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| biomimetic design and develodment of a hexapedal running robot with automatic gaiting selection based on terrain. | |||
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| {{coord|32|32|11|N|44|25|15|E|type:city|display=title}} | |||
| {{Ancient Mesopotamia}} | |||
| '''Babylon''' was a ] of ancient ], the remains of which are found in present-day ], ], ], about 85 kilometers (55 mi) south of ]. All that remains of the original ancient famed city of Babylon today is a mound, or ], of broken mud-brick buildings and debris in the fertile Mesopotamian plain between the ] and ] rivers, in Iraq. Although it has been reconstructed, historical resources inform us that Babylon was at first a small town, that had sprung up by the beginning of the third millennium ] (the dawn of the dynasties). The town flourished and attained prominence and political repute with the rise of the ]. It was the "holy city" of ] by approximately 2300 BC, and the seat of the ] from 612 BC. The ] were one of the ]. | |||
| The form ''Babylon'' is the Greek variant of ] ''Babilu'' (''bāb-]'', meaning "Gateway of the god(s)", translating ] ''Ka.].ra''). In the ], the name appears as {{Hebrew|בבל}} (''Babel''), interpreted by '']'' 11:9 to mean "confusion" (of languages), from the verb ''balbal'', "to confuse". | |||
| ==History== | |||
| The earliest source to mention Babylon may be a dated tablet of the reign of ] (ca. 24th century BC ]). The so-called "Weidner Chronicle" states that it was Sargon himself who built Babylon "in front of ]" (ABC 19:51). Another chronicle likewise states that Sargon "dug up the dirt of the pit of Babylon, and made a counterpart of Babylon next to Agade". (ABC 20:18-19). | |||
| More recently, some researchers have | |||
| stated that those sources may refer to ] of the ] | |||
| rather than Sargon of Akkad. | |||
| <ref>Stephanie Dalley, Babylon as a Name for Other Cities Including | |||
| Nineveh, in Proceedings of the 51st Rencontre Assyriologique Internationale, Oriental Institute SAOC 62, pp. 25-33, 2005</ref> | |||
| Some scholars, including linguist ], have suggested that the name ''Babil'' is an echo of an earlier city name. According to Ranajit Pal, this city was in the East<ref></ref>. Herzfeld wrote about ''Bawer'' in Iran, which was allegedly founded by Jamshid; the name ''Babil'' could be an echo of Bawer. ] holds that the original Babylon is to be identified with ]. The Bible in ] 10 indicates that ] was the original founder of Babel (Babylon). Joan Oates claims in her book ''Babylon'' that the rendering "Gateway of the gods" is no longer accepted by modern scholars. | |||
| Over the years, the power and population of Babylon waned. From around the 20th century BC, it was occupied by ], nomadic tribes from the west who were Semitic speakers like the Akkadians, but did not practice agriculture like them, preferring to herd sheep. | |||
| ] | |||
| ===Old Babylonian period=== | |||
| The ] was established by Sumu-abum, but the city-state controlled little surrounding territory until it became the capital of ]'s empire (ca. 18th century BC). Subsequently, the city continued to be the capital of the region known as Babylonia — although during the almost 400 years of domination by the ] (1530–1155 BC), the city was renamed '''''Karanduniash'''''. | |||
| Hammurabi is also known for codifying the laws of Babylonia into the '']''a.k.a.- ('Hammurabi's Code') that has had a lasting influence on legal thought. | |||
| The city itself was built upon the ], and divided in equal parts along its left and right banks, with steep embankments to contain the river's seasonal floods. Babylon grew in extent and grandeur over time, but gradually became subject to the rule of ]. | |||
| It has been estimated that Babylon was the largest city in the world from ca. 1770 to 1670 BC, and again between ca. 612 and 320 BC. It was perhaps the first city to reach a population above 200,000.<ref>Rosenberg, Matt T. , ''About.com''. Accessed ], ].</ref> | |||
| ] | |||
| ===Assyrian period=== | |||
| During the reign of ] of Assyria, Babylonia was in a constant state of revolt, led by ], and suppressed only by the complete destruction of the city of Babylon. In 689 BC, its walls, temples and palaces were razed, and the rubble was thrown into the ], the sea bordering the earlier Babylon on the south. This act shocked the religious conscience of Mesopotamia; the subsequent murder of Sennacherib was held to be in expiation of it, and his successor ] hastened to rebuild the old city, to receive there his crown, and make it his residence during part of the year. On his death, Babylonia was left to be governed by his elder son ], who eventually headed a revolt in 652 BC against his brother in Nineveh, ]. | |||
| Once again, Babylon was besieged by the Assyrians and starved into surrender. Assurbanipal purified the city and celebrated a "service of reconciliation", but did not venture to "take the hands" of Bel. In the subsequent overthrow of the Assyrian Empire, the Babylonians saw another example of divine vengeance. (], "Babylon," ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'', 11th ed.) | |||
| ===Neo-Babylonian Chaldean Empire=== | |||
| {{Refimprovesect|date=June 2008}} | |||
| {{main|Neo-Babylonian Empire}} | |||
| <!-- Unsourced image removed: ] --> | |||
| Under ], Babylon threw off the Assyrian rule in 626 BC and became the capital of the Neo-Babylonian ] Empire.<ref>Bradford, Alfred S. (2001). ''With Arrow, Sword, and Spear: A History of Warfare in the Ancient World'', pp. 47-48. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 0275952592.</ref><ref>Curtis, Adrian; Herbert Gordon May (2007). ''Oxford Bible Atlas'' Oxford University Press ISBN 978-0191001581 p. 122 </ref><ref>von Soden, Wilfred; Donald G. Schley (1996). William B. Eerdmanns ISBN 978-0802801425 p. 60 (</ref> | |||
| With the recovery of Babylonian independence, a new era of architectural activity ensued, and his son ] (604–561 BC) made Babylon into one of the wonders of the ancient world.<ref>Saggs, H.W.F. (2000). ''Babylonians'', p. 165. University of California Press. ISBN 0520202228.</ref> Nebuchadnezzar ordered the complete reconstruction of the imperial grounds, including rebuilding the ] ] and the construction of the ] — the most spectacular of eight gates that ringed the perimeter of Babylon. A reconstruction of The Ishtar Gate is located in the ] in ]. All that was ever found of the Original Ishtar gate was the foundation and scattered bricks. Nebuchadnezzar is also credited with the construction of the ] (one of the ]), said to have been built for his homesick wife ]. Whether the gardens did exist is a matter of dispute. Although excavations by German archaeologist ] are thought to reveal its foundations, many historians disagree about the location, and some believe it may have been confused with gardens in ]. | |||
| ===Persia captures Babylon=== | |||
| In 539 BC, the Neo-Babylonian Empire fell to ], king of ], with an unprecedented military engagement known as the ]. The famed walls of Babylon were indeed impenetrable, with the only way into the city through one of its many gates or through the Euphrates, which ebbed beneath its thick walls. Metal gates at the river's in-flow and out-flow prevented underwater intruders, if one could hold one's breath to reach them. Cyrus (or his generals) devised a plan to use the Euphrates as the mode of entry to the city, ordering large camps of troops at each point and instructed them to wait for the signal. Awaiting an evening of a national feast among Babylonians (generally thought to refer to the feast of Belshazzar mentioned in Daniel V), Cyrus' troops diverted the Euphrates river upstream, causing the Euphrates to drop to about 'mid thigh level on a man' or to dry up altogether. The soldiers marched under the walls through thigh-level water or as dry as mud. The Persian Army conquered the outlying areas of the city's interior while a majority of Babylonians at the city center were oblivious to the breach. The account was elaborated upon by Herodotus,<ref>Herodotus, Book 1, Section 191</ref> and is also mentioned by passages in the Hebrew Bible.<ref>Isaiah 44:27</ref><ref>Jeremiah 50-51</ref> Cyrus claimed the city by walking through the gates of Babylon with little or no resistance from the drunken Babylonians. | |||
| Cyrus later issued ] permitting captive people, including the ], to return to their own land (as explained in the Old Testament), to allow their temple to be rebuilt back in ]. | |||
| Under Cyrus and the subsequent Persian king ], Babylon became the capital city of the 9th Satrapy (Babylonia in the south and Athura in the north), as well as a centre of learning and scientific advancement. In ] Persia, the ancient Babylonian arts of ] and ] were revitalised and flourished, and Babylonian scholars completed maps of constellations. The city was the administrative capital of the ], the preeminent power of the then known world, and it played a vital part in the history of that region for over two centuries. Many important archaeological discoveries have been made that can provide a better understanding of that era.<ref> ''The British Museum''. Accessed ], ].</ref><ref></ref> | |||
| The early Persian kings had attempted to maintain the religious ceremonies of ], but by the reign of ], over-taxation and the strains of numerous wars led to a deterioration of Babylon's main shrines and canals, and the disintegration of the surrounding region. Despite three attempts at rebellion in 522 BC, 521 BC and 482 BC, the land and city of Babylon remained solidly under Persian rule for two centuries, until ]'s entry in 331 BC. | |||
| ===Hellenistic period=== | |||
| In 331 BC, Darius III was defeated by the forces of the ] ruler ] at the ], and in October, Babylon fell to the young conqueror. A native account of this invasion notes a ruling by Alexander not to enter the homes of its inhabitants.<ref>{{cite book | last = Beck | first = Roger B. | authorlink = | coauthors = Linda Black, Larry S. Krieger, Phillip C. Naylor, Dahia Ibo Shabaka, | title = World History: Patterns of Interaction | publisher = McDougal Littell | date = 1999 | location = Evanston, IL | pages = | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = 0-395-87274-X }}</ref> | |||
| Under Alexander, Babylon again flourished as a centre of learning and commerce. But following Alexander's death in 323 BC in the palace of Nebuchadnezzar, his empire was divided amongst his generals, and decades of fighting soon began, with Babylon once again caught in the middle. | |||
| The constant turmoil virtually emptied the city of Babylon. A tablet dated 275 BC states that the inhabitants of Babylon were transported to ], where a palace was built, as well as a temple given the ancient name of ]. With this deportation, the history of Babylon comes practically to an end, though more than a century later, it was found that sacrifices were still performed in its old sanctuary.<ref name="eb1911">{{Wikisource1911Enc Citation|Babylon}}</ref> By 141 BC, when the ]n Empire took over the region, Babylon was in complete desolation and obscurity. | |||
| ===Persian Empire period=== | |||
| {{main|Babylonia (Persian province)}} | |||
| Under the Parthian, and later, ] Persians, Babylon remained a province of the ] for nine centuries, until about 650 AD. It continued to have its own culture and peoples, who spoke varieties of ], and who continued to refer to their homeland as Babylon. Some examples of their cultural products are often found in the ], the ] religion, and the religion of the prophet ]. | |||
| ==Archaeology== | |||
| ] | |||
| The site at Babylon consists of a number of mounds covering an | |||
| oblong area roughly 2 kilometers by 1 kilometer, oriented north | |||
| to south totalling around 850 hectares. The site is bounded by the ] on the west, and by the remains of the ancient city walls otherwise. | |||
| Originally, the Euphrates roughly bisected the city, as is common in | |||
| the region, but the river has since shifted its course so that much of | |||
| the remains on the former western part of the city are now inundated. Some | |||
| portions of the city wall to the west of the river also remain. Several of | |||
| the sites mounds are more prominent. | |||
| These include: | |||
| *Kasr - also called Palace or Castle. It is the location of the ] ziggurat Etemenanki of ] and later ] and lies in the center of the site. | |||
| *Amran Ibn Ali - to the south and the highest of the mounds at 25 meters. It is the site of ], a temple of ] which also contained shrines to Ea and ]. | |||
| *Homera - a reddish colored mound on the west side. Most of the ] remains are here. | |||
| *Babil - in the northern end of the site, about 22 meters in height. It has been extensively subject to brick robbing (or brick recycling depending on your point of view) since ancient times. It held a palace build by Nebuchadnezzar. | |||
| Occupation at the site dates back to the late 3rd millennium, finally | |||
| achieving prominence in the early 2nd millennium under the ] and again later in the millennium under the | |||
| ] dynasty of Babylon. Unfortunately, almost nothing from that | |||
| period has been recovered at the site of Babylon. First, the water | |||
| table in the region has risen greatly over the centuries and artifacts | |||
| from the time before the ] are unavailable to | |||
| current standard archaeological methods. Secondly, the Neo-Babylonians | |||
| conducted massive rebuilding projects in the city which destroyed or | |||
| obscured much of the earlier record. Third, much of the western half of | |||
| the city is now under the Euphrates River. Fourth, Babylon has been | |||
| sacked a number of times, most notably by the ] and | |||
| ] in the 2nd millennium, then by the ] | |||
| and the ] in the 1st millennium, after the | |||
| Babylonians had revolted against their rule. Lastly, the site has been | |||
| long mined for building materials on a commercial scale. | |||
| While knowledge of early Babylon must be pieced together from | |||
| epigraphic remains found elsewhere, such as at ], ], and | |||
| ], information on the Neo-Babylonian city is available from | |||
| archaeological excavations and from classical sources. Babylon was | |||
| described, perhaps even visited, by a number of classical historians | |||
| including ], ], ], ], and ]. These reports are of variable accuracy and some | |||
| political spin is involved but still provide useful data. | |||
| The first reported archaeological excavation of Babylon was | |||
| conducted by ] in 1811-12 and again in 1817. | |||
| <ref>Claudius J. Rich, Memoirs on the Ruins of Babylon, 1815</ref> | |||
| <ref>Claudius J. Rich, Second memoir on Babylon; containing an inquiry | |||
| into the correspondence between the ancient descriptions of Babylon, and the remains still visible on the site, 1818</ref> | |||
| Robert Mignan excavated at the site briefly in 1827. | |||
| <ref>Robert Mignan, Travels in Chaldæa, Including a Journey from Bussorah to Bagdad, Hillah, and Babylon, Performed on Foot in 1827, H. Colburn and R. Bentley, 1829 | |||
| (also as ISBN 1402160135)</ref> | |||
| ] visited there in 1849. | |||
| <ref>William K. Loftus, Travels and Researches in Chaldaea and Susiana, | |||
| Travels and Researches in Chaldaea and Susiana: With an Account of Excavations at Warka, the "Erech" of Nimrod, and Shush, "Shushan the Palace" of Esther, in 1849-52, Robert Carter & Brothers, 1857</ref> | |||
| ] made some soundings during a brief visit in 1850 | |||
| before abandoning the site. | |||
| <ref>A. H. Layard, Discoveries in the Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon, J. Murray, 1853</ref> | |||
| ] and ] heavily excavated Babylon from 1852 | |||
| to 1854. Unfortunately, much of the result of their work was lost when | |||
| a raft containing over forty crates of artifacts sank into the Tigris river. | |||
| <ref>J. Oppert, Expédition scientifique en Mésopotamie exécutée par | |||
| ordre du gouvernement de 1851 à 1854. Tome I: Rélation du voyage et ré | |||
| sultat de l'expédition, 1863 (also as ISBN 0543749452) Tome II: Dé | |||
| chiffrement des inscriptions cuneiforms, 1859 (also as ISBN 0543749398)</ref> | |||
| <ref>H V. Hilprecht, Exploration in the Bible Lands During the 19th | |||
| Century, A. J. Holman, 1903</ref> | |||
| ] and ] worked there briefly | |||
| in 1854. The next excavation, a major one, was conducted by ] | |||
| on behalf of the ]. Work began in 1879, continuing | |||
| until 1882, and was prompted by widespread looting occurring at the site. Using | |||
| industrial scale digging in search of artifacts, Rassam recovered a large | |||
| quantity of cuneiform tablets and other finds. The zealous excavation | |||
| methods, common in those days, caused much damage to the archaeological context. <ref> Hormuzd Rassam, Asshur and the Land of Nimrod: Being an Account of the Dicoveries Made in the Ancient Ruins of Nineveh, Asshur, Sepharvaim, Calah, ..., Curts & Jennings, 1897</ref> | |||
| <ref>Julian Reade, Hormuzd Rassam and his discoveries, Iraq, vol. 55, pp. 39-62, 1993</ref> | |||
| A team from the ] led by ] conducted the | |||
| first scientific archaeological excavations at Babylon. The work was conducted every year between | |||
| 1899 and 1917 until World War I intruded. Primary efforts of the dig involved the temple of ] and the | |||
| processional way leading up to it, as well as the city wall. Hundreds of recovered tablets, | |||
| as well as the noted ] were sent back to Germany. | |||
| <ref>R. Koldewey, Das wieder erstehende Babylon, die bisherigen Ergebnisse der deutschen Ausgrabungen, | |||
| J.C. Hinrichs, 1913, with online English translation: Agnes Sophia Griffith Johns, | |||
| The excavations at Babylon By Robert Koldewey, Macmillan and Co., 1914</ref> | |||
| <ref>R. Koldewey, Die Tempel von Babylon und Borsippa, WVDOG, vol. 15, pp. 37-49, 1911</ref> | |||
| <ref>R. Koldewey, Das Ischtar-Tor in Babylon, WVDOG, vol. 32, 1918</ref> | |||
| <ref>F. Wetzel, Die Stadtmauren von Babylon, WVDOG, vol. 48, pp. 1-83, 1930</ref> | |||
| <ref>F. Wetzel and F.H. Weisbach, Das Hauptheiligtum des Marduk in Babylon: Esagila und Etemenanki, | |||
| WVDOG, vol. 59, pp. 1-36, 1938</ref> | |||
| <ref>F. Wetzel et al., Das Babylon der Spätzeit, WVDOG, vol. 62, Gebr. Mann, 1957 (1998 reprint ISBN 3786120013)</ref> | |||
| Further work by the ] was conducted by | |||
| Heinrich J. Lenzen in 1956 and Hansjörg Schmid 1962. The work by Lenzen | |||
| dealt primarily with the ] theatre and by Schmid with the | |||
| temple ziggurat ]. | |||
| <ref>Hansjörg Schmid, Der Tempelturm Etemenanki in Babylon, Zabern, 1995, ISBN 3805316100</ref> | |||
| In more recent times, the site of Babylon was excavated by G. Bergamini on | |||
| behalf of the Centro Scavi di Torino per il Medio Oriente e l'Asia and the | |||
| Iraqi-Italian Institute of Archaeological Sciences. This work began with a season of excavation | |||
| in 1974 followed by a topographical survey in 1977. | |||
| <ref>G. Bergamini, Levels of Babylon Reconsidered, Mesopotamia, vol. 12, pp. 111-152, 1977</ref> | |||
| The focus was on clearing up issues raised by re-examination of the old German data. | |||
| After a decade, Bergamini returned to the site in 1987-1989. | |||
| The work concentrated on the area surrounding the Ishara and ] temples in the Shu-Anna | |||
| city-quarter of Babylon. | |||
| <ref>G. Bergamini, Excavations in Shu-anna Babylon 1987, Mesopotamia, vol. 23, pp. 5-17, 1988</ref> | |||
| <ref>G. Bergamini, Preliminary report on the 1988-1989 operations at Babylon Shu-Anna, Mesopotamia, vol. 25, pp. 5-12, 1990</ref> | |||
| It should be noted that during the restoration efforts in Babylon, some | |||
| amount of excavation and room clearing has been done by the Iraqi | |||
| State Organization for Antiquities and Heritage. Given the conditions | |||
| in that country the last few decades, publication of archaeological | |||
| activities has been understandably sparse at best. | |||
| <ref>Excavations in Iraq 1981-1982, Iraq, vol. 45, no. 2, pp. 199-224,1983</ref> | |||
| <ref>Farouk N. H. Al-Rawi, Nabopolassar's Restoration Work on the Wall "Imgur-Enlil at Babylon, Iraq, vol. 47, pp. 1-13, 1985</ref> | |||
| == Reconstruction== | |||
| In 1983, ] started rebuilding the city on top of the old ruins (because of this, artifacts and other finds may well be under the city by now), investing in both restoration and new construction. He inscribed his name on many of the bricks in imitation of Nebuchadnezzar. One frequent inscription reads: "This was built by Saddam Hussein, son of Nebuchadnezzar, to glorify Iraq". This recalls the ] at ], where each individual brick was stamped with "Ur-Nammu, king of Ur, who built the temple of ]". These bricks became sought after as collectors' items after the downfall of Hussein, and the ruins are no longer being restored to their original state. He also installed a huge portrait of himself and ] at the entrance to the ruins, and shored up Processional Way, a large boulevard of ancient stones, and the ], a black rock sculpture about 2,600 years old. | |||
| When the ] ended, Saddam wanted to build a modern palace, also over some old ruins; it was made in the pyramidal style of a ] ]. He named it Saddam Hill. In 2003, he was ready to begin the construction of a cable car line over Babylon when the invasion began and halted the project. | |||
| An article published in April 2006 states that UN officials and Iraqi leaders have plans for restoring Babylon, making it into a cultural center. <ref>Gettleman, Jeffrey. , ''International Herald Tribune'', ], ]. Accessed ], ].</ref><ref>McBride, Edward. , ''MetropolisMag''. Accessed ], ].</ref> | |||
| As of May 2009, the provincial government of ] has reopened the site to tourism. | |||
| == Effects of the U.S. military == | |||
| US forces under the command of General ] of the ] were criticised for building the military base "Camp Alpha", comprising among other facilities a ], on ancient Babylonian ruins following the ]. | |||
| ] | |||
| US forces have occupied the site for some time and have caused damage to the archaeological record. In a report of the ]'s Near East department, Dr. John Curtis describes how parts of the archaeological site were levelled to create a landing area for helicopters, and parking lots for heavy vehicles. Curtis wrote that the occupation forces | |||
| :"caused substantial damage to the ], one of the most famous monuments from antiquity US military vehicles crushed 2,600-year-old brick pavements, archaeological fragments were scattered across the site, more than 12 trenches were driven into ancient deposits and military earth-moving projects contaminated the site for future generations of scientists Add to all that the damage caused to nine of the moulded brick figures of dragons in the Ishtar Gate by soldiers trying to remove the bricks from the wall." | |||
| A US Military spokesman claimed that engineering operations were discussed with the "head of the Babylon museum". <ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.boston.com/news/world/middleeast/articles/2005/01/16/damage_seen_to_ancient_babylon/ |title=Damage seen to ancient Babylon |publisher=The Boston Globe |date=January 16, 2005}}</ref> | |||
| The head of the Iraqi State Board for Heritage and Antiquities, Donny George, said that the "mess will take decades to sort out".<ref>, ''World Heritage Alert!''. Accessed ], ].</ref> In April 2006, Colonel John Coleman, former chief of staff for the 1st Marine Expeditionary Force, offered to issue an apology for the damage done by military personnel under his command. However he claimed that the US presence had deterred far greater damage from other looters.<ref>Cornwell, Rupert. , ''The Independent'', ], ]. Accessed ], ].</ref> Some antiquities were removed since creation of Camp Alpha, without doubt to be sold on the antiquities market, which is booming since the beginning of the occupation of Iraq.<ref>J. E. Curtis, « Report on Meeting at Babylon 11 – 13 December 2004 », British Museum, 2004 </ref> | |||
| ==References== | |||
| *I.L. Finkel, M.J. Seymour, ''Babylon'', Oxford University Press, 2009 ISBN 0195385403 | |||
| *Joan Oates, ''Babylon'', Thames and Hudson, 1986. ISBN 0-500-02095-7 (hardback) ISBN 0-500-27384-7 (paperback) | |||
| * by Stefan Maul ("Die altorientalische Hauptstadt — Abbild und Nabel der Welt," in ''Die Orientalische Stadt: Kontinuität. Wandel. Bruch.'' 1 Internationales Kolloquium der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft. 9.-1 0. Mai 1996 in Halle/Saale, Saarbrücker Druckerei und Verlag (1997), p.109-124. | |||
| * {{Wikisource1911Enc Citation|Babylon}} | |||
| * {{cite news | |||
| |url=http://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/article/ALeqM5hYZIpEAwUtMB_AcIgjEnAwm6vGigD99B5I803 | |||
| |title= UNESCO: Invasion Seriously Harmed Historic Babylon | |||
| |author=Kim Gamel | |||
| |publisher=Associated Press | |||
| |date=July 9, 2009 | |||
| }} | |||
| ==See also== | |||
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| ==Notes== | |||
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| ==External links== | |||
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Revision as of 19:26, 19 November 2009
biomimetic design and develodment of a hexapedal running robot with automatic gaiting selection based on terrain.