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| ] desert in western ], part of the Sahara.]] | |||
| The '''Sahara''' , ''{{Unicode|aṣ-ṣaḥrā´ al-kubra}}'', "The Greatest Desert") is the world's largest hot ]. At over <!-- over 9 million square kilometres is correct, please do not change this figure! --> | |||
| 9,000 square kilometres (3,500,000 ]), it covers most of ], making it almost as large as the ] or the continent of ]. The desert stretches from the ], including parts of the ] coasts, to the outskirts of the ]. To the south, it is delimited by the ]: a belt of ] that comprises the northern region of central and western ]. | |||
| The Sahara has an intermittent history that may go back as much as 3 million years.<ref>MIT OpenCourseWare. (2005) "". Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Pages 6 and 13</ref> Some of the sand dunes can reach 180 metres (600 ft) in height.<ref>Arthur N. Strahler and Alan H. Strahler. (1987) Modern Physical Geography–Third Edition. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Page 347</ref> | |||
| The name comes from the Arabic word for desert: (صَحراء), "ṣaḥrā´" ({{Audio|ar-Sahara.ogg|صحراء}}; {{IPA|/sˤɑħrɑːʔ/}}).<ref> ''].'' Douglas Harper, Historian. Accessed on ], ].</ref><ref></ref> | |||
| ==Overview== | |||
| ] on the surface of the Sahara. The bottom (using ]) is the rock layer underneath, revealing black channels cut by the meandering of an ancient river that once fed the oasis.]] | |||
| The Sahara's boundaries are the ] on the west, the ] and the ] on the north, the ] and ] on the east, and the ] and the valley of the ] on the south. The Sahara is divided into western Sahara, the central ], the ], the ] (a region of desert mountains and high plateaus), ] desert and the ] (the most arid region). The highest peak in the Sahara is ] ({{convert|3415|m|ft|abbr=on|disp=/}}) in the ] in northern ]. | |||
| The Sahara divides the ] of ] into ] and ]. The southern border of the Sahara is marked by a band of semiarid ] called the ]; south of the Sahel lies the lusher Sudan and the ]. Most of the Sahara consists of rocky ]; ] (large sand ]s) form only a minor part. | |||
| People lived on the edge of the desert thousands of years ago<ref name="Post-Ice Age Sahara">, 2006-Oct.</ref> since the last ]. The Sahara was then a much wetter place than it is today. Over 30,000 ]s of river animals such as ]s <ref name=Crocodiles>, 2006-06-17.</ref> survive, with half found in the ] in southeast ]. ]s of ]s, including '']'', '']'' and '']'', have also been found here. The modern Sahara, though, is not lush in vegetation, except in the ] Valley, at a few ], and in the northern highlands, where Mediterranean plants such as the ] tree are found to grow. The region has been this way since about 5000 years ago. Some 2.5 million people currently live in the Sahara, most of these in Egypt, ], ] and ]. Dominant ethnicities in the Sahara are various ] groups including ] tribes, various ]ised Berber groups such as the ]-speaking Maure (], also known as ]), and various black African ethnicities including ], ], ], ], ] (Fulani), ] and ]. Important cities located in the Sahara include ], the capital of Mauritania; ], ], ], ], ], ], Algeria; ], ]; ], ]; ], Libya; and ], ]. | |||
| ==Geography== | |||
| ] | |||
| The Sahara covers huge parts of ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] and ]. It is one of three distinct physiographic provinces of the ]. | |||
| The desert landforms of the Sahara are shaped by wind (]) or by occasional rains, and include sand dunes and dune fields or sand seas (]), stone plateaus ''(])'', gravel plains ''(reg)'', dry valleys ''(])'', and ]s ''(shatt'' or ''chott)''.<ref>"Sahara desert" WWF Scientific Report . Accessed December 30, 2007.</ref> Unusual landforms include the ] in Mauritania. | |||
| Several deeply dissected mountains and mountain ranges, many volcanic, rise from the desert, including the ], ], ], ], ], and the ]. The highest peak in the Sahara is ], a ] in the ] range of northern Chad. | |||
| Most of the rivers and streams in the Sahara are seasonal or intermittent, the chief exception being the ], which crosses the desert from its origins in central Africa to empty into the Mediterranean. Underground ]s sometimes reach the surface, forming ], including the ], ], ], ], and ]. | |||
| The central part of the Sahara is hyper-arid, with little vegetation. The northern and southern reaches of the desert, along with the highlands, have areas of sparse grassland and desert shrub, with trees and taller shrubs in wadis where moisture collects. | |||
| To the north, the Sahara reaches to the Mediterranean Sea in ] and portions of ], but in ] and the ], the Sahara borders ] ecoregions of northern Africa, which have a ] characterized by a winter rainy season. According to the ]al criteria of Frank White<ref>Wickens, Gerald E. (1998) ''Ecophysiology of Economic Plants in Arid and Semi-Arid Lands''. Springer, Berlin. ISBN 978-3-540-52171-6</ref> and geographer ],<ref name=Grove1958>{{cite journal | |||
| | author = Grove, A.T., nicole | |||
| | year = 1958,2007 | |||
| | title = The Ancient Erg of Hausaland, and Similar Formations on the South Side of the Sahara | |||
| | journal = The Geographical Journal | |||
| | volume = 124 | |||
| | issue = 4 | |||
| | pages = 528–533 | |||
| | issn = | |||
| | doi = 10.2307/1790942 | |||
| | url = http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0016-7398(195812)124%3A4%3C528%3ATAEOHA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-3 | |||
| | accessdate = 2007-05-23 | |||
| }}</ref><ref name=Bisson2003>{{cite book | |||
| | author = Bisson, J. | |||
| | year = 2003 | |||
| | title = Mythes et réalités d'un désert convoité: le Sahara | |||
| | publisher = L'Harmattan | |||
| | isbn = | |||
| }}{{fr icon}}</ref> the northern limit of the Sahara corresponds to the northern limit of ] cultivation ''(Phoenix dactylifera)'', and the southern limit of ] ''(Stipa tenacissima)'', a grass typical of the Mediterranean climate portion of the Maghreb and Iberia. The northern limit also corresponds to the {{convert|100|mm|in|abbr=on}} ] of annual precipitation.<ref name=Walton2007>{{cite book | |||
| | author = Walton, K. | |||
| | year = 2007 | |||
| | title = The Arid Zones | |||
| | publisher = Aldine | |||
| | isbn = | |||
| }}</ref> | |||
| To the south, the Sahara is bounded by the ], a belt of dry ] with a summer rainy season that extends across Africa from east to west. The southern limit of the Sahara is indicated botanically by the southern limit of '']'' (a drought-tolerant member of the ]), or northern limit of '']'', a ] typical of the ].<ref name="Grove1958"/><ref name="Bisson2003"/> According to ] criteria, the southern limit of the Sahara corresponds to the {{convert|150|mm|in|abbr=on}} isohyet of annual precipitation (note that this is a long-term average, since ] varies strongly from one year to another).<ref name="Walton2007"/> | |||
| ==Climate history== | |||
| ] in the ]]] | |||
| ] sent a massive dust plume northwestward over the Atlantic Ocean on March 2, 2003]] | |||
| The climate of the Sahara has undergone enormous variation between wet and dry over the last few hundred thousand years.<ref name="Lakes"> {{Citation | title=Ancient Lakes of the Sahara | publisher=American Scientist | volume=94 | year=2006 | pages= 58–65 | author=Kevin White and David J. Mattingly | number=1}} </ref> During the last ], the Sahara was even bigger than it is today, extending south beyond its current boundaries.<ref>Christopher Ehret. ''The Civilizations of Africa.'' University Press of Virginia, 2002.</ref> The end of the glacial period brought more rain to the Sahara, from about 8000 BC to 6000 BC, perhaps due to ]s over the collapsing ]s to the north.<ref>, retrieved ], ].</ref> | |||
| Once the ice sheets were gone, northern Sahara dried out. But in southern Sahara, the drying trend was soon counteracted by the ], which brought rain further north than it does today. The monsoon is due to heating of air over the land during summer. The hot air rises and pulls in cool, wet air from the ocean, which causes rain. Thus, though it seems counterintuitive, the Sahara was wetter when it received more solar ] in the summer. This was caused by a stronger tilt in Earth's ] than today, and ] occurred at the end of July.<ref>"Geophysical Research Letters" - July 15th, 1999</ref> | |||
| By around 3400 BC, the monsoon retreated south to approximately where it is today,<ref name = "Science Daily">, Accelerated by Atmospheric and Vegetation Feedbacks.</ref> leading to the gradual ] of the Sahara.<ref>{{ cite journal | last = Kröpelin | first = Stefan | authorlink = | coauthors = ''et al.'' | year = 2008 | month = | title = | journal = Science | volume = 320 | issue = 5877 | pages = 765–768 | doi = 10.1126/science.1154913 | url = | accessdate = | quote =| pmid = 18467583 }}</ref> The Sahara is now as dry as it was about 13,000 years ago.<ref name=Lakes /> These conditions are responsible for what has been called the ]. | |||
| The Sahara has one of the harshest climates in the world. The prevailing north-easterly wind often causes the sand to form ] and ]s.<ref> - access ], ]</ref> Half of the Sahara receives less than {{convert|2|cm|in}} of rain per year, and the rest receives up to {{convert|10|cm|in|abbr=on}} per year.<ref></ref> The rainfall happens very rarely, but when it does it is usually ]ial when it occurs after long dry periods, which can last for years. | |||
| The southern boundary of the Sahara, as measured by rainfall, was observed to both advance and retreat between 1980 and 1990. As a result of ], the southern boundary moved south {{convert|130|km|mi}} overall during that period.<ref></ref>. ] has also caused the Sahara to advance south in recent years{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}}, as ]s and ] continue to be used as ] source. | |||
| Recent signals indicate that the Sahara and surrounding regions are greening due to increased rainfall. Satellites show extensive regreening of the Sahel between 1982 and 2002, and in both Eastern and Western Sahara a more than 20 year long trend of increased grazing areas and flourishing trees and shrubs has been observed by climate scientist Stefan Kröpelin.<ref></ref> | |||
| ==Ecoregions== | |||
| ] | |||
| The Sahara comprises several distinct ]s, whose variations in temperature, rainfall, elevation, and soils harbor distinct communities of plants and animals. According to the ] (WWF), the ecoregions of the Sahara include: | |||
| * ]: The coastal desert occupies a narrow strip along the ] coast, where fog generated offshore by the cool ] provides sufficient moisture to sustain a variety of ]s, ], and shrubs. It covers 39,900 square kilometers (15,400 square miles) in ] and ].<ref>"Atlantic coastal desert" WWF Scientific Report . Accessed ], ].</ref> | |||
| * ]: This ecoregion lies along the northern edge of the desert, next to the ] ecoregions of the northern ] and ]. Winter rains sustain shrublands and dry woodlands that form a transition between the ] regions to the north and the hyper-arid Sahara proper to the south. It covers 1,675,300 square km (646,800 square miles) in ], ], ], Mauritania, ], ], and Western Sahara.<ref>"North Saharan steppe and woodlands" WWF Scientific Report . Accessed ], ].</ref> | |||
| * ]: This ecoregion covers the hyper-arid central portion of the Sahara where rainfall is minimal and sporadic. Vegetation is rare, and this ecoregion consists mostly of sand dunes ''(erg, chech, raoui)'', stone plateaus ''(hamadas)'', gravel plains ''(reg)'', dry valleys ''(wadis)'', and salt flats. It covers 4,639,900 square km (1,791,500 square miles) of Algeria, ], Egypt, Libya, ], Mauritania, ], and ].<ref>"Sahara desert" WWF Scientific Report . Accessed ], ].</ref> | |||
| * ]: The South Saharan steppe and woodlands occupy a narrow band running east and west between the hyper-arid Sahara and the ] savannas to the south. Movements of the equatorial ] (ITCZ) bring summer rains during July and August which average {{convert|100|to|200|mm|in|abbr=on}}, but vary greatly from year to year. These rains sustain summer pastures of grasses and herbs, with dry woodlands and shrublands along seasonal watercourses. The ecoregion covers 1,101,700 square km (425,400 square miles) in Algeria, Chad, Mali, Mauritania, and Sudan.<ref>"South Saharan steppe and woodlands" WWF Scientific Report . Accessed ], ].</ref> | |||
| * ]: Several volcanic highlands in the western portion of the Sahara provide a cooler, moister environment that supports Saharo-Mediterranean woodlands and shrublands. The ecoregion covers 258,100 square kilometers (99,700 square miles), mostly in the ] of Algeria, with smaller enclaves in the ] of Niger, the ] of Mauritania, and the ] of Mali and Algeria.<ref>"West Saharan montane xeric woodlands" WWF Scientific Report . Accessed ], ].</ref> | |||
| * ]: The ] and ] highlands foster higher, more regular rainfall and cooler temperatures, which support woodlands and shrublands of ]s, ]s, ], ], ], and several rare and endemic plants. The ecoregion covers 82,200 square km (31,700 square miles) in the Tibesti of Chad and Libya, and Jebel Uweinat on the border of Egypt, Libya, and Sudan.<ref>"Tibesti-Jebel Uweinat montane xeric woodlands" WWF Scientific Report . Accessed ], ].</ref> | |||
| * ]: Seasonally-flooded saline depressions in the Sahara are home to ], or salt-adapted, plant communities. The Saharan halophytics cover 54,000 square km (20,800 square miles), including the ] and ] depressions in northern Egypt, the ] of central Tunisia, ] in Algeria, and smaller areas of Algeria, Mauritania, and Western Sahara.<ref>"Saharan halophytics" WWF Scientific Report . Accessed ], ].</ref>. | |||
| *]: One of the harshest regions on Earth and the driest in the Sahara, contains no vegetation and very little life. | |||
| ==Fauna== | |||
| ] | |||
| * ] and ]s are the most domesticated animals found in the Sahara. Because of its qualities of ], endurance and speed, the dromedary is the favorite animal used by ]s. | |||
| * The '']'' (aka deathstalker) scorpion which can be {{convert|10|cm|in|abbr=on}} long. Its venom contains large amounts of ] and ] and is very dangerous; however, a sting from this scorpion rarely kills a healthy adult. | |||
| * The ]. It has been suggested that the occasional habit of varanids to stand on their two hind legs and to appear to "monitor" their surroundings led to the original Arabic name ''waral'' ورل, which is translated to English as "monitor".<ref>Pianka, E.R.; King, D.R. and King, R.A. 2004. ''Varanoid Lizards of the World''. Indiana University Press.</ref> | |||
| * ], which average less than {{convert|50|cm|in|abbr=on}} in length. Many have a pair of horns, one over each eye. Active at night, they usually lie buried in the sand with only their eyes visible. Bites are painful, but rarely fatal. | |||
| * The ] has some populations confirmed in the southern Sahara and is frequently misidentified as the cryptid ]. | |||
| * The ], ] and ], are ] canids living in many parts of Sahara. | |||
| * The ]. It first appears in the ] record over 40 million years ago, and for many millions of years hyraxes were the primary terrestrial herbivore in Africa. | |||
| * The ] which is a ] native to Africa. They have become rare. | |||
| * The ], a large white ], is a threatened species. Adapted to the desert, they can remain months without drinking, even a whole year. | |||
| * The Saharan ] lives in ], ], ], ], ], and ]. There remain less than 250 mature cheetahs which are very cautious, fleeing any human presence. The cheetah avoids the sun from April to October. It then seeks the shelter of shrubs such as balanites and acacias. They are unusually pale.<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7905986.stm BBC News: " Rare cheetah captured on camera"</ref><ref>http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/221 The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Acinonyx jubatus ssp. hecki</ref> | |||
| *The ] is a north african gazelle that can also go for a long time without water. | |||
| There exist other animals in the Sahara (birds in particular) such as ] and ] among others. | |||
| ==History==<!-- This section is linked from ] --> | |||
| ] | |||
| ===Berbers=== | |||
| ] are one of the oldest known inhabitants of the Sahara Desert.{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}} They are the people that occupied (and still occupy) more than two thirds of the Sahara's total surface. {{Citation needed|date=August 2009}}The ] Berbers built a prosperous empire in the heart of the desert.{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}} The ] nomads continue, to present day, to inhabit and move across wide Sahara surfaces in ], ], ], ], and ]. Some of the oldest Berber ] inscriptions are found in Southern Algeria, Northern Mali and Niger.{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}} | |||
| ===Egyptians=== | |||
| By 6000 BC ]ians in the southwestern corner of Egypt were ] cattle and ] large buildings. Subsistence in organized and permanent ]s in predynastic Egypt by the middle of the 6th millennium BC centered predominantly on ] and animal ]: ], ]s, ]s and ]. ] objects replaced prior ones of ]. ] of animal skins, ] and ] are commonplace in this era also.<ref name= Predynastic> Predynastic] (5,500–3,100 BC), Tour Egypt].</ref> There are indications of seasonal or only temporary occupation of the ] in the 6th millennium BC, with food activities centering on ], ] and food-gathering. Stone ]s, ] and ]s are common.<ref name= Fayum> (Fayum B, about 6000–5000 BC?), .</ref> ] items include pottery, ], farming and hunting equipment, and assorted foods including dried meat and fruit. Burial in desert environments appears to enhance Egyptian preservation rites, and dead are buried facing due west.<ref name=Predynastic/> | |||
| By 3400 BC, the Sahara was as dry as it is today, and it became a largely impenetrable barrier to humans, with only scattered settlements around the oases, but little ] or commerce through the desert. The one major exception was the ]. The Nile, however, was impassable at several ]s, making trade and contact by boat difficult. | |||
| ===Nubians=== | |||
| During the ], before the onset of desertification, the central Sudan had been a rich environment supporting a large population ranging across what is now barren desert, like the Wadi el-Qa'ab. By the 5th millennium BC, the peoples who inhabited what is now called ], were full participants in the "agricultural revolution," living a settled lifestyle with domesticated plants and animals. Saharan rock art of cattle and herdsmen found suggests the presence of a cattle cult like those found in ] and other pastoral societies in Africa today.<ref></ref> Megaliths found at ] are overt examples of probably the world's first known ] devices, predating ] by some 1000 years.<ref> - Retrieved on 2007-08-29</ref> This complexity, as observed at Nabta Playa, and as expressed by different levels of authority within the society there, likely formed the basis for the structure of both the Neolithic society at Nabta and the Old Kingdom of Egypt.<ref> - by Fred Wendorf (1998)</ref> | |||
| ===Phoenicians=== | |||
| ]]] | |||
| The peoples of ], who flourished between 1200-800 BC, created a confederation of kingdoms across the entire Sahara to Egypt. They generally settled along the Mediterranean coast, as well as the Sahara, among the peoples of ], who were the ancestors of peoples who speak ] in North Africa and the Sahara today, including the ] of the central Sahara. | |||
| The Phoenician alphabet seems to have been adopted by the ancient Libyans of north Africa, and ] is still used today by Berber-speaking Tuareg camel herders of the central Sahara. | |||
| Sometime between 633 BC and 530 BC, ] either established or reinforced Phoenician colonies in ], but all ancient remains have vanished with virtually no trace. (See ].) | |||
| ===Greeks=== | |||
| By 500 BC, a new influence arrived in the form of the ]. Greek traders spread along the eastern coast of the desert, establishing trading colonies along the ] coast. The ] explored the Atlantic coast of the desert. But the turbulence of the waters and the lack of markets never led to an extensive presence further south than modern ]. Centralized states thus surrounded the desert on the north and east; it remained outside the control of these states. Raids from the ]ic ] of the desert were a constant concern of those living on the edge of the desert. | |||
| ]n man in urban dress]] | |||
| ===Urban civilization=== | |||
| An urban civilization, the ], arose around this time in the heart of the Sahara, in a valley that is now called the ] in ], ].<ref name="Lakes" /> The Garamantes achieved this development by digging tunnels far into the mountains flanking the valley to tap ] and bring it to their fields. The Garamantes grew populous and strong, conquering their neighbors and capturing many slaves (which were put to work extending the tunnels). The ancient Greeks and the ] knew of the Garamantes and regarded them as uncivilized nomads. However, they traded with the Garamantes, and a ] has been found in the Garamantes capital of Garama. ] have found eight major towns and many other important settlements in the Garamantes territory. The Garamantes civilization eventually collapsed after they had depleted available water in the ]s, and could no longer sustain the effort to extend the tunnels still further into the mountains.<ref name = "Keys">Keys, David. 2004. Kingdom of the Sands. ''Archaeology''. Volume 57 Number 2, March/April 2004. retrieved ], ].</ref> | |||
| ===Trans-Saharan trade=== | |||
| {{Main|Trans-Saharan trade}} | |||
| ] in the Sahara (Dumouza, 19th Century engraving)]] | |||
| Following the ] conquest of North Africa in the seventh century ], trade across the desert intensified. The kingdoms of the ], especially the ] and the later ], grew rich and powerful exporting ] and ] to North Africa. The emirates along the ] sent south manufactured goods and ]s. From the Sahara itself, ] was exported. This process turned the scattered ] communities into trading centres, and brought them under the control of the empires on the edge of the desert. A significant slave trade crossed the desert (See ]). | |||
| This trade persisted for several centuries until the development in Europe of the ] allowed ships, first from ] but soon from all Western Europe, to sail around the desert and gather the resources from the source in ]. The Sahara was rapidly remarginalized. | |||
| ===European imperialism=== | |||
| At the beginning of the 19th century, most of the northern Sahara, including most of present-day ], ], ], and ], was part of the ]. The Sahel and southern Sahara were home to several independent states. | |||
| European colonialism in the Sahara began in the 19th century. ] conquered Algeria from the Ottomans in 1830, and French rule spread south from Algeria and eastwards from ] into the upper ] to include present-day ], ], ], ], ] (1912), ], and ] (1881). | |||
| Egypt, under ] and his successors, conquered ] (1820-22), founded ] (1823), and conquered ] (1874). Egypt, including the Sudan, became a British protectorate in 1882. Egypt and Britain lost control of the Sudan from 1882 to 1898 as a result of the ]. After its capture by British troops in 1898, the Sudan became a Anglo-Egyptian ]. | |||
| ] captured present-day ] after 1874. In 1912, ] captured ] from the Ottomans. | |||
| To promote the ] religion in the desert, the ] in 1868 appointed a delegate Apostolic of the Sahara and the Sudan; later in the 19th century his jurisdiction was reorganized into the ]. | |||
| ===Modern times=== | |||
| ] | |||
| Egypt became independent of Britain in 1936, although the ] allowed Britain to keep troops in Egypt and maintained the British-Egyptian condominium in the Sudan. British military forces were withdrawn in 1954. | |||
| Most of the Saharan states achieved independence after ]: Libya in 1951, Morocco, Sudan, and Tunisia in 1956, Chad, Mali, Mauritania, and Niger in 1960, and Algeria in 1962. Spain withdrew from Western Sahara in 1975, and it was partitioned between Mauritania and Morocco. Mauritania withdrew in 1979, but Morocco continues to hold the territory. | |||
| The modern era has seen a number of ] and communities develop to exploit the desert's natural resources. These include large deposits of ] and ] in ] and Libya and large deposits of ]s in Morocco and ]. | |||
| A number of ] have been proposed across the Sahara, including the ] along the Atlantic coast, the ] from ] on the Mediterranean to ] in Nigeria, the ] from ] in Libya to ] in Chad, and the ] which follows the Nile. Each of these highways is partially complete, with significant gaps and unpaved sections. | |||
| ==Peoples and languages== | |||
| The Sahara is home to a number of peoples and languages. ] is the most widely spoken language in the Sahara, from the Atlantic to the Red Sea. ] are found from western Egypt to Morocco, including the ] pastoralists of the central Sahara. The ] live in the ] of southeastern Egypt and eastern Sudan. The Arabic, Berber, and Beja languages are part of the ] language family. | |||
| Speakers of the ] language family also inhabit the Sahara, including the ] of ] in western Sudan and the ] of Niger, Chad and western Sudan, which includes the ], ], and ]. | |||
| ==Countries in the Sahara== | |||
| The following countries are either fully or partially covered by the Sahara. | |||
| {{flatlist}} | |||
| * {{flagicon|Algeria}} ] | |||
| * {{flagicon|Chad}} ] | |||
| * {{flagicon|Egypt}} ] | |||
| * {{flagicon|Libya}} ] | |||
| * {{flagicon|Morocco}} ] | |||
| * {{flagicon|Mauritania}} ] | |||
| * {{flagicon|Mali}} ] | |||
| * {{flagicon|Niger}} ] | |||
| * {{flagicon|Sudan}} ] | |||
| * {{flagicon|Tunisia}} ] | |||
| * {{flagicon|Western Sahara}} ] | |||
| {{endflatlist}} | |||
| ==See also== | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| ==References== | |||
| *Michael Brett and Elizabeth Frentess. ''The Berbers''. Blackwell Publishers, 1996. | |||
| *Charles-Andre Julien. ''History of North Africa: From the Arab Conquest to 1830''. Praeger, 1970. | |||
| *Abdallah Laroui. ''The History of the Maghrib: An Interpretive Essay''. Princeton, 1977. | |||
| *]. ''Muslim Spain and Portugal: A Political History of al-Andalus''. Longman, 1996. | |||
| *Richard W. Bulliet. ''The Camel and the Wheel''. Harvard University Press, 1975. Republished with a new preface Columbia University Press, 1990. | |||
| ==Notes== | |||
| {{reflist|2}} | |||
| ==External links== | |||
| {{Commons category|Sahara}} | |||
| *] and planned usage of the ]] | |||
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Revision as of 16:42, 16 October 2009
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