio-política. Série Latinoamericana 5. Bogotá: Facultad de Sociología, Universidad Nacional de Colombia</ref> | |||
| ===Spanish discovery, conquest, and colonization=== | |||
| Spanish explorers made the first exploration of the ] littoral in 1499 led by ]. ] navigated near the Caribbean in 1502. In 1508, ] started the conquest of the territory through the region of Urabá. In 1513, he was the first European to discover the ] which he called ''Mar del Sur'' (or "Sea of the South") and which in fact would bring the Spaniards to ] and ]. The territory's main population was made up of hundreds of tribes of the ] and ], currently known as the Caribbean people, whom the ] conquered through warfare and alliances, while resulting disease such as ], and the conquest and ] itself caused a demographic reduction among the indigenous.<ref></ref> In the sixteenth century, ] began to bring slaves from Africa. | |||
| ===Independence from Spain=== | |||
| ], ] and other heroes of the Independence of Colombia in the ].]] | |||
| Since the beginning of the periods of Conquest and Colonization, there were several rebel movements under Spanish rule, most of them either being crushed or remaining too weak to change the overall situation. The last one which sought outright independence from Spain sprang up around 1810, following the independence of St. Domingue in 1804 (present day ]), who provided a non-negligible degree of support to the eventual leaders of this rebellion: ] and ]. Simón Bolívar had become the first ], and Francisco de Paula Santander was ]; when Simón Bolívar stepped down, Santander became the second President of Colombia. The rebellion finally succeeded in 1819 when the territory of the ] became the Republic of ] organized as a Confederation along Ecuador and Venezuela (Panama was part of Colombia). | |||
| ===Post-independence and republicanism=== | |||
| ].]] | |||
| Internal political and territorial divisions led to the secession of Venezuela and Quito (today's Ecuador) in 1830. The so-called "Department of ]" adopted the name "]", which it kept until 1856 when it became the "Confederación Granadina" (]). After a ] in 1863, the "]" was created, lasting until 1886, when the country finally became known as the Republic of Colombia. Internal divisions remained between the bipartisan political forces, occasionally igniting very bloody ]s, the most significant being the ] (1899 - 1902) which together with the United States of America's intentions to influence in the area (especially the ] construction and control) led to the separation of the Department of Panama in 1903 and the establishment of it as a nation. Colombia engulfed in a year long war with Peru over a territorial dispute involving the ] and its capital ]. | |||
| Soon after, Colombia achieved a relative degree of political stability, which was interrupted by a bloody conflict that took place between the late 1940s and the early 1950s, a period known as '']'' ("The Violence"). Its cause was mainly mounting tensions between the two leading political parties, which subsequently ignited after the assassination of the ] presidential candidate ] on April 9, 1948. This assassination caused riots in Bogotá and became known as ]. The violence from these riots spread through out the country and claimed the lives of at least 180,000 Colombians. From 1953 to 1964 the violence between the two political parties decreased first when ] deposed the President of Colombia in a ] and negotiated with the guerrillas, and then under the ] of General ]. | |||
| After Rojas' deposition the two political parties ] and Colombian Liberal Party agreed to the creation of a "National Front", whereby the Liberal and Conservative parties would govern jointly. The presidency would be determined by an alternating conservative and liberal president every 4 years for 16 years; the two parties would have parity in all other elective offices. The National Front ended "La Violencia", and National Front administrations attempted to institute far-reaching social and economic reforms in cooperation with the Alliance for Progress. In the end, the contradictions between each successive Liberal and Conservative administration made the results decidedly mixed. Despite the progress in certain sectors, many social and political problems continued, and guerrilla groups were formally created such as the ], ] and ] to fight the government and political apparatus. These guerrilla groups were dominated by ]. | |||
| Emerging in the late 1970s, powerful and violent ]s further developed during the 1980s and 1990s. The Medellín Cartel under ] and the ], in particular, exerted political, economic and social influence in Colombia during this period. These cartels also financed and influenced different illegal armed groups throughout the political spectrum. Some enemies of these allied with the guerrillas and created or influenced ]. | |||
| The new ] was ratified after being drafted by the ]. The constitution included key provisions on political, ethnic, human and gender rights. The new constitution initially prohibited the extradition of Colombian nationals. There were accusations of lobbying by drug cartels in favor of this prohibition. The cartels had previously promoted a violent campaign against extradition, leading to many ] and ] style executions. They also tried to influence the government and political structure of Colombia by means of corruption, as in the case of the ] scandal. | |||
| ] during a field training exercise.]] | |||
| In recent years, the country has continued to be plagued by the effects of the ], ] ] like FARC and paramilitary groups such as the ] (later demobilized, though paramilitarism remains active), which along with other minor factions have engaged in a bloody internal ]. President ] and the FARC attempted to negotiate a solution to the conflict between 1998 and 2002 in which the government, more or less like Pakistan negotiations with the Taliban , believed the state could not fight forever and agreed to handle huge quantity of land in return for peace.Pastrana began to implement the ] initiative, with the dual goal of ending the armed conflict and promoting a strong ] strategy. This strategy had huge quantity of land to be officially set as "demilitarize" zones were no soldiers from neither side could reside, but as more and more attacks from the drug cartels persisted on the demilitarize zones the government soon realized the negotiations were a waste of time. | |||
| During the presidency of ], who was elected on the promise of applying military pressure on the FARC and other outlawed groups, with the promise that after nearly half a century of negotiation with no results was a sign that some entities "just cannot be negotiated with". Mostly through military pressure and increased military hardware from the US most security indicators improved, showing a steep decrease in reported ] (from 3,700 in the year 2000 to 800 in 2005) and a decrease of more than 48% in homicides between July 2002 and May 2005. Guerillas have been reduced from 16,900 insurgents to 8,900 insurgents. | |||
| While some in the UN argue Colombia is violating human rights to achieve peace, most do not argue that increase military pressure has had considerable improvements that have favored economic growth and tourism.<ref> '''The Economist''', June 29, 2006.</ref> The ] emerged from the revelations and judicial implications of past and present links between paramilitary groups, mainly the AUC, and some government officials and many politicians, most of them allied to the governing administration.<ref></ref> | |||
| ==Government== | |||
| {{main|Government of Colombia}} | |||
| {{see also|Colombian Constitution of 1991}} | |||
| ]''. The presidential palace in ] houses the ] and head of the ].]] | |||
| The government of Colombia takes place within the framework of a ] ] ] as established in the ]. In accordance with the principle of ], government is divided into three branches: the ]; the ]; and the ]. These operate alongside special ] (the offices of the ] and the ]) and ]. | |||
| The ] serves as both ] and ], followed by the ] and the ]. The president is elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms and is currently limited to a maximum of two such terms (increased from one in 2005). At the provincial level executive power is vested in ], ] and local administrators for smaller administrative subdivisions, such as ''corregidores'' for '']''. | |||
| The legislative branch of government is represented nationally by the ], a bicameral institution comprising a 166-seat ] (including four seats reserved for the representatives of minority communities and expatriates) and a 102-seat ] (including two seats reserved for the representatives of indigenous communities). Members of both houses are elected two months before the president, also by popular vote and to serve four-year terms. At the provincial level the legislative branch is represented by ] and municipal councils. All regional elections are held one year and five months after the presidential election. | |||
| The judicial branch is headed by the ], consisting of 23 judges divided into three chambers (Penal, Civil and Agrarian, and Labour). The judicial branch also includes the ], which has special responsibility for ] and also provides legal advice to the executive, the ], responsible for assuring the integrity of the Colombian constitution, and the ], responsible for auditing the judicial branch. Colombia operates a system of ], which since 2005 has been applied through an ]. | |||
| ===Administrative divisions=== | |||
| {{main|Departments of Colombia|Municipalities of Colombia}} | |||
| {{see also|List of cities in Colombia|Corregimientos of Colombia}} | |||
| Colombia is divided into 32 ] and one ], which is treated as a department (Bogotá also serves as the capital of the ]). Departments are subdivided into ], each of which is assigned a municipal seat, and municipalities are in turn subdivided into '']''. Each department has a local government with a governor and assembly directly elected to four-year terms. Each municipality is headed by a mayor and council, and each ''corregimiento'' by an elected ''corregidor'', or local leader. | |||
| ] | |||
| {| style="background:transparent;" | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| | <!--First column:--> | |||
| {| style="background:transparent;" | |||
| | || {{spaces|1}}'''Department''' || {{smaller|'''Capital city'''}} | |||
| |- | |||
| | '''1''' || ]{{spaces|1}}'''{{smaller|]}}''' || {{smaller|]}} </tr> | |||
| | '''2''' || ]{{spaces|1}}'''{{smaller|]}}''' || {{smaller|]}} </tr> | |||
| | '''3''' || ]{{spaces|1}}'''{{smaller|]}}''' || {{smaller|]}} </tr> | |||
| | '''4''' || ]{{spaces|1}}'''{{smaller|]}}''' || {{smaller|]}} </tr> | |||
| | '''5''' || ]{{spaces|1}}'''{{smaller|]}}''' || {{smaller|]}} </tr> | |||
| | '''6''' || ]{{spaces|1}}'''{{smaller|]}}''' || {{smaller|]}} </tr> | |||
| | '''7''' || ]{{spaces|1}}'''{{smaller|]}}''' || {{smaller|]}} </tr> | |||
| | '''8''' || ]{{spaces|1}}'''{{smaller|]}}''' || {{smaller|]}} </tr> | |||
| | '''9''' || ]{{spaces|1}}'''{{smaller|]}}'''{{spaces|2}} || {{smaller|]}} </tr> | |||
| | '''10''' || ]{{spaces|1}}'''{{smaller|]}}''' || {{smaller|]}} </tr> | |||
| | '''11''' || ]{{spaces|1}}'''{{smaller|]}}''' || {{smaller|]}}{{nbsp|6}} </tr> | |||
| | '''12''' || ]{{spaces|1}}'''{{smaller|]}}''' || {{smaller|]}} </tr> | |||
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| | || {{spaces|1}}'''Department''' || {{smaller|'''Capital city'''}} | |||
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| |} | |||
| |} | |||
| In addition to the capital nine other cities have been designated ] (in effect special municipalities), on the basis of special distinguishing features. These are ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] and ]. Some departments have local administrative subdivisions, where towns have a large concentration of population and municipalities are near each other (for example in Antioquia and Cundinamarca). Where departments have a low population and there are security problems (for example Amazonas, Vaupés and Vichada), special administrative divisions are employed, such as "department ''corregimientos''", which are a hybrid of a municipality and a ''corregimiento''. | |||
| ===Foreign affairs=== | |||
| {{main|Foreign relations of Colombia}} | |||
| {{see also|Diplomatic missions of Colombia}} | |||
| The foreign affairs of Colombia are headed by the President of Colombia and managed by the ]. Colombia has diplomatic missions in all continents and is also represented in multilateral organizations at the following locations: | |||
| * '''Brussels''' (Mission to the ]) | |||
| * '''Geneva''' (Permanent Missions to the ] and other international organizations) | |||
| * '''Montevideo''' (Permanent Missions to the ] and ]) | |||
| * '''Nairobi''' (Permanent Missions to the United Nations and other international organizations) | |||
| * '''New York''' (Permanent Mission to the United Nations) | |||
| * '''Paris''' (Permanent Mission to ]) | |||
| * '''Rome''' (Permanent Mission to the ]) | |||
| * '''Washington DC''' (Permanent Mission to the ]) | |||
| The foreign relations of Colombia are mostly concentrated on combating the illegal drug trade, the fight against terrorism, improving Colombia's image in the international community, expanding the international market for Colombian products, and environmental issues. Colombia receives special military and commercial co-operation and support in its fight against internal armed groups from the United States, mainly through ], as well as special financial preferences from the European Union in certain products. | |||
| Colombia is a member of the ] and the ]. | |||
| ===Defense=== | |||
| {{main|Military of Colombia}} | |||
| ] ] frigate.]] | |||
| ] ] fighter aircraft.]] | |||
| The executive branch of government has responsibility for managing the defense of Colombia, with the President ] of the armed forces. The ] exercises day-to-day control of the ] and the ]. According to UN Human Development Report criteria, Colombia has 209,000 military personnel,<ref name="HDR Military Personnel"></ref> and in 2005 3.7% of the country's GDP went towards military expenditure,<ref name="HDR Military Spend"></ref> both figures placing it 21st in the world. Within Latin America, Colombia's armed forces are the third-largest, behind Brazil and Mexico, and it spends the second-highest proportion of GDP after Chile. Since 2000 the Colombian military has also received substantial support from the United States government through the provisions of Plan Colombia. | |||
| The Colombian military is divided into three branches: the ]; the ]; and the ]. The National Police functions as a ], operating independently from the military as the law enforcement agency for the entire country. Each of these operates with their own intelligence apparatus separate from the national intelligence agency, the ]. The National Army is formed by divisions, regiments and special units; the National Armada by the ], the ], the ], the ], ], ] and the ]; and the Air Force by 13 air units. The National Police has a presence in all municipalities. | |||
| ===Politics=== | |||
| {{main|Politics of Colombia}} | |||
| {{see also|Elections in Colombia|List of political parties in Colombia}} | |||
| ].]] | |||
| For over a century Colombian politics were monopolised by the ] (founded in 1848 on an ], broadly ] and ] platform), and the ] (founded in 1849 espousing ], ], and ]). This culminated in the formation of the ] (1958-1974), which formalised arrangements for an alternation of power between the two parties and excluded non-establishment alternatives (thereby fuelling the nascent ]). | |||
| By the time of the dissolution of the National Front, traditional political alignments had begun to fragment. This process has continued since, and the consequences of this are exemplified by the results of the last ], held on 28 May 2006, which was won with 62% of the vote by the incumbent, ]. President Uribe is from a Liberal background but he campaigned as part of the ] movement with the support of the Conservative Party, and his hard line on security issues and liberal economics place him on the right of the modern political spectrum. In second place with 22% was ] of the ], a newly formed ] alliance which includes elements of the former ] guerrilla movement. ] of the Liberal Party achieved third place with 12%. Meanwhile in the ] held earlier that year the two traditional parties secured only 93 out of 268 seats available. | |||
| Despite a number of controversies, most notably the ongoing ], dramatic improvements in security and continued strong economic performance have ensured that President Uribe remains extremely popular among the Colombian people, with his approval rating peaking at 91% in July 2008.<ref name="Uribe Popularity"> | |||
| </ref> However, having served two terms, he will be constitutionally barred from seeking re-election in 2010. | |||
| ==Economy== | |||
| {{main|Economy of Colombia}} | |||
| {{see also|Agriculture in Colombia}} | |||
| ] | |||
| In spite of the difficulties presented by serious internal armed conflict, Colombia's ] steadily in the latter part of the twentieth century, with ] (GDP) increasing at an average rate of over 4% per year between 1970 and 1998. The country suffered a ] in 1999 (the first full year of negative growth since the ]), and the recovery from that recession was long and painful. However in recent years growth has been impressive, reaching 8.2% in 2007, one of the ] in Latin America. Meanwhile the ] climbed from 1,000 points at its creation in July 2001 to over 7,300 points by November 2008.<ref name="BANKREP"></ref> | |||
| According to ] estimates, in 2007 Colombia's nominal GDP was ]202.6 billion (] and fourth in South America). Adjusted for ], GDP per capita stands at $7,968, placing Colombia ]. However, in practice this is relatively unevenly distributed among the population, and, in common with much of Latin America, Colombia scores poorly according to the ], with UN figures placing it ]. In 2003 the richest 20% of the population had a 62.7% share of income/consumption and the poorest 20% just 2.5%, and 17.8% of Colombians live on ].<ref name="HDR Colombia"></ref> ] is 37.9% of GDP.<ref name="CIAWFB"/> Almost a quarter of this goes towards servicing the country's relatively high ], estimated at 52.8% of GDP in 2007.<ref name="HDR Colombia"/><ref name="CIAWFB"/> Other problems facing the economy include weak domestic and foreign demand, the funding of the country's pension system, and unemployment (10.8% in November 2008<ref name="BANKREP"/>). Inflation has remained relatively low in recent years, standing at 5.5% in 2007.<ref name="CIAWFB"/> | |||
| ], ]. Coffee is Colombia's main ].]] | |||
| Historically an agrarian economy, Colombia urbanised rapidly in the twentieth century, by the end of which just 22.7% of the workforce were employed in agriculture, generating just 11.5% of GDP. 18.7% of the workforce are employed in industry and 58.5% in services, responsible for 36% and 52.5% of GDP respectively.<ref name="CIAWFB"/> Colombia is rich in natural resources, and its main exports include ], ], ] and other agricultural produce, and ].<ref name="ITC Colombia Exports"> | |||
| </ref> Unofficially, ] are also a major export, with over 80% of the world's ] produced in Colombia, estimated to account for between 1 and 3% of the country's GDP.<ref>{{cite web |last=Clune |first=Sarah|title= Colombia's illegal drug trade |url=http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/latin_america/colombia/trade.html |accessdate= 2007-11-13}}</ref><ref name="Independent, Drugs War"> | |||
| </ref> Colombia is also known as the world's leading source of ]s,<ref name="ICA"> | |||
| </ref> while over 70% of ] imported by the ] are Colombian.<ref name="Flower Basket"> | |||
| </ref> Principal trading partners are the United States (a controversial ] with the United States is currently awaiting approval by the ]), ] and ].<ref name="CIAWFB"/> All imports, exports, and the overall ] are at record levels, and the inflow of export dollars has resulted in a substantial re-valuation of the ]. | |||
| Economic performance has been aided by ] introduced in the early 1990s and continued during the current presidency of ], whose policies include measures designed to bring the ] below 2.5% of GDP. In 2008, the ] assessed the Colombian economy to be 61.9% ], an increase of 2.3% since 2007, placing it ] and 15th out of 29 countries within the region.<ref name="Heritage Foundation"> | |||
| </ref> Meanwhile the improvements in security resulting from President Uribe's controversial "]" strategy have engendered an increased sense of confidence in the economy. On 28 May 2007 the American magazine ] published an article naming Colombia "the most extreme emerging market on Earth".<ref> May 28, 2007</ref> | |||
| ===Tourism=== | |||
| {{main|Tourism in Colombia}} | |||
| ]city.]] | |||
| ] from ].]] | |||
| For many years serious internal armed conflict deterred tourists from visiting Colombia, with official ] warning against travel to the country. However in recent years numbers have risen sharply, thanks to improvements in security resulting from President Álvaro Uribe's "democratic security" strategy, which has included significant increases in military strength and police presence throughout the country and pushed rebel groups further away from the major cities, highways and tourist sites likely to attract international visitors. Foreign tourist visits were predicted to have risen from 0.5 million in 2003 to 1.3 million in 2007,<ref name="BBC Tourism"></ref> while ] picked Colombia as one of their top ten world destinations for 2006.<ref>{{cite news |publisher=Christian Science Monitor |title=Hot Destination: Colombia |date=May 9, 2006 |url=http://www.csmonitor.com/2006/0509/p06s01-woam.html}}</ref> The improvements in the country's security were recognised in November 2008 with a revision of the travel advice on Colombia issued by the ].<ref name="FCO Travel Advice"> | |||
| </ref> | |||
| Popular tourist attractions include the historic ] district of central Bogotá, the walled city and beaches of ], the colonial towns of ], ] and ], and the ] and the ]. Tourists are also drawn to ], including ] ], the ], the ] in ] and the ] in Bogotá. Meanwhile, because of the improved security, Caribbean ]s now stop at Cartagena and ]. | |||
| ], one of the main ecotourist destinations.]] | |||
| The great variety in geography, flora and fauna across Colombia has also resulted in the development of an ] industry, concentrated in the country's ]. Popular ecotourist destinations include: along the Caribbean coast, the ] in the ] mountain range and ] on the tip of the ]; the ], the ] and the ] in the central ]; ] in the ]; and the Pacific islands of ] and ]. Colombia is home to seven ]. | |||
| ===Transportation=== | |||
| {{main|Transportation in Colombia}} | |||
| ].]] | |||
| Colombia has a network of national highways maintained by the '']'' or INVIAS (National Institute of Roadways) government agency under the ]. The ] travels through Colombia, connecting the country with Venezuela to the east and Ecuador to the south. | |||
| Colombia's principal airport is ] in Bogotá. Several national airlines (], ], ] , ] and ], ), and international airlines (such as ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ]) operate from El Dorado. Because of its central location in Colombia and America, it is preferred by national land transportation providers, as well as national and international air transportation providers. | |||
| ===Biofuels=== | |||
| Colombia is discussing current trends and challenges as well as recent international developments in the ]s sector with the intention of contributing to the development of a sustainable and competitive biofuels strategy for Colombia and the region.<ref></ref> | |||
| Arturo Infante Villarreal is the National Biofuels Coordinator, which is within the Department of National Planning. | |||
| ==Demographics== | |||
| {{main|Demographics of Colombia}} | |||
| {{see also|List of Colombian Departments by population}} | |||
| ].]] | |||
| With an estimated 44.6 million people in 2008, Colombia is the ] in Latin America, after Brazil and Mexico. The population increased at a rate of 1.9% between 1975 and 2005, predicted to drop to 1.2% over the next decade. Colombia is projected to have a population of 50.7 million by 2015. These trends are reflected in the country's age profile. In 2005 over 30% of the population was under 15 years old, compared to just 5.1% aged 65 and over. ] at birth in 2005 was 72.3; 2.1% would not reach the age of 5, 9.2% would not reach the age of 40.<ref name="HDR Colombia"/> | |||
| The population is concentrated in the ] and along the ]. The nine eastern lowland departments, comprising about 54% of Colombia's area, have less than 3% of the population and a density of less than one person per square kilometer (two persons per square mile). Traditionally a rural society, ] was very heavy in the mid-twentieth century, and Colombia is now one of the most urbanized countries in Latin America. The urban population increased from 31% of the total in 1938 to 60% in 1975, and by 2005 the figure stood at 72.7%.<ref name="Country Study"></ref><ref name="HDR Colombia"/> The population of Bogotá alone has increased from just over 300,000 in 1938 to approximately 7 million today. In total thirty cities now have populations of 100,000 or more. | |||
| Colombia is ranked second in the world in the ]. | |||
| ===Ethnic groups=== | |||
| ] Women in Cartagena.]] | |||
| The census data in Colombia does not record ethnicity, other than that of those identifying themselves as members of particular minority ethnic groups, so overall percentages are essentially estimates from other sources and can vary from one to another.<ref name="Nación Multicultural">{{es icon}} </ref> | |||
| According to the ], the majority of the population (58%) is ], or of mixed European and Amerindian ancestry. 20% is of ], 14% ] (of mixed European and black African ancestry), 4% of ], and 3% ] (of mixed Amerindian and black African ancestry). ] comprise only 1% of the population.<ref name="CIAWFB"/> The overwhelming majority of Colombians speak ] (see also ]), but in total 101 languages are listed for Colombia in the ] database, of which 80 are spoken today as living languages. Most of these belong to the ]n, ] and ]an linguistic families. The ], spoken by descendants of the ], has also extended northwards into Colombia, mainly in urban centers of the southern highlands. There are currently about 500,000 speakers of indigenous languages.<ref name="ethnologue"></ref> | |||
| ===Indigenous peoples=== | |||
| {{main|Indigenous peoples in Colombia}} | |||
| ] represent the largest indigenous ethnic group in Colombia.<ref name="EPM"> {{cite web | author =EPM | url = http://www.eeppm.com/epmcom/contenido/acercade/infraestructura/generacion/Jepirachi/etnia.htm | title = La etnia Wayuu | work = Empresas Publicas de Medellin | date = 2005| accessdate = 2008-02-29 | language = Spanish}}</ref>]] | |||
| Before the Spanish colonization of what is now Colombia, the territory was home to a significant number of indigenous peoples. Many of these were absorbed into the mestizo population, but the remainder currently represents over eighty-five distinct cultures. 567 reserves (''resguardos'') established for indigenous peoples occupy 365,004 square kilometres (over 30% of the country's total) and are inhabited by more than 800,000 people in over 67,000 families.<ref name="Resguardos Indígenas">{{es icon}} </ref> The 1991 constitution established their native languages as official in their territories, and most of them have bilingual education (native and Spanish). | |||
| Some of the largest indigenous groups are the ],<ref name="EPM"/> the ], the ], the ], the ], the ] and the ]. ], ] and ] have the largest indigenous populations. | |||
| ===Immigrant groups=== | |||
| {{main|Immigration to Colombia}} | |||
| The first and most substantial wave of modern immigration to Colombia consisted of ], following the arrival of Europeans in 1499. However a range of other Europeans (], ], ], ], ], ] and ], also many ]) migrated to the country in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, and, in smaller numbers, ], ], ], ] and ] during and after the Second World War. For example, former Mayor of Bogotá ] is the son of Lithuanian immigrants. | |||
| Many immigrant communities have settled on the Caribbean coast, in particular recent immigrants from the ]. ] (the largest city of the Colombian Caribbean) and other Caribbean cities have the largest populations of ] and ], ], ], and people of Italian, German, and French descent. For example, the singer ], a native of Barranquilla, has both Lebanese and Italian ancestry. There are also important communities of ] and ]. | |||
| ] were brought as ], mostly to the coastal lowlands, beginning early in the sixteenth century and continuing into the nineteenth century. Large Afro-Colombian communities are found today on the Caribbean and Pacific coasts. The population of the ], running along the northern portion of Colombia's Pacific coast, is over 80% black.<ref name="Grupos Étnicos">{{es icon}} </ref> | |||
| ===Education=== | |||
| {{main|Education in Colombia}} | |||
| ] campus of the ]. The National University is the largest state-run university in Colombia.]] | |||
| The educational experience of many Colombian children begins with attendance at a preschool academy until age 6. ] is then free and ]. ] (educación media) begins at age 11 and lasts up to six years, in some cases seven (mostly in private schools, where it is usually ]). Secondary school graduates are awarded the diploma (high-school diploma). However in many rural areas, teachers are poorly qualified, and only the five years of primary schooling are offered. The school year can extend from February to November or from August to June, and in many public schools attendance is split into morning and afternoon "shifts", in order to accommodate the large numbers of children. | |||
| Public spending on education as a proportion of ] in 2006 was 4.7% — one of the highest rates in Latin America — as compared with 2.4% in 1991. This represented 14.2% of total government expenditure.<ref name="UNESCO"></ref><ref name="HDR Colombia"/> In 2006, the primary and secondary net enrolment rates stood at 88% and 65% respectively, slightly below the regional average. School life expectancy was 12.4 years.<ref name="UNESCO"/> A total of 92.3% of the population aged 15 and older were recorded as literate, including 97.9% of those aged 15-24, both figures slightly higher than the regional average.<ref name="UNESCO"/> However, literacy levels are considerably lower in rural areas.<ref name="Background Note"></ref> | |||
| Colombia has ]. These are concentrated in Bogotá, which has become known as "the Athens of South America".<ref name="Athens"></ref> | |||
| ===Religion=== | |||
| {{main|Religion in Colombia}} | |||
| {{see also|Freedom of religion in Colombia}} | |||
| The ] (DANE) does not collect religious statistics, and accurate reports are difficult to obtain. However, based on various studies, more than 95% of the population adheres to ],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.religiousintelligence.co.uk/country/?CountryID=78 |title=Religious Intelligence — Country Profile: Colombia |accessdate=2007-10-03}}</ref> the vast majority of which (between 81% and 90%) are ]. About 1% of Colombians adhere to ] and under 1% to ], ], ], and ]. However, despite high numbers of adherents, around 60% of respondents to a poll by ''El Tiempo'' reported that they did not practice their faith actively.<ref name="Religious Freedom">, by the Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State, November 8, 2005.</ref> | |||
| While Colombia remains an overwhelmingly Roman Catholic country, the Colombian constitution guarantees freedom and equality of religion.<ref> (Article 19)</ref> Religious groups are readily able to obtain recognition as organized associations, although some smaller ones have faced difficulty in obtaining the additional recognition required to offer chaplaincy services in public facilities and to perform legally recognised marriages.<ref name="Religious Freedom"/> | |||
| ==Culture== | |||
| {{main|Culture of Colombia}} | |||
| {{see also|Festivals in Colombia|Music of Colombia}} | |||
| ] tradition from ], a ] since 2005.]] | |||
| Colombia lies at the crossroads of ] and the broader ], and as such has been marked by a wide range of cultural influences. ], ] and other ], ], ], ], and ] influences, as well as other Latin American cultural influences, are all present in Colombia's modern culture. ], ], ], and other political, social and economic changes have also left an impression. | |||
| Historically, the country's imposing landscape left its various ] largely isolated from one another, resulting in the development of very strong regional identities, in many cases stronger than the national. Modern transport links and means of communication have mitigated this and done much to foster a sense of nationhood, but social and political instability, and in particular fears of armed groups and bandits on intercity highways, have contributed to the maintenance of very clear regional differences. Accent, dress, music, food, politics and general attitude vary greatly between the ] and other residents of the central highlands, the '']'' of ] and the ], the ''costeños'' of the ], the '']s'' of the eastern plains, and the inhabitants of the ] and the vast ] to the south east. | |||
| ] and daughter ] during a visit to Cartagena, Colombia, where they were greeted by ].]] | |||
| ] in ], ].]] | |||
| An inheritance from the ], Colombia remains a deeply ] and maintains a large base of Catholic traditions which provide a point of unity for its multicultural society. Colombia has many ] throughout the year, and the majority are rooted in these Catholic religious traditions. However, many are also infused with a diverse range of other influences. Prominent examples of Colombia's festivals include the ], the ], Medellín's ] and Bogotá's ] | |||
| The mixing of various different ethnic traditions is reflected in Colombia's ] and dance. The most well-known Colombian genres are ] and ], the latter now strongly influenced by global ]. A powerful and unifying cultural medium in Colombia is ]. Most famously, the ] ] has gained international success through localized versions in the United States, Mexico, and elsewhere. Television has also played a role in the development of the ]. | |||
| As in many Latin American countries, Colombians have a passion for ] (soccer). The ] is seen as a symbol of unity and national pride, though ] also inspire fierce loyalty and ]. Colombia has "exported" many famous players, such as ], ], ], and ]. Other ] have also achieved success, including ]'s ], ]'s ] and ], and the ]'s ]. | |||
| Other famous Colombians include the ] winning author ], the artist ], the writers ], ], ] and ], the musicians ], ], ] and ], and the actors ], ], ] and ]. | |||
| The ] developed mainly from the food traditions of European countries. ], ] and ] culinary influences can all be seen in Colombian cooking. The cuisine of neighboring ], ], ] and ], as well as the ] of the country's indigenous inhabitants, have all influenced Colombian food. | |||
| Many ], both objects and themes, have arisen from Colombia's diverse cultural traditions and aim to represent what Colombia, and the Colombian people, have in common. Cultural expressions in Colombia are promoted by the government through the ].{{clear}} | |||
| ==See also== | |||
| {{portal|Colombia|Flag of Colombia.svg}} | |||
| {{main|List of Colombia-related topics}} | |||
| {{clear}} | |||
| <!-- Please place links to all topics directly related to Colombia in the ] --> | |||
| {{Colombia topics|state=uncollapsed}} | |||
| ==References== | |||
| {{reflist|2}} | |||
| ==Further reading== | |||
| * {{es icon}} Academia Colombiana de Historia (1986), ''Historia extensa de Colombia'' (41 volumes). Bogotá: Ediciones Lerner, 1965-1986. ISBN 9589501338 (Complete work) | |||
| * {{es icon}} Barrios, Luis (1984), ''Historia de Colombia''. Fifth edition, Bogotá: Editorial Cultural | |||
| * {{es icon}} Bedoya F., Víctor A. (1944), ''Historia de Colombia: independencia y república con bases fundamentales en la colonia''. Colección La Salle, Bogotá: Librería Stella | |||
| * Bushnell, David (1993), ''The Making of Modern Colombia: A Nation in Spite of Itself''. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. ISBN 0520082893 | |||
| * {{es icon}} Caballero Argaez, Carlos (1987), ''50 años de economía: de la crisis del treinta a la del ochenta''. Second edition, Colección Jorge Ortega Torres, Bogotá: Editorial Presencia, Asociación Bancaria de Colombia. ISBN 9589040039 | |||
| * {{es icon}} Cadavid Misas, Roberto (2004), ''Cursillo de historia de Colombia: de la conquista a la independencia''. Bogotá: Intermedio Editores. ISBN 9587091345 | |||
| * {{es icon}} Calderón Schrader, Camilo; Gil, Antonio; Torras, Daniel (2001), ''Enciclopedia de Colombia'' (4 volumes). Barcelona: Céano Grupo Editorial, 2001. ISBN 8449419476 (Complete work) | |||
| * {{es icon}} Calderón Schrader, Camilo (1993), ''Gran enciclopedia de Colombia'' (11 volumes). Bogotá: Círculo de Lectores. ISBN 9582802944 (Complete work) | |||
| * {{es icon}} Cavelier Gaviria, Germán (2003), ''Centenario de Panamá: una historia de la separación de Colombia en 1903''. Bogotá: Universidad Externado de Colombia. ISBN 9586167186 | |||
| * {{es icon}} Forero, Manuel José (1946), ''Historia analítica de Colombia desde los orígenes de la independencia nacional''. Second edition, Bogotá: Librería Voluntad. | |||
| * {{es icon}} Gómez Hoyos, Rafael (1992), ''La independencia de Colombia''. Madrid: Editorial Mapfre, Colecciones Mapfre 1492. ISBN 8471005964 | |||
| * {{es icon}} Granados, Rafael María (1978), ''Historia general de Colombia: prehistoria, conquista, colonia, independencia y Repúbica''. Eighth edition, Bogotá: Imprenta Departamental Antonio Nariño. | |||
| * {{es icon}} Hernández de Alba, Guillermo (2004), ''Como nació la República de Colombia''. Colección Bolsilibros. Bogotá: Academia Colombiana de Historia. ISBN 9588040353 | |||
| * {{es icon}} Hernández Becerra, Augusto (2001), ''Ordenamiento y desarreglo territorial en Colombia''. Bogotá: Universidad Externado de Colombia, ISBN 9586165558 | |||
| * {{es icon}} Hernández Rodríguez, Guillermo (1949), ''De los chibchas a la colonia y a la república''. Bogotá: Universidad Nacional de Colombia. Sección de Extensión Cultural. | |||
| * Hylton, Forrest (2006), ''Evil Hour in Colombia''. New York: Verso Books. ISBN 1844675513 | |||
| * {{es icon}} Jaramillo Uribe, Jaime; Tirado Mejía, Álvaro; Calderón Schrader, Camilo (2000), ''Nueva historia de Colombia'' (12 volumes). Bogotá: Planeta Colombiana Editorial. ISBN 9586142515 (Complete work) | |||
| * Kirk, Robin (2004), ''More Terrible Than Death: Drugs, Violence, and America's War in Colombia''. United States: PublicAffairs. ISBN 1586482076 | |||
| * {{es icon}} Ocampo López, Javier (1999), ''El proceso ideológico de la emancipación en Colombia''. Colección La Línea de Horizonte, Bogotá: Editorial Planeta. ISBN 9586147924 | |||
| * Ospina, William (2006), ''Once Upon a Time There Was Colombia''. Colombia: Villegas Asociados. ISBN 9588156645 | |||
| * Palacios, Marco (2006), ''Between Legitimacy and Violence: A History of Colombia, 1875-2002''. United States of America: Duke University Press. ISBN 0822337673 | |||
| * {{es icon}} Reichel-Dolmatoff, Gerardo (1998), ''Colombia indígena''. Medellín: Hola Colina. ISBN 9586382761 | |||
| * {{es icon}} Restrepo, José Manuel (1974), ''Historia de la revolución de la República de Colombia''. Medellín: Editorial Bedout. | |||
| * {{es icon}} Rivadeneira Vargas, Antonio José (2002), ''Historia constitucional de Colombia 1510-2000''. Third edition, Tunja: Editorial Bolivariana Internacional. | |||
| * Simons, Geoff (2004), ''Colombia: A Brutal History''. London: Saqi Books. ISBN 0863567584 | |||
| * Smith, Stephen (1999), ''Cocaine Train: Travels in Colombia''. London: Little, Brown. ISBN 0316647497 | |||
| * {{es icon}} Tovar Pinzón, Hermes (1975), ''El movimiento campesino en Colombia durante los siglos XIX y XX''. Second edition, Bogotá: Ediciones Libres. | |||
| * {{es icon}} Trujillo Muñoz Augusto (2001), ''Descentralización, regionalización y autonomía local''. Bogotá: Universidad Nacional de Colombia. | |||
| * {{es icon}} Vidal Perdomo Jaime (2001), ''La Región en la Organización Territorial del Estado''. Bogotá: Universidad del Rosario. | |||
| ==External links== | |||
| {{sisterlinks|Colombia}} | |||
| ; Government | |||
| * {{es icon}} - Colombia Online Government web site | |||
| * {{es icon}} - ] | |||
| * {{es icon}} - ] | |||
| * {{es icon}} - ] | |||
| * {{es icon}} - ] | |||
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| * - National System of Cultural Information | |||
| * {{es icon}} - Maps of Colombia | |||
| ; Other | |||
| * {{wikitravel}} | |||
| * at ] | |||
| * {{CIA World Factbook link|co|Colombia}} | |||
| * at ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' | |||
| * {{dmoz|Regional/South_America/Colombia}} | |||
| * {{es icon}} - ] in Colombia | |||
| * - ] | |||
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| {{Template group | |||
| |title = Geographic locale | |||
| |list = | |||
| {{Departments of Colombia}} | |||
| {{Countries of South America}} | |||
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| {{Latin Union}} | |||
| {{Union of South American Nations (Unasur\Unasul)}} | |||
| {{Andean Community of Nations}} | |||
| {{Mercosur\Mercosul (Southern Common Market)}} | |||
| {{Organization of American States (OAS)}} | |||
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Revision as of 01:58, 5 March 2009
colombia is the best!!!