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Ernest Miller Hemingway (July 21, 1899 – July 2, 1961) was an American writer and journalist. He was part of the 1920s expatriate community in Paris, and one of the veterans of World War I later known as "the Lost Generation." He received the Pulitzer Prize in 1953 for The Old Man and the Sea, and the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1954.

Hemingway's distinctive writing style is characterized by economy and understatement, and had a significant influence on the development of twentieth-century fiction writing. His protagonists are typically stoical men who exhibit an ideal described as "grace under pressure." Many of his works are now considered classics of American literature.

Early life

Ernest Miller Hemingway was born on July 21, 1899 in Oak Park, Illinois, a suburb of Chicago. Hemingway was the first son and the second child born to Clarence Edmonds "Doc Ed" Hemingway - a country doctor, and Grace Hall Hemingway. Hemingway's father attended the birth of Ernest and blew a horn on his front porch to announce to the neighbors that his wife had given birth to a boy. The Hemingways lived in a six-bedroom Victorian house built by Ernest's widowed maternal grandfather, Ernest Miller Hall, an English immigrant and Civil War veteran who lived with the family. Hemingway was his namesake, although Hemingway disliked his name, and "associated it with the naive, even foolish hero of Oscar Wilde's play The Importance of Being Earnest."

Hemingway's mother once aspired to an opera career and earned money giving voice and music lessons. She was domineering and narrowly religious, mirroring the strict Protestant ethic of Oak Park, which Hemingway later said had "wide lawns and narrow minds". Oak Park itself influenced Hemingway, and Frank Lloyd Wright, who was a contemporary resident, said of the village: " 'So many churches for so many good people to go to.' " While his mother hoped that her son would develop an interest in music, her insistence that he learn the cello became a "source of conflict", although later he admitted his music lessons were useful to his writing, particularly to the "contrapunctal structure of For Whom the Bell Tolls." Hemingway adopted his father's outdoorsman hobbies of hunting, fishing and camping in the woods and lakes of Northern Michigan. The family owned a summer home called Windemere on Walloon Lake, near Petoskey, Michigan and often spent summers vacationing there. These early experiences in close contact with nature instilled in Hemingway a lifelong passion for outdoor adventure and for living in remote or isolated areas, and the activities associated with Michigan became permanent interests, such as hunting and fishing. Hemingway used the country properties to escape the confinement of Oak Park, but he retained his "hard-working, self-reliant, conscientious, anxious and guilt-ridden Protestant heritage."

Hemingway attended Oak Park and River Forest High School from September 1913 until graduation in June 1917. He excelled both athletically; he boxed, was captain of the track team, a member of the water polo team, played football, and displayed particular talent in English classes and belonged to the debate team. His first writing experience was writing for "Trapeze" and "Tabula" (the school's newspaper and yearbook, respectively) in his junior year, then serving as editor in his senior year. He imitated the language of sportswriters, and he sometimes wrote under the pen name Ring Lardner, Jr., a nod to his literary hero Ring Lardner of the Chicago Tribune who used the byline "Line O'Type".

When he graduated from high school, Hemingway chose not to go to college. Instead, at age eighteen, he was fortunate to land a job as a cub reporter at The Kansas City Star through the influence of his uncle who was a close friend to the chief editor, and as such joined the ranks of American novelists Mark Twain, Stephen Crane, Theodore Dreiser and Sinclair Lewis who worked as journalists prior to becoming novelists. Although he worked at the newspaper for only six months — from October 17, 1917 to April 30, 1918 — he relied on The Stars style guide as a foundation for his writing: "Use short sentences. Use short first paragraphs. Use vigorous English. Be positive, not negative." In honor of the centennial year of Hemingway's birth (1899), The Star named Hemingway its top reporter of the last hundred years.

World War I

Like many young men of his generation, Hemingway answered the call for volunteers in the European front. As poet Archibald Macleish said of World War One, "it was something you 'went to' from a place called Paris. Hemingway joined the Red Cross Ambulance Corps as a volunteer, and by June 1918 he was stationed at the Italian Front. While running an errand to the canteen, he was hit by mortar fire. Disregarding his injury, Hemingway carried an Italian soldier to safety, for which he was honored with the Italian Silver Medal of Bravery, the first American to receive such an award. He sustained serious injuries to both legs; amongst the more remarkable features of this incident, he helped staunch the bleeding by stuffing cigarette butts and rolling papers into his multiple wounds. Initially he underwent a temporary operation at the distribution center, spent five days at a field hospital before being transferred to Milan.

At the time, Heminway was two weeks shy of his nineteenth birthday. He said of the incident: "When you go to war as a boy you have a great illusion of immortality. Other people get killed; not you. . . .Then when you are badly wounded the first time you lose that illusion and you know it can happen to you." He sustained serious injuries to both legs; amongst the more remarkable features of this incident, he helped staunch the bleeding by stuffing cigarette butts and rolling papers into his multiple wounds.

The soldiers he met later did not lighten the horror. One of them, Eric Dorman-Smith, entertained Hemingway with a line from Shakespeare's Henry IV: "By my troth, I care not; a man can die but once; we owe God a death...and let it go which way it will, he that dies this year is quit for the next." (Hemingway, for his part, would quote this line in "The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber", one of his short stories set in Africa.) To another soldier, Hemingway once said, "You are troppo vecchio (It. too old) for this war, pop." The 50-year old soldier replied, "I can die as well as any man."

For six months Hemingway received treatment at the American Red Cross hospital in Milan. Here he met Agnes von Kurowsky, a Red Cross nurse, with whom he fell in love. She was one of eighteen nurses attending groups of four patients each, who was more than six years his senior, but their relationship did not survive his return to the United States; instead of following Hemingway to America, as originally planned, she became romantically involved with an Italian officer. This left an indelible mark on his psyche and provided inspiration for, and was fictionalized in, one of his early novels, A Farewell to Arms. Hemingway's first story based on this relationship, "A Very Short Story," appeared in 1925.

First novels

After the war, Hemingway returned to Oak Park, and in 1920, he moved to an apartment on 1599 Bathurst Street, now known as The Hemingway, in the Humewood-Cedarvale neighborhood in Toronto, Ontario. During his stay, he found a job with the Toronto Star newspaper. He worked as a freelancer, staff writer, and foreign correspondent. Hemingway befriended fellow Star reporter Morley Callaghan. Callaghan had begun writing short stories at this time; he showed them to Hemingway, who praised them as fine work. They would later be reunited in Paris.

For a short time from late 1920 through most of 1921, Hemingway lived on the near north side of Chicago, while still filing stories for The Toronto Star. He also worked as associate editor of the Co-operative Commonwealth, a monthly journal. On September 3, 1921, Hemingway married his first wife, Hadley Richardson. After the honeymoon they moved to a cramped top floor apartment on the 1300 block of Clark Street. In September, they moved to a equally small fourth floor apartment (3rd floor by Chicago building standard) at 1239 North Dearborn in a then run-down section of Chicago's near north side. The building still stands with a plaque on the front of it calling it "The Hemingway Apartment". Hadley found it dark and depressing, but in December 1921, the Hemingways left Chicago and Oak Park, never to live there again, and moved abroad.

On the advice of Sherwood Anderson, they settled in Paris, France, where Hemingway covered the Greco-Turkish War for the Toronto Star. Among the more famous events of this important but now obscure war, Hemingway witnessed the catastrophic burning of Smyrna, an event that he introduced in several pieces of short fiction. Anderson gave him a letter of introduction to Gertrude Stein. She became his mentor and introduced him to the "Parisian Modern Movement" then ongoing in the Montparnasse Quarter; this was the beginning of the American expatriate circle that became known as the "Lost Generation," a term popularized by Hemingway in the epigraph to his novel, The Sun Also Rises, and his memoir, A Moveable Feast. The epithet, "Lost Generation" was reportedly appropriated by Miss Stein from her French garage mechanic when he made the offhand comment that hers was "une génération perdue". ("'That's what you are. That's what you all are,' Miss Stein said. 'All of you young people who served in the war. You are a lost generation.'"—from Hemingway's posthumous memoir, A Moveable Feast.) His other influential mentor was Ezra Pound, the founder of imagism. Hemingway later said of this eclectic group, "Ezra was right half the time, and when he was wrong, he was so wrong you were never in any doubt about it. Gertrude was always right." The group often frequented Sylvia Beach's bookshop, Shakespeare & Co., at 12 Rue de l'Odéon. After the 1922 publication and American banning of colleague James Joyce's Ulysses, Hemingway used Toronto-based friends to smuggle copies of the novel into the United States (Hemingway writes of meeting and talking with Joyce in Paris in A Movable Feast). His own first book, called Three Stories and Ten Poems (1923), was published in Paris by Robert McAlmon.

After much success as a foreign correspondent, Hemingway returned to Toronto, Canada in 1923 writing under the pseudonym of Peter Jackson. During his second stint living in Toronto, Hemingway's first son was born. He was named John Hadley Nicanor Hemingway, but would later be known as Jack. Hemingway asked Gertrude Stein to be Jack's godmother.

Around the same time, Hemingway had a bitter falling out with his editor, Harry Hindmarsh, who believed Hemingway had been spoiled by his time overseas. Hindmarsh gave Hemingway mundane assignments, and Hemingway grew bitter and wrote an angry resignation in December 1923. However, his resignation was either ignored or rescinded, and Hemingway continued to write sporadically for The Toronto Star through 1924. Most of Hemingway's work for the Star was later published in the 1985 collection Dateline: Toronto.

Hemingway's American literary debut came with the publication of the short story cycle In Our Time (1925). The vignettes that now constitute the interchapters of the American version were initially published in Europe as in our time (1924). This work was important for Hemingway, reaffirming to him that his simplistic style could be accepted by the literary community. "Big Two-Hearted River" is the collection's best-known story.

In April 1925, two weeks after the publication of The Great Gatsby, Hemingway met F. Scott Fitzgerald at the Dingo Bar. Fitzgerald and Hemingway were at first close friends, often drinking and talking together. They sometimes exchanged manuscripts, and Fitzgerald did much to try to advance Hemingway's career and the publication of his first collections of stories. Hemingway and Fitzgerald's wife Zelda took an instant dislike to each other with Zelda calling Hemingway a "phony." Fitzgerald and Zelda were having marital difficulties at this time, and Zelda told Scott that their sex life had declined because he was "a fairy" and having an affair with Hemingway. There is no evidence that either was homosexual, but Scott nonetheless decided to sleep with a prostitute to prove his masculinity.

Hemingway's relationships in France provided inspiration for Hemingway's first full-length novel, The Sun Also Rises (1926) (published in the UK under the title "Fiesta"). The novel was semi-autobiographical, following a group of expatriate Americans around Paris and Spain. The climactic scenes of the novel are set in Pamplona, during the fiesta that the novel made famous throughout Europe and the U.S. The novel was a success and met with critical acclaim.

Hemingway divorced Hadley Richardson in 1927 and married Pauline Pfeiffer, a devout Roman Catholic from Piggott, Arkansas. Pfeiffer was an occasional fashion reporter, publishing in magazines such as Vanity Fair and Vogue. Hemingway converted to Catholicism himself at this time. That year saw the publication of Men Without Women, a collection of short stories, containing The Killers, one of Hemingway's best-known and most-anthologized stories. In 1928, Hemingway and Pfeiffer moved to Key West, Florida, to begin their new life together. However, their new life was soon interrupted by yet another tragic event in Hemingway's life.

In 1928, Hemingway's father, Clarence, troubled with diabetes and financial instabilities, committed suicide using an old Civil War pistol. This greatly hurt Hemingway and is perhaps played out through Robert Jordan's father's suicide in the novel For Whom the Bell Tolls. He immediately traveled to Oak Park to arrange the funeral and stirred up controversy by vocalizing what he thought to be the Catholic view, that suicides go to hell. At about the same time, Harry Crosby, founder of the Black Sun Press and a friend of Hemingway's from his days in Paris, also committed suicide.

In that same year, Hemingway's second son, Patrick, was born in Kansas City (his third son, Gregory, would be born to the couple a few years later). It was a Caesarean birth after difficult labor, details of which were incorporated into the concluding scene of A Farewell to Arms. Hemingway lived and wrote most of A Farewell to Arms plus several short stories at Pauline's parents' house in Piggott, Arkansas. The Pfeiffer House and Carriage House has since been converted into a museum owned by Arkansas State University.

Published in 1929, A Farewell to Arms recounts the romance between Frederic Henry, an American soldier, and Catherine Barkley, a British nurse. The novel is heavily autobiographical: the plot was directly inspired by his relationship with Agnes von Kurowsky in Milan; Catherine's parturition was inspired by the intense labor pains of Pauline in the birth of Patrick; the real-life Kitty Cannell inspired the fictional Helen Ferguson; the priest was based on Don Giuseppe Bianchi, the priest of the 69th and 70th regiments of the Brigata Ancona. While the inspiration of the character Rinaldi is obscure, he had already appeared in In Our Time. A Farewell to Arms was published at a time when many other World War I books were prominent, including Frederic Manning's Her Privates We, Erich Maria Remarque's All Quiet on the Western Front, Richard Aldington's Death of a Hero, and Robert Graves' Goodbye to All That. The success of A Farewell to Arms made Hemingway financially independent.

Key West

Following the advice of John Dos Passos, Hemingway returned to Key West, Florida in 1931, where he established his first American home, which has since been converted to a museum. From this 1851 solid limestone house — a wedding present from Pauline's uncle — Hemingway fished in the waters around the Dry Tortugas with his longtime friend Waldo Pierce, went to the famous bar Sloppy Joe's, and occasionally traveled to Spain, gathering material for Death in the Afternoon and Winner Take Nothing. Over the next 9 years, until the end of this marriage in 1940, and then in a second period throughout the 1950s, Hemingway would do an estimated 70% of his lifetime's writing in the writer's den in the upper floor of the converted garage, in back of this house.

Death in the Afternoon, a book about bullfighting, was published in 1932. Hemingway had become an aficionado of the sport after seeing the Pamplona fiesta of 1925, fictionalized in The Sun Also Rises. In Death in the Afternoon, Hemingway extensively discussed the metaphysics of bullfighting: the ritualized, almost religious practice. Hemingway considered becoming a bullfighter himself and showed middling aptitude in several novieros before deciding that writing was his true and only suitable professional metier. In his writings on Spain, he was influenced by the Spanish master Pío Baroja. When Hemingway won the Nobel Prize, he traveled to see Baroja, then on his death bed, specifically to tell him he thought Baroja deserved the prize more than he. Baroja agreed and something of the usual Hemingway tiff with another writer ensued despite his original good intentions.

A safari in the fall of 1933 led him to Mombasa, Nairobi, and Machakos in Kenya, moving on to Tanganyika, where he hunted in the Serengeti, around Lake Manyara and west and southeast of the present-day Tarangire National Park. Hemingway fell ill on this trip, suffering a prolapsed intestine. Due to this illness he was evacuated to Nairobi by plane, an experience which is reflected in his story "The Snows of Kilimanjaro."μ 1935 saw the publication of Green Hills of Africa, an account of his safari. The Snows of Kilimanjaro and The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber were the fictionalized results of his African experiences. On this trip Hemingway's guide was Philip Hope Percival, who had once guided Theodore Roosevelt on his 1909 safari. Percival would also guide Hemingway on his disastrous 1954 safari.

Bimini

Hemingway lived on Bimini in the Bahamas from 1935 to 1937, staying at the Compleat Angler Hotel. He worked on To Have and Have Not and wrote a few articles, but mostly he fished aboard his boat Pilar, trolling the deep blue offshore waters for marlin, tuna and swordfish. Hemingway was attracted to Bimini by tales of the incredible fishing available in the Gulf Stream, the legendary “river” of warm water that rushes north past the Bahamas.

Spanish Civil War

In 1936, Hemingway traveled to Spain in order to report on the Spanish Civil War for the North American Newspaper Alliance. While there, Hemingway broke his friendship with John Dos Passos because, despite warnings, Dos Passos continued to report on the atrocities of not only the fascist Nationalists whom Hemingway disliked, but also those of the elected and radicalized left-leaning Republicans whom he favored; characteristically, Hemingway spread a story that Dos Passos had fled Spain out of cowardice. In this context Hemingway's colleague and associate Herbert Matthews, who would become more well known for his favorable reports on Fidel Castro, showed a similar predilection for the Republican side as Hemingway. Hemingway, who was a convert to Catholicism during his marriage to his wife Pauline, began to question his religion at this time, eventually leaving the church (though friends indicate that he had "funny ties" to Catholicism for the rest of his life). The war also strained Hemingway's marriage. Pauline Pfieffer was a devout Catholic and, as such, sided with the fascist, pro-Catholic regime of Franco, whereas Hemingway mostly supported the Republican government, for all his criticisms of it. During this time, Hemingway wrote a little known essay, The Denunciation, which would not be published until 1969 within a collection of stories, the Fifth Column and Four Stories of the Spanish Civil War. The story seems autobiographical, suggesting that Hemingway might have been an informant for the Republic as well as a weapons instructor during the war.

Some health problems characterized this period of Hemingway's life: an anthrax infection, a cut eyeball, a gash in his forehead, grippe, toothache, hemorrhoids, kidney trouble from fishing, torn groin muscle, finger gashed to the bone in an accident with a punching ball, lacerations (to arms, legs, and face) from a ride on a runaway horse through a deep Wyoming forest, and a broken arm from a car accident.

Forty-Nine Stories

In 1938—along with his only full-length play, titled The Fifth Column—49 stories were published in the collection The Fifth Column and the First Forty-Nine Stories. Hemingway's intention was, as he openly stated in his foreword, to write more. Many of the stories that make up this collection can be found in other abridged collections, including In Our Time, Men Without Women, Winner Take Nothing, and The Snows of Kilimanjaro.

Some of the collection's important stories include Old Man at the Bridge, On The Quai at Smyrna, Hills Like White Elephants, One Reader Writes, The Killers and (perhaps most famously) A Clean, Well-Lighted Place. While these stories are rather short, the book also includes much longer stories, among them The Snows of Kilimanjaro and The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber.

For Whom the Bell Tolls

In the spring of 1939, Francisco Franco and the Nationalists defeated the Republicans, ending the Spanish Civil War. Hemingway lost an adopted homeland to Franco's fascists, and would later lose his beloved Key West, Florida, home due to his 1940 divorce.

A few weeks after the divorce, he married his companion of four years in Spain, Martha Gellhorn, his third wife.

His novel For Whom the Bell Tolls was published in 1940. It was written in 1939 in Cuba and Key West, and was finished in July 1940. The long work, which is set during the Spanish Civil War, was based on real events and tells of an American named Robert Jordan fighting with Spanish soldiers on the Republican side. It was largely based on Hemingway's experience of living in Spain and reporting on the war. It is one of his most notable literary accomplishments.

World War II and after

The United States entered World War II on December 8, 1941, and for the first time in his life, Hemingway sought to take part in naval warfare. Aboard the Pilar, now a Q-Ship, Hemingway's crew was charged with sinking German submarines threatening shipping off the coasts of Cuba and the United States. After the FBI took over Caribbean counter-espionage, he went to Europe as a war correspondent for Collier's magazine. There Hemingway observed the D-Day landings from an LCVP (landing craft), although he was not allowed to go ashore. He later became angry that his wife, Martha Gellhorn — by then, more a rival war correspondent than a wife — had managed to get ashore in the early hours of June 7 dressed as a nurse, after she had crossed the Atlantic to England in a ship loaded with explosives. Hemingway acted as an unofficial liaison officer at Château de Rambouillet, and afterwards formed his own partisan group which, as he later wrote, took part in the liberation of Paris. Although this claim has been challenged by many historians, he was nevertheless unquestionably on the scene.

During this period, Hemingway was in contact with several agents of the KGB, though he did not provide them with any significant information.

After the war, Hemingway started work on The Garden of Eden, which was never finished and would be published posthumously in a much-abridged form in 1986. At one stage, he planned a major trilogy which was to comprise "The Sea When Young", "The Sea When Absent" and "The Sea in Being" (the latter eventually published in 1952 as The Old Man and the Sea). He spent time in a small Italian town called Acciaroli (located approximately 136 km south of Naples). There was also a "Sea-Chase" story; three of these pieces were edited and stuck together as the posthumously published novel Islands in the Stream (1970).

Newly divorced from Gellhorn after four contentious years, Hemingway married war correspondent Mary Welsh Hemingway, whom he had met overseas in 1944. He returned to Cuba, and in 1945 at the Soviet Embassy became public witness to the Rolando Masferrer schism within the Cuban communist party (García Montes, and Alonso Ávila, 1970 p. 362).

Hemingway's first novel after For Whom the Bell Tolls was Across the River and into the Trees (1950), set in post-World War II Venice. He derived the title from the last words of American Civil War Confederate General Stonewall Jackson. Enamored of a young Italian girl (Adriana Ivancich) at the time, Hemingway wrote Across the River and into the Trees as a romance between a war-weary Colonel Cantwell (based on his friend, then Colonel Charles Lanham) and the young Renata (clearly based on Adriana; "Renata" has an assonance with "rinata", meaning "reborn" in Italian). The novel received largely bad reviews, many of which accused Hemingway of tastelessness, stylistic ineptitude, and sentimentality; however this criticism was not shared by all critics.

Later years

One section of the sea trilogy was published as The Old Man and the Sea in 1952. That novella's great success, both commercial and critical, satisfied and fulfilled Hemingway. It earned him the Pulitzer Prize in 1953. The next year he was awarded with the Nobel Prize in Literature. Upon receiving the latter he noted that he would have been "happy; happier...if the prize had been given to that beautiful writer Isak Dinesen". These awards helped to restore his international reputation.

On a safari, he was seriously injured in two successive plane crashes; he sprained his right shoulder, arm, and left leg, had a grave concussion, temporarily lost vision in his left eye and the hearing in his left ear, suffered paralysis of the spine, a crushed vertebra, ruptured liver, spleen and kidney, and first degree burns on his face, arms, and leg. Some American newspapers mistakenly published his obituary, thinking he had been killed.

Hemingway was then badly injured one month later in a bushfire accident, which left him with second degree burns on his legs, front torso, lips, left hand and right forearm. The pain left him in prolonged anguish, and he was unable to travel to Stockholm to accept his Nobel Prize.

A glimmer of hope came with the discovery of some of his old manuscripts from 1928 in the Ritz cellars, which were transformed into A Moveable Feast. Although some of his energy seemed to be restored, severe drinking problems kept him down. His blood pressure and cholesterol were perilously high, he suffered from aortal inflammation, and his depression was aggravated by his dipsomania. However, in October 1956, Hemingway found the strength to travel to Madrid and act as a pallbearer at Pío Baroja's burial. Baroja was one of Hemingway's literary influences.

Following the revolution in Cuba and the ousting of General Fulgencio Batista in 1959, expropriations of foreign owned property led many Americans to return to the United States. Hemingway chose to stay a little longer. It is commonly said that he maintained good relations with Fidel Castro and declared his support for the revolution, and he is quoted as wishing Castro "all luck" with running the country. However, the Hemingway account "The Shot" is used by Cabrera Infante and others as evidence of conflict between Hemingway and Fidel Castro dating back to 1948 and the killing of "Manolo" Castro, a friend of Hemingway. Hemingway came under surveillance by the FBI both during World War II and afterwards (most probably because of his long association with marxist Spanish Civil War veterans who were again active in Cuba) for his residence and activities in Cuba. In 1960, he left the island and Finca Vigía, his estate outside Havana, that he owned for over twenty years. The official Cuban government account is that it was left to the Cuban government, which has made it into a museum devoted to the author. In 2001, Cuba's state-owned tourism conglomerate, El Gran-Caribe SA, began licensing the La Bodeguita del Medio international restaurant chain relying largely on the original Havana restaurant's association with Hemingway, a frequent visitor.

In February 1960, Ernest Hemingway was unable to get his bullfighting narrative The Dangerous Summer to the publishers. He therefore had his wife Mary summon his friend, Life Magazine bureau head Will Lang Jr., to leave Paris and come to Spain. Hemingway persuaded Lang to let him print the manuscript, along with a picture layout, before it came out in hardcover. Although not a word of it was on paper, the proposal was agreed upon. The first part of the story appeared in Life Magazine on September 5, 1960, with the remaining installments being printed in successive issues.

Hemingway was upset by the photographs in his The Dangerous Summer article. He was receiving treatment in Ketchum, Idaho for high blood pressure and liver problems, this may in fact have helped to precipitate his suicide, since he reportedly suffered significant memory loss as a result of the shock treatments. He also lost weight, his 6-foot (183 cm) frame appearing gaunt at 170 pounds (77 kg, 12st 2 lb).

Suicide

In the spring of 1961, three months after his initial treatment at the Mayo clinic where he received a series of ECT treatment, Hemingway attempted suicide in his Sun Valley home. His wife Mary convinced the local physician, Dr. Saviers, to hospitalize Hemingway at Sun Valley hospital and from there he returned to the Mayo clinic where he was "given ten more shock treatments." On the morning of July 2, 1961, two days after having been released from the Mayo clinic, Hemingway unlocked the gun cabinet, went to the front entrance of their Sun Valley house, and "pushed two shells into the twelve-gauge Boss shotgun (made in England and bought at Abercrombie and Fitch), put the end of the barrel into his mouth, pulled the trigger and blew out his brains." Dr. Scott Earle arrived at 7:40 a.m, having been summoned to the house, and he certified the death. At request of the family, the coroner did not do an autopsy.

Other members of Hemingway's immediate family also committed suicide, including his father, Clarence Hemingway, his siblings Ursula and Leicester, and his granddaughter Margaux Hemingway. Some believe that certain members of Hemingway's paternal line had a hereditary disease known as haemochromatosis (bronze diabetes), in which an excess of iron concentration in the blood causes damage to the pancreas and also causes depression or instability in the cerebrum. Hemingway's father is known to have developed haemochromatosis in the years prior to his suicide at age fifty-nine. Throughout his life, Hemingway had been a heavy drinker, succumbing to alcoholism in his later years.

Hemingway possibly suffered from manic depression, and was subsequently treated with electroshock therapy at the Mayo Clinic. He later blamed his memory loss, which he cited as a reason for not wanting to live, upon the ECT sessions.

Hemingway is interred in the town cemetery in Ketchum, Idaho, at the north end of town. A memorial was erected in 1966 at another location, overlooking Trail Creek, north of Ketchum. It is inscribed with a eulogy he wrote for a friend, Gene Van Guilder:

Best of all he loved the fall
The leaves yellow on the cottonwoods
Leaves floating on the trout streams
And above the hills
The high blue windless skies
Now he will be a part of them forever

Ernest Hemingway - Idaho - 1939

Celebrating Hemingway's love for Idaho and the frontier, The Ernest Hemingway Festival takes place annually in Ketchum and Sun Valley in late September with scholars, a reading by the PEN/Hemingway Award winner and many more events, including historical tours, open mic nights and a sponsored dinner at Hemingway's home in Warm Springs now maintained by the Nature Conservancy in Ketchum.

Posthumous works

Hemingway was a prolific correspondent and, in 1981, many of his letters were published by Scribner in Ernest Hemingway Selected Letters. It was met with some controversy as Hemingway himself stated he never wished to publish his letters. Further letters were published in a book of his correspondence with his editor Max Perkins, The Only Thing that Counts 1996.

A long-term project is now underway to publish the thousands of letters Hemingway wrote during his lifetime. The project is being undertaken as a joint venture by Penn State University and the Ernest Hemingway Foundation. Sandra Spanier, Professor of English and wife of Penn State president Graham Spanier, is serving as general editor of the collection.

Hemingway was still writing up to his death; most of the unfinished works which were Hemingway's sole creation have been published posthumously; they are A Moveable Feast, Islands in the Stream, The Nick Adams Stories (portions of which were previously unpublished), The Dangerous Summer, and The Garden of Eden. In a note forwarding Islands in the Stream, Mary Hemingway indicated that she worked with Charles Scribner, Jr. on "preparing this book for publication from Ernest's original manuscript."μ She also stated that "beyond the routine chores of correcting spelling and punctuation, we made some cuts in the manuscript, I feel that Ernest would surely have made them himself. The book is all Ernest's. We have added nothing to it." Some controversy has surrounded the publication of these works, insofar as it has been suggested that it is not necessarily within the jurisdiction of Hemingway's relatives or publishers to determine whether these works should be made available to the public. For example, scholars often disapprovingly note that the version of The Garden of Eden published by Charles Scribner's Sons in 1986, though in no way a revision of Hemingway's original words, nonetheless omits two-thirds of the original manuscript.

The Nick Adams Stories appeared posthumously in 1972. What is now considered the definitive compilation of all of Hemingway's short stories was published as The Complete Short Stories Of Ernest Hemingway, first compiled and published in 1987. As well, in 1969 The Fifth Column and Four Stories Of The Spanish Civil War was published. It contains Hemingway's only full length play, The Fifth Column, which was previously published along with the First Forty-Nine Stories in 1938, along with four unpublished works written about Hemingway's experiences during the Spanish Civil War.

In 1999, another novel entitled True at First Light appeared under the name of Ernest Hemingway, though it was heavily edited by his son Patrick Hemingway. Six years later, Under Kilimanjaro, a re-edited and considerably longer version of True at First Light appeared. In either edition, the novel is a fictional account of Hemingway's final African safari in 1953-1954. He spent several months in Kenya with his fourth wife, Mary, before his near-fatal plane crashes. Anticipation of the novel, whose manuscript was completed in 1956, adumbrates perhaps an unprecedentedly large critical battle over whether it is proper to publish the work (many sources mention that a new, light side of Hemingway will be seen as opposed to his canonical, macho image), even as editors Robert W. Lewis of University of North Dakota and Robert E. Fleming of University of New Mexico have pushed it through to publication; the novel was published on September 15, 2005.

Also published posthumously were several collections of his work as a journalist. These contain his columns and articles for Esquire Magazine, The North American Newspaper Alliance, and the Toronto Star; they include Byline: Ernest Hemingway edited by William White, and Hemingway: The Wild Years edited by Gene Z. Hanrahan. Finally, a collection of introductions, forwards, public letters and other miscellanea was published as Hemingway and the Mechanism of Fame in 2005.

Influence and legacy

The influence of Hemingway's writings on American literature was considerable and continues today. James Joyce called "A Clean, Well Lighted Place" "one of the best stories ever written". (The same story also influenced several of Edward Hopper's best known paintings, most notably "Nighthawks." ) Pulp fiction and "hard boiled" crime fiction (which flourished from the 1920s to the 1950s) often owed a strong debt to Hemingway.

During World War II, J. D. Salinger met and corresponded with Hemingway, whom he acknowledged as an influence. In one letter to Hemingway, Salinger wrote that their talks "had given him his only hopeful minutes of the entire war," and jokingly "named himself national chairman of the Hemingway Fan Clubs."

Hunter S. Thompson often compared himself to Hemingway, and terse Hemingway-esque sentences can be found in his early novel, The Rum Diary.

Hemingway's terse prose style--"Nick stood up. He was all right."-- is known to have inspired Charles Bukowski, Chuck Palahniuk, Douglas Coupland and many Generation X writers. Hemingway's style also influenced Jack Kerouac and other Beat Generation writers. Hemingway also provided a role model to fellow author and hunter Robert Ruark, who is frequently referred to as "the poor man's Ernest Hemingway."

Popular novelist Elmore Leonard, who has authored scores of western- and crime-genre novels, cites Hemingway as his preeminent influence, and this is evident in his tightly written prose. Though Leonard has never claimed to write serious literature, he has said: "I learned by imitating Hemingway.... until I realized that I didn't share his attitude about life. I didn't take myself or anything as seriously as he did."

Family

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Parents

• Father: Clarence Hemingway. Born September 2, 1871, died December 6, 1928. General practitioner and obstetrician.
• Mother: Grace Hall Hemingway. Born June 15, 1872, died June 28, 1951

Siblings

• Marcelline Hemingway. Born January 15, 1898, died December 9, 1963
• Ursula Hemingway. Born April 29, 1902, died October 30, 1966
• Madelaine Hemingway. Born November 28, 1904, died January 14, 1995
• Carol Hemingway. Born July 19, 1911, died October 27, 2002
• Leicester Hemingway. Born April 1, 1915, died September 13, 1982

Own families

• Elizabeth Hadley Richardson. Married September 3, 1921, divorced April 4, 1927.

Son, John Hadley Nicanor "Jack" Hemingway (aka Bumby). Born October 10, 1923, died December 1, 2000.

Granddaughter, Joan (Muffet) Hemingway

Granddaughter, Margaux Hemingway. Born February 16, 1954, died July 2, 1996

Granddaughter, Mariel Hemingway. Born November 22, 1961

• Pauline Pfeiffer. Married May 10, 1927, divorced November 4, 1940.

Son, Patrick. Born June 28, 1928.

Granddaughter, Mina Hemingway

Son, Gregory Hemingway (called 'Gig' by Hemingway; later called himself 'Gloria'). Born November 12, 1931, died October 1, 2001.

Grandchildren, Patrick, Edward, Sean, Brendan, Vanessa, Maria, John Hemingway and Lorian Hemingway

• Martha Gellhorn. Married November 21, 1940, divorced December 21, 1945.
• Mary Welsh. Married March 14, 1946.

On August 19, 1946, she miscarried due to ectopic pregnancy.

Honors

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During his lifetime Hemingway was awarded:

• Silver Medal of Military Valor (medaglia d'argento) in World War I;
• Bronze Star (War Correspondent-Military Irregular in World War II), 1947;
• American Academy of Arts and Letters Award of Merit, 1954;
• Pulitzer Prize for The Old Man and the Sea, 1953;
• Nobel Prize in Literature for lifetime literary achievement, 1954;
• two medals for bull-fighting.

A minor planet, discovered in 1978 by Soviet astronomer Nikolai Stepanovich Chernykh, was named for him—3656 Hemingway.

On July 17, 1989, the United States Postal Service issued a 25-cent postage stamp honoring Hemingway.

Tributes

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• Hemingway is the implied subject of the Ray Bradbury story The Kilimanjaro Device. Using the plot device of a time machine, the tale creates a loving tribute that undoes his suicide. The story appears in the Bradbury collection I Sing The Body Electric.
• In 1999, Michael Palin retraced the footsteps of Hemingway, in Michael Palin's Hemingway Adventure, a BBC television documentary, one hundred years after the birth of his favorite writer. The journey took him through many sites including Chicago, Paris, Italy, Africa, Key West, Cuba, and Idaho. Together with photographer Basil Pao, Palin also created a book version of the trip. The text of the book is available for free on Palin's website. Four years earlier, Palin also wrote a book, Hemingway's Chair, about an assistant post-office manager with an obsession with Hemingway.
• Since 1987, actor-writer Ed Metzger has portrayed the life of Ernest Hemingway in his one-man stage show, Hemingway: On The Edge, featuring stories and anecdotes from Hemingway's own life and adventures. Metzger quotes Hemingway, "My father told me never kill anything you're not going to eat. At the age of 9, I shot a porcupine. It was the toughest lesson I ever had." More information about the show is available at his website
• Hemingway's World War II experiences in Cuba have been novelized by Dan Simmons as a spy thriller, The Crook Factory.
• Hemingway, played by Jay Underwood, was a recurring character in The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles. In one episode, set in Northern Italy in 1916, Hemingway the ambulance driver gives young Indy (Sean Patrick Flanery) advice about women—only to discover that he and Indy are rivals for the heart of the same woman. (The episode shows Indy unwittingly influencing Hemingway's future writing, by reciting the Elizabethan poem, A Farewell to Arms by George Peele.) In another episode, set in Chicago in 1920, Hemingway the newspaper reporter helps Indy and a young Eliot Ness in their investigation of the murder of gangster James Colosimo.
• The 1993 motion picture Wrestling Ernest Hemingway, about the friendship of two retired men, one Irish, one Cuban, in a seaside town in Florida, starred Robert Duvall, Richard Harris, Shirley MacLaine, Sandra Bullock, and Piper Laurie.
• The 1996 motion picture In Love and War, based on the book Hemingway in Love and War by Henry S. Villard and James Nagel, is the story of the young reporter Ernest Hemingway (played by Chris O'Donnell) as an ambulance driver in Italy during World War I. While bravely risking his life in the line of duty, he is injured and ends up in the hospital, where he falls in love with his nurse, Agnes von Kurowsky (Sandra Bullock).
• In the 1989 James Bond film Licence to Kill, Bond (played by Timothy Dalton) meets with M at the Hemingway House. When asked for his gun after handing in his resignation, Bond exclaims "I guess it's a Farewell To Arms," in reference to the work of the same name.
• Joyce Carol Oates wrote a loosely biographical short story of the last days of Hemingway called Papa at Ketchum, 1961 in her 2008 book Wild Nights.

Works

Bibliography of Ernest Hemingway

See also

• Flash fiction
• Great American Novel

Notes

1. ^ "Ernest Hemingway Biography: Childhood". The Hemingway Resource Center. Retrieved 29 August 2009.
2. ^ Meyers, Jeffrey (1985). "A Midwestern Boyhood". Hemingway: A Biography. London: Macmillan. pp. 1–21. ISBN 0333421264. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
3. ""Lardner Connections"". Retrieved 2007-03-22.
4. Meyers, Jeffrey (1985). "Kansas City and the War 1917-1918". Hemingway: A Biography. London: Macmillan. pp. 22–44. ISBN 0333421264. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
5. "Star style and rules for writing". The Kansas City Star. KansasCity.com. Retrieved 29 August 2009.
6. Many such anecdotes are compiled at The centennial commemoration page of the Kansas City Star
7. ^ "John F. Kennedy Presidential Library Online Resources: Ernest Hemingway: A Storyteller's Legacy".
8. ^ Putnam, Thomas (2006). "Hemingway on War and Its Aftermath". Prologue. The National Archives. Retrieved 2008-05-05.
9. ^ Burgess, Anthony (1978), Ernest Hemingway, Literary lives, London: Thames and Hudson (published 1986), p. 24, ISBN 0500260176
10. "A National Post article on Toronto's Humewood-Cedarvale neighborhood".
11. Brown, Alan, "Literary Landmarks of Chicago," 2004, Starhill Press, ISBN 0-913515-50-7.
12. On August 10, 1943, Hemingway typed a letter to Archibald MacLeish discussing Pound's mental health and other literary matters.
13. In a conversation with John Peale Bishop, quoted in Hemingway, Cowley, ed, 1944, p. xiii.
14. Jackson, Peter (2008-07-31). "Hemingway feared for High Park's great trees". Toronto Star. Retrieved 2008-07-31. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
15. Dateline: Toronto, Foreword, pp xxv-xxvii, Charles Scribner Jr.
16. "Hem and The Star: Parting was inevitable". The Toronto Star. 1986-02-02.
17. Bruccoli 2002, p. 275 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFBruccoli2002 (help)
18. "Hemingway Resource Center".
19. http://www.ntz.info/gen/n00808.html Accessed Feb 7, 2009
20. http://www.huntingmag.com/big_game/africaph_061107/ Accessed Feb 7, 2009
21. "Frommers Guides: Bimini-Fire Guts Hemingway's Favorite Bar".
22. The Breaking Point: Hemingway, Dos Passos, and the Murder of Jose Robles by Stephen Koch, published 2005 ISBN
23. ^ The Spanish Civil War (1961) by Hugh Thomas
24. p.591, "Earnest Hemingway Selected Letters 1917-1961" edited by Carlos Baker, Scribners 1981, ISBN 0-684-16765-4
25. He was once quoted saying that he actually had liberated the bar at the famous Ritz Hotel...How It Was: An Autobiography by Mary Welsh Hemingway, copyright 1976, ISBN 0345254325
26. Spies: The Rise and Fall of the KGB in America by John Earl Haynes, Harvey Klehr, and Alexander Vassiliev, copyright 2009, ISBN 0300123906; see also "Their Man in Havana?" by Haynes, Klehr, and Vassiliev.
27. From The New York Times Book Review, November 7, 1954.
28. "Ernest Hemingway Quick Facts". encarta.
29. A.E. Hotchner's account of the discovery and preparation of "A Moveable Feast" in Don’t Touch ‘A Moveable Feast’
30. "Hemingway's Marriage to Mary Welsh. His last days".
31. ^ "Homing To The Stream: Ernest Hemingway In Cuba". Cite error: The named reference "eh" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
32. Hemingway, Ernest 1951 The Shot. True the men’s magazine. April 1951. pp. 25-28
33. "An Interview with Guillermo Cabrera Infante".
34. Gonzalez Echevarria, Roberto 1980 The Dictatorship of Rhetoric/the Rhetoric of Dictatorship: Carpentier, Garcia Marquez, and Roa Bastos. Latin American Research Review, Vol. 15, No. 3 (1980), pp. 205-228 "For example, the assassination of Manolo Castro is retold by alluding to Hemingway's "The Shot,...""
35. "Castro-Hemingway-not-friends".
36. Raimundo, Daniel Efrain 1994 Habla el Coronel Orlando Piedra (Coleccion Cuba y sus Jueces), Ediciones Universal ISBN ISBN Pages 93-94 refer to the death of Manolo Castro, and offers the insight that it was Rolando Masferrer’s men who, rather than the police who, were chasing after Fidel Castro with lethal intent. According to this account Castro is captured in the company of a woman and child as he tries to flee to Venezuela via the Cuban airport of Rancho Boyeros south of Havana by the Cuban Bureau of Investigation as witnessed by sergeant of that organization Joaquin Tasas. Castro is released the next day. This matter is a little odd since Fidel Castro was believed to have organized the death of Manolo Castro (p. 99). This version is a close fit the scenario described in "The Shot/."
37. The Breaking Point: Hemingway, Dos Passos, and the Murder of Jose Robles by Stephen Koch, published 2005 ISBN
38. "Finca Vigía".
39. "Restauracion Museo Hemingway (Official website) - Finca Vigía" (in Spanish). Consejo Nacional de Patrimonio Cultural- Cuba. 2009. Retrieved 2009-01-06.
40. MILLMAN, JOEL (2007-02-22). "Hemingway's Ties to Bar - Still Move the Mojitos". Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 2007-06-01.
41. ^ Meyers, Jeffrey (1985). "Suicide and Aftermath". Hemingway: A Biography. London: Macmillan. pp. 550–560. ISBN 0333421264. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
42. Baker, Carlos (1969). Ernest Hemingway: A Life Story. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons. p. 668. ISBN 0684147408. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
43. "Ernest Hemingway".
44. (Wagner-Martin, 2000) p.43 describes his condition in August 1947 as including high blood pressure, diabetes, depression and possible haemochromatosis.
45. "www.ernesthemingwayfestival.org".
46. "hemingwayx.html".
47. Information about these posthumous Hemingway works was taken from Charles Scribner, Jr.'s 1987 Preface to The Garden of Eden.
48. BookRags makes this quantitative note; it also reveals some more information about the publication of The Garden of Eden and offers some discussion of thematic content.
49. The Kent State University Press is the official source for this new novel's release.
50. See the University of North Dakota feature of editor Robert W. Lewis, for example.
51. Wells, Walter, Silent Theater: The Art of Edward Hopper, London/New York: Phaidon, 2007
52. Lamb, Robert Paul (Winter 1996). "Hemingway and the creation of twentieth-century dialogue - American author Ernest Hemingway" (reprint). Twentieth Century Literature. Retrieved 2007-07-10.
53. Baker, Carlos (1969). Ernest Hemingway: A Life Story. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons. pp. 420, 646. ISBN 0-020-01690-5. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
54. Stewart, Matthew (2001). Modernism and tradition in Ernest Hemingway's In our time: a guide for students and readers. Boydell & Brewer. ISBN 1571130179, 9781571130174. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)
55. Schmadel, Lutz D. (2003). Dictionary of Minor Planet Names (5th ed.). New York: Springer Verlag. p. 307. ISBN 3540002383. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
56. Scott catalog # 2418.

References

• Baker, Carlos (1969). Ernest Hemingway: A Life Story. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons. ISBN 0-020-01690-5. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
• Baker, Carlos (1972), Hemingway: The Writer as Artist (4th ed.), Princeton University Press, ISBN 0691013055 {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |note= ignored (help)
• Baker, Carlos (1962), Ernest Hemingway: Critiques of Four Major Novels, A Scribner research anthology, Scribner, ISBN 0684411571
• Brian, Denis (1987), The True Gen: An Intimate Portrait of Hemingway by Those Who Knew Him, Grove Press, ISBN 0802100066
• Berridge, Howard (1984), Ernest Hemingway's a Farewell to Arms (Barron's Book Notes), Barron's Educational Series, ISBN 0812034120
• Bruccoli, Matthew Joseph (1978), Scott and Ernest: The Authority of Failure and the Authority of Success, Bodley Head, ISBN 0370301404
• Burgess, Anthony (1978), Ernest Hemingway, Literary lives, London: Thames and Hudson (published 1986), ISBN 0500260176
• Cappel, Constance (1966), Hemingway in Michigan, Vermont Crossroads Press (published 1977), ISBN 0915248131
• Cappel, Constance (2002), Sweetgrass and Smoke, Xlibris, ISBN 1401048560
• Hemingway, Ernest (1944), Cowley, Malcolm (ed.), Hemingway (The Viking Portable Library), Viking Press, OCLC 505504
• Lynn, Kenneth Schuyler (1987), Hemingway, Simon and Schuster, ISBN 067149872X
• Lynn, Steve (1994), Texts and Contexts: Writing About Literature with Critical Theory, HarperCollins, p. 5-7, ISBN 0065000994
• Montes, Jorge García; Ávila, Antonio Alonso (1970), Historia del Partido Comunista en Cuba, Ediciones Universal, p. 362, OCLC 396804
• Meyers, Jeffrey (1985). Hemingway: A Biography. London: Macmillan. ISBN 0333421264. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
• Reynolds, Michael S. (1986), The Young Hemingway, Basil Blackwell, ISBN 0631147861
• Wagner-Martin, Linda (2000), A Historical Guide to Ernest Hemingway, New York: Oxford University Press, ISBN 0195121511
• Young, Philip (1952), Ernest Hemingway, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, OCLC 237958
• "Biography". eHemingway.com. LostGeneration.com. 1996. Retrieved 2008-01-20.

External links

• Ernest Hemingway.org.uk
• Timeless Hemingway
• The Charles D. Field Collection of Ernest Hemingway(call number M0440; 1.25 linear ft) are housed in the Department of Special Collections and University Archives at Stanford University Libraries
• The Hemingway Society
• The Ernest Hemingway Festival
• New York Times obituary, July 3, 1961
• Michael Palin's Hemingway Adventure Based on a PBS lecture series narrated by Michael Palin.
• CNN: A Hemingway Retrospective
• Ernest Hemingway Home and Museum in Key West, Florida, official website
• Ernest Hemingway at Find a Grave Retrieved on 2008-01-24
• The Hemingway-Pfeiffer Museum and Educational Center
• Hemingway’s Reading 1910-1940
• eHemingway.com The Hemingway Social Network
• Template:Worldcat id
• Hemingway's work on IBList
• Stephen Koch, “The Breaking Point: Hemingway, dos Passos, and the Murder of Jose Robles” reviewed by George Packer
• Ernest Hemingway's Collection at The University of Texas at Austin

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